The role of trait emotional intelligence in appearance perception

ABSTRACT

This paper explores the relationship between trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) and appearance perception in a Lebanese university sample (N = 201). Two indicators of appearance perception, body image dissatisfaction (BID) and physical attractiveness (PAT), were investigated in relation to trait EI and depression. Global trait EI and the well-being and self-control factors negatively correlated with BID, while global trait EI and all four factors positively correlated with PAT. In addition, the well-being trait EI factor was a significant predictor of BID and PAT (marginal) over BMI, emotion regulation, and self-worth. These variables jointly predicted 38% of the variance in BID and 41% of the variance in PAT. Moderation analyses showed that global trait EI moderated the relationship between the appearance perception indicators and depressive symptomatology. The role of trait EI in attenuating the psychological impact associated with a negative appearance perception is discussed in relation to its clinical utility.

KEYWORDS:

• Trait emotional self-efficacy
• body image dissatisfaction
• physical attractiveness
• depression
• youth

Introduction

Appearance perception has been a significant area of study to psychologists, partly because of the negative outcomes of perceived dissatisfaction with appearance outcomes (e.g. depressive symptomatology; Ivarsson et al., 2006). In some research, the term body image has replaced appearance perception, and nowadays the two terms are used interchangeably. Cash (2004) refers to body image as the multidimensional psychological experience of a person’s anatomy and argues that individuals’ body self-perceptions and self-attitudes are incorporated into their concept of body image in the sense that positive self-perceptions may contribute to body image satisfaction and buffer the negative impact of any threat to body image (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002).

A wealth of research has suggested an association between body image dissatisfaction (BID) and poor psychological adjustment (Jackson et al., 2014), poor well-being, and depression in particular (e.g. Ferreiro et al., 2014; Jackson et al., 2014). Depressed individuals generally report distorted self-images and an increased dissatisfaction with different body areas (Liao et al., 2010). BID has shown to be a prospective risk factor for low self-esteem and depressive symptoms in both adolescent girls and boys (Ferreiro et al., 2014).

Another important factor related to an individual’s appearance perception is physical attractiveness (PAT), which is the perception of an individual as being aesthetically pleasing (Weinstein et al., 2013). Desirable features are attributed to attractive individuals (e.g. health and intelligence), and the opposite holds for unattractive adults (Zebrowitz & Rhodes, 2004). PAT can also impact subjective well-being (Diener et al., 1995), and subjective happiness (Zebrowitz & Rhodes, 2004).

Even though BID and PAT have been linked to some emotion-related variables (e.g. self-esteem, depression) in the past, there is need for a rigorous examination of a wide range of emotional functioning variables that could attenuate or protect against the negative effects of these two appearance perception indicators. In this paper, we present trait emotional intelligence (trait EI or trait emotional self-efficacy) as a construct that can serve this purpose.

Trait emotional intelligence and appearance perception

Trait EI is a composite of emotion-related self-perceptions located at the lower levels of the personality hierarchies and is perceived as a separate construct that predicts psychological variables over and above the Eysenckian and Big Five personality dimensions (Petrides, 2011). In addition to global EI, the trait EI sampling domain consists of 15 facets (e.g. trait happiness, emotional control, and social awareness) encompassed into four broad factors (i.e. well-being, self-control, emotionality, and sociability; see Sanchez-Ruiz et al., 2010, for a summary of factors and facets). Trait EI has been related to a wide number of psychological outcomes such as academic performance (e.g. Sanchez-Ruiz et al., 2013), prosocial behaviour (Mavroveli & Sanchez-Ruiz, 2011), decreased depressive symptomatology (Andrei & Petrides, 2013) and general mental health (Martins et al., 2010; see Petrides et al., 2016, for a recent review of the new developments in trait EI theory).

Trait EI self-control and well-being factors are expected to be protective factors against negative emotional states. Positive emotional control and stress management may be conducive to positive body image and positive perceptions of one’s physical attractiveness. Fairburn et al. (2003) argued that some patients suffering from eating disorders are unable to cope with certain emotional states (e.g. anger or anxiety). Consequently, such individuals would engage in dysfunctional mood modulatory behaviour (e.g. self-induced vomiting; Fairburn et al., 2003). Thus, it could be expected that the trait EI self-control factor would be a protective factor in this context, as it involves emotion control, stress management, and impulsiveness (low). In addition, the trait EI well-being factor has shown to correlate negatively with actual-ideal weight discrepancy and positively with body appreciation in a UK sample (Swami, Begum et al., 2010). This association could be explained by the role of self-esteem, life satisfaction and optimism for a healthy appearance perception.

The trait EI sociability factor could also play a protective role. Annis et al. (2004) reported that females who viewed themselves as currently overweight reported greater BID and significantly poorer social self-esteem than females who were previously overweight and females who were never overweight. It can be hypothesized that a positive view of one’s image might promote self-confidence in social interactions, which could have repercussions in social awareness, emotion management of others, and assertiveness (e.g. Dollinger, 2002).

Finally, the emotionality factor of trait EI which involves emotion perception, emotion expression, relationships and trait empathy may also protect individuals against BID and increase their subjective feelings of physical attractiveness. Similarly, Dollinger (2002) reported correlations between physical attractiveness and different aspects of social connectedness (e.g. people touching, smiling at others).

Psychological predictors of appearance perception

Because of its significant psychological repercussions, a wealth of research has aimed at investigating the predictive factors of a negative appearance perception (e.g. Bucchianeri et al., 2013; Paxton et al., 2006).

Different risk factors have shown to predict BID and PAT. In particular, one such factor is that girls with Body Mass Indices (BMIs) that are farther from the ‘culturally created ideal’ have reported more BID (Stice & Whitenton, 2002). Moreover, Swami et al. (2006) reported that BMI accounted for 75% of the variance in attractiveness ratings, such that images of females from Britain and Japan that were either below or above the healthy BMI were perceived to be less attractive.

An important factor predicting BID identified in the literature is self-esteem. Although a few studies report a non-significant association between PAT and self-esteem (e.g. Mares et al., 2010), the majority of studies have found a positive association between the two constructs (e.g. Paxton et al., 2006). One explanation might be that negative feelings towards one’s own body are likely to generate negative emotions towards oneself, thus resulting in low overall self-worth (Pesa et al., 2000), and vice versa regarding negative feelings.

Research has shown that emotion regulation predicts BID (Lavender & Anderson, 2010). Some studies have reported a correlation between emotional disturbances (i.e. jealousy, envy, feelings of inferiority, anger, and emotional inhibition) and low PAT (e.g. Shackelford & Larsen, 1997).

Finally, to our knowledge, only one study (Swami, Frederick et al., 2010) has explored such a role using a comprehensive and robust measure of trait EI. In this study, the construct predicted both actual-ideal weight discrepancy and appearance perception even after controlling for BMI and media influence.

The role of trait EI as a moderator of the depression-appearance perception link

Previous literature shows the important role of trait EI as a protective factor for psychopathology (e.g. Andrei & Petrides, 2013). It can be argued that high trait EI would serve as a buffer for the negative psychological impact of negative appearance perception in that BID and PAT may be more strongly associated with depression under conditions of low trait EI compared to conditions of high trait EI.

The present study and the Lebanese context

Only a few studies have explored appearance perception in the Middle East, with reported BID rates ranging from 13% to 21.2% (Al‐Subaie, 2000; Latzer et al., 2007; Mousa et al., 2010). Similarly, research is scarce regarding perceived PAT in the Middle East. In Lebanon, Yahia et al. (2011) reported that 36% of their university sample worried about their physical appearance. Among the few studies about appearance perception using a Lebanese sample, Zeeni et al. (2013) compared students from Lebanon and Cyprus and found that socio-cultural influences (i.e. media influences on thinness) on body image were greater in the Lebanese sample than the Cypriot one (Zeeni et al., 2013).

The present study represents a step forward in that it seeks to investigate not only the relationship between trait EI and BID, but also that between trait EI and PAT. In order to test for the incremental validity of trait EI, these relationships will be studied while controlling for the effect of not only BMI, but also self-worth and emotion regulation, which have shown to relate to appearance perception in the past.

The specific aim of this study is twofold: (1) To examine trait EI as a predictor of appearance perception, and (2) to investigate the potential moderating role of trait EI in the relationship between the two indicators of appearance perception considered (i.e. BID and PAT) and depressive symptomatology.

Based on the reviewed literature, we specifically predict the following:

Trait EI will negatively correlate with BID (Hypothesis 1a) and PAT (Hypothesis 1b); trait EI will predict BID (Hypothesis 2a) and PAT (Hypothesis 2b) over and above BMI, self-worth and emotion regulation; and trait EI will moderate the relationship between BID (Hypothesis 3a) – and PAT (Hypothesis 3b) – and depressive symptomatology.

BMI has shown to predict both BID (Stice & Whitenton, 2002) and PAT (Swami et al., 2006). Thus, we considered important to control for BMI when exploring other potential predictors of appearance perception in our analyses.

Method

Participants

Participants were 201 Lebanese undergraduates (131 female), aged between 18 and 24 (M = 19.76, SD = 1.85), enrolled in two Lebanese universities, and in different majors, as they were pooled from introductory courses offered to all students. The mean BMI was 25.30 (SD = 4.12) for males and 21.11 (SD = 3.43) for females.

Measures

The Contour Drawing Rating Scale (CDRS; Thompson & Gray, 1995) was used to measure BID. This test consists of two sets of nine female and male images; the first image in both sets representing less body fat and the rest of the images gradually increasing in weight. Participants are asked to circle the body figure that they consider to best match their current body shape in the first set and their ideal body shape in the second set. The actual-ideal weight discrepancy indicates BID and is obtained by calculating the difference between absolute current and ideal ratings. The test-retest reliability (at two weeks, r =.82) and construct and discriminant validity of the CDRS were demonstrated in a sample of early adolescent girls (Wertheim et al., 2004).

The Physical Attractiveness Subscale of the Self-Description Questionnaire-II (SDQ-II; Marsh, 1992) is a 102-item questionnaire assessing 11 areas of self-concept in late adolescence. For the purpose of this study, we used the physical attractiveness subscale, which consists of eight items that are rated on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). This subscale assesses both body (e.g. ‘I have a good looking body’) and facial (e.g. ‘I have a nice looking face’) attractiveness self-concepts. The whole scale has demonstrated construct validity and good reliability in a number of studies (α ranging from .87 to .93; Guérin et al., 2003; Ingles et al., 2012). The Alpha coefficient of the subscale in this sample was .86.

The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue v.150; Petrides, 2009) consists of 153 items that measure global trait EI, four broad factors, and 15 distinct facets. Items are rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The TEIQue has demonstrated excellent psychometric properties in a number of studies (e.g. Swami, Frederick et al., 2010). The internal reliabilities of the TEIQue on the present sample were as follows: α = .87 for global trait EI, and α = .70, α = .57, α = .55, and α = .82 for emotionality, sociability, self-control, and well-being factors, respectively.

The General Self-Worth Subscale of the Self-Description Questionnaire-II (SDQ-II; Marsh, 1992) was used to measure self-worth (see previous description of Attractiveness subscale of this questionnaire for more information). The General Self-worth subscale consists of six questions that assess self-worth, self-confidence and self-satisfaction. A sample item is ‘Overall, most things I do turn out well’. The subscale’s internal consistency in the present sample was .80.

The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ; Gross & John, 2003) is a 10 item-scale designed to assess individual differences in the habitual use of two emotion regulation strategies, namely cognitive reappraisal (e.g. ‘I control my emotions by changing the way I think about the situation I’m in’) and expressive suppression (e.g. ‘I keep my emotions to myself’). The items are measured on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). While moderate reliabilities have been reported for the cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression subscales in a sample of Lebanese adults (α = .66 and α = .62, respectively; Merhi & Kazarian, 2015), good reliabilities for the two scales respectively were reported in other studies (e.g. α = .84 and α = .72; Balzarotti et al., 2010). In the present study, Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients for the ERQ scores were .65 for the reappraisal subscale and .74 for the suppression subscale.

The Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck et al., 1961) was used to measure depressive symptomatology. This is a 21-item self-report instrument intended to assess the existence and severity of symptoms of depression (e.g. ‘I cry more than I used to’). Items are rated on a 4-point Likert scale of increasing intensity ranging from 0 to 3. A total score of 0–13 is considered a minimal range of depression, 14–19 as mild, 20–28 as moderate, and 29–63 as severe. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of the BDI-II scores in the present sample was .88, which is similar to that reported by Beck and Steer (1984).

Procedure

After obtaining ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board at the university where the data collection was coordinated, questionnaires were distributed to participants and completed during class time. Questionnaires were administered in the English language as it is the official language of instruction at the targeted universities, where students are expected to have English proficiency. Prior to filling out the questionnaires, participants read and signed an informed consent. The questionnaires were completed in the following order: Demographic questions, ERQ, TEIQue, CDRS, BDI-II, SDQ-II, and questions tackling weight and height for the BMI calculation. Testing sessions lasted approximately 50 minutes.

Statistical analyses

Bivariate correlations (see Table 1) were conducted to assess the relationship between trait EI – global and factor scores – and the key study variables, namely (1) BID, (2) PAT, (3) BMI, (4) self-worth, (5) emotion regulation (suppression and reappraisal), and (6) depression. Next, we conducted 2 two-step hierarchical regression models in order to test the incremental validity of trait EI in the prediction of both BID and PAT. The two appearance perception indicators were used as criteria in each case, while BMI, self-worth, and emotion regulation were entered as predictors in the first step, and trait EI was entered in the second step in both models (these results are presented in Table 2). This type of analysis is recommended when examining the incremental validity of measures and their contribution to improving the prediction of a relevant criterion (e.g. Gervais et al., 2010). Finally, following the recommendation proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986), a series of simple and multiple regression analyses were conducted to explore the moderating effect of global trait EI on the relationship between BID and depressive symptomatology as well as between PAT and depressive symptomatology (see Table 3).

Table 1. Inter-Correlations Among the Key Study Variables.

Measures	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
1. BID	-
2. PAT	−.48***	-
3. Global trait EI	−.20*	.39***	-
4. Well-Being	−.25**	.49***	.79***	-
5. Self-Control	−.17*	.22**	.79***	.45***	-
6. Emotionality	−.11	.30***	.79***	.54***	.48***	-
7. Sociability	−.07	.27**	.78***	.45***	.66***	.45***	-
8. BMI	.55***	−.31**	−.05	−.12	.06	−.08	.01	-
9. Self-Worth	−.20**	.53***	.49***	.48***	.34***	.26**	.46***	−.18*	-
10. Suppression	.05	−.14†	−.23***	−.27***	.06	−.45***	.00	.19*	−.10	-
11. Reappraisal	.03	.05	.11	.04	.11	.13	.08	.01	.01	.15*	-
12. Depression	.31***	−.30***	−.48***	−.50***	−.41***	−.30***	−.27***	.06	−.23**	.09	.09	-

†p =.05, *p <.05, **p <.01, ***p <.001

Table 2. Trait EI as Predictor of BID and PAT over BMI, Emotion Regulation and Self-Worth.

		BID		PAT
		β	t	β	t
Step 1.	BMI	.13	8.10***	−.04	−2.95**
	Self-worth	−.21	−1.82	.76	7.85***
	Reappraisal	.04	.50	.05	.92
	Suppression	−.05	−1.02	−.04	−.92
	F(4, 196)	23.85***		24.68***
	Adj-R^2	.31		.32
Step 2.	BMI	.14	7.85***	−.04	−3.30**
	Self-worth	−.04	−.30	.55	5.03***
	Reappraisal	.05	.74	.02	.42
	Suppression	−.06	−1.05	.04	.77
	Well-being	−.20	−1.91	.34	4.06***
	Self-control	−.32	−2.11*	−.10	−.93
	Emotionality	.05	.30	.10	.85
	Sociability	.20	1.36	.00	.02
	F(8, 192)	14.79***		16.64***
	Adj-R^2	.35		.38
	Δ F(4, 192)	4.14**		6.07***
	Δ R^2	.05		.08

†p =.05, *p <.05, **p <.01, ***p <.001

Table 3. Moderating Effects of Trait EI in the Relationship Between BID, PAT, and Depressive Symptomatology.

Predictors	β	t
	Interaction 1
BID	.20	3.17**
Global trait EI	−.27	−2.99**
Global trait EI x BID	−.23	−2.51*
	Interaction 2
PAT	−.09	−1.26
Global trait EI	−.46	−6.62***
Global trait EI x PAT	.14	2.17*

*p <.05, **p <.01, ***p <.001

Results

Due to a large amount of missing data on BMI (i.e. 36.8%), a key variable in the study, multiple imputations (MI) were performed on the dataset. As a result, all analyses that involved BMI (i.e. bivariate correlations and hierarchical regression) were conducted on the imputed dataset. Little’s MCAR test was non-significant (χ² = 108.55, p > .05) indicating that the data was missing completely at random, sufficing the assumption of MI (Rubin, 1987). For the above specified analyses, all required variables were imputed; the independent variables (i.e. BMI, reappraisal, suppression, self-worth, the four trait EI factors, and trait EI total) and the dependent variables (i.e. PAT, BID, and depression). IBM SPSS v21 was used to conduct MI using the monotone method.

Prior to conducting the analysis, gender differences in BID and PAT were examined. Independent samples t-tests yielded non-significant differences between males (M = 1.19, SD = 0.89) and females (M = 1.18, SD = 1.11, t₍₁₉₈₎ = 0.07, p = .95) in BID, and non-significant differences between males (M = 4.52, SD = 0.91) and females (M = 4.59, SD = 0.86, t₍₁₉₈₎ = −0.53, p = .60) in PAT. Thus, the rest of the analyses were run with the total sample.

Bivariate correlations

Bivariate correlations indicated a negative correlation between BID and global trait EI (r = −.20, p = .007), and the trait EI well-being (r = −.25, p = .001) and self-control (r = −.17, p = .021) factors. PAT positively correlated with global trait EI (r = .40, p < .001) and all trait EI factors. The highest correlation was found with well-being (r = .49, p < .001), and the lowest was found with self-control (r = .22, p = .003).

A positive correlation was found between self-worth and global trait EI (r = .49, p < .001) and factor scores; the highest was found with well-being (r = .48, p < .001), and the lowest was found with emotionality (r = .26, p = .001). Furthermore, global trait EI scores negatively correlated with the suppression subscale of the ERQ (r = −.23, p < .001), as did the trait EI factors of well-being (r = −.27, p < .001) and emotionality (r = −.45, p < .001). Finally, depressive symptomatology negatively correlated with global trait EI score (r = −.48, p < .001) as well as its factors, whereby the highest correlation was found with well-being (r = −.50, p < .001), and the lowest was found with sociability (r = −.27, p < .001; see Table 1 for complete correlations).

Predictive validity of trait EI

A two-step hierarchical regression was used to test the incremental validity of trait EI in predicting BID and PAT. At step 1, the first regression model accounted for 33% of the variance in BID (F _{(4, 196)} = 23.85, p < .001, Adj. R² = .31), whereby BMI was found to be a significant positive predictor (β = .13, t = 9.06, p < .001). At step 2 (with the four trait EI factors entered), the model accounted for 38% of the variance in BID (F _{(8, 192) =} 14.79, p < .001) and gained additional explanatory power (∆ F _{(4, 192)} = 4.14, ∆ R² = .05, p < .01). At this step, self-control was a significant negative predictor of BID (β = −.32, t = −2.11, p < .05).

At step 1, the second regression model accounted for 33% of the variance in PAT. The model was significant as a whole (F _{(4, 196)} = 24.68, p < .001, Adj. R² = .32). BMI (β = −.04, t = −2.95, p < .01) and self-worth (β = .76, t = 7.85, p < .001) were significant positive predictors of PAT. At step 2, trait EI factors were added and the model accounted for 41% of the variance in PAT scores. The model remained significant (F _{(8, 192)} = 16.64, p < .001) and well-being was found to be a significant positive predictor of PAT (β = .34, t = 4.06, p < .001; the additional variance explained at this step was furthermore significant (∆ F _{(4, 192)} = 6.07, ∆ R² = .08, p < .001) (refer to Table 2).

Moderation analyses

The first simple regression equations showed that depression was predicted negatively by global trait EI (β = −.48 t = 7.54, p < .001, R² Adj = .23, F = 56.89) and positively by BID (β = .32, t = 4.63, p < .001, R² Adj = .10, F = 21.44). A multiple regression was then carried out with both predictors, and their interaction added to the model. BID emerged as a positive predictor of depression (β = .20, t = 3.17, p < .01, R² Adj. = .29, F = 26.96), and global trait EI emerged as a significant negative predictor (β = −.27, t = 2.99, p < .01, R² Adj. = .29, F = 26.96), with a significant interaction between them (β = −.23, t = 2.51, p < .05, R² Adj. = .29, F = 26.96). This indicated that trait EI moderated the relationship between BID and depressive symptomatology.

As for PAT, in the first simple regression, global trait EI and PAT negatively predicted depression (β = −.48, t = 7.54, p < .001, R² Adj. = .23, F = 56.89, and β = −.28, t = 3.99, p < .001, R² Adj. = .07, F = 15.94, respectively). The multiple regression with both variables and their interaction added to the model indicated that PAT did not significantly predict depression in the presence of trait EI, but global trait EI did (β = −.46, t = 6.62, p < .001, R² Adj. = .26, F = 22.60), and so did the interaction between global trait EI and PAT (β = .14, t = 2.17, p < .05, R² Adj. = .26, F = 22.60) (refer to Table 3).

Discussion

The present study is the first to examine trait EI as a predictor of appearance perception and its role in attenuating the negative psychological effects of both BID and low perceived PAT in a sample of Lebanese youth.

Relationships among the key study variables

BID and trait EI were negatively correlated at the global and factor level, namely well-being and self-control, thus partially supporting Hypothesis 1a, while global trait EI and all four trait EI factors positively correlated with PAT, which supports Hypothesis 1b. These results emphasize the positive role of trait EI in subjective well-being, in that individuals high on the well-being and self-control scales were less likely to report negative feelings towards their body image, while those high on all four trait EI factor scales were more likely to perceive themselves as physically attractive.

Trait EI as a predictor of appearance perception

Trait EI showed predictive power over and above BMI, self-worth, and emotion regulation, thus supporting Hypothesis 2a. In particular, the self-control factor of trait EI negatively predicted BID over and above the rest of the predictors. This specific finding, while not reported by Swami et al. (2010), was expected in the current study. Trait EI self-control which involves emotional control, stress management, and low impulsiveness, is expected to protect against negative emotional states such as anxiety. Individuals suffering from eating disorders may attempt to control such negative emotional states through dysfunctional mood modulatory behaviour (e.g. self-induced vomiting; Fairburn et al., 2003). As such, a person with high self-control as measured by the trait EI is less likely to experience negative emotional states and thus is less likely to experience BID. Moreover, trait EI explained significant additional variance in PAT over the rest of the predictors, supporting Hypothesis 2b; the well-being factor of trait EI positively predicted PAT. This finding accords well with Swami et al.’s (2010) study in which the well-being factor was a significant predictor of actual-ideal weight discrepancy and body appreciation, even after controlling for the effects of BMI and media influences. This suggests that the well-being component of trait EI may help individuals appreciate their body image and possibly work towards feeling more physically attractive.

Results regarding the well-being factor of trait EI can also be interpreted through a closer look at its facets, namely self-esteem, trait happiness, and trait optimism. Self-esteem holds important implications for a person’s well-being and body satisfaction; higher self-esteem increases one’s confidence and satisfaction with one’s appearance and life in general (Cash & Hicks, 1990). In fact, our results showed that self-worth, which is theoretically related to self-esteem, was a positive predictor of PAT. Trait happiness can also be associated with a positive view of one’s looks as it refers a positive hedonic tone and good feelings towards oneself (Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003). Finally, optimistic individuals are more likely to embrace a more positive outlook on life, including their own appearance, which is conducive to self-confidence (Carver et al., 2010).

Noteworthy, BMI remained a significant predictor of BID and PAT, even in the presence of the trait EI factors. This supports previous research that consistently showed BMI to be a significant predictor of BID (Stice & Whitenton, 2002) and PAT (Swami et al., 2006). Furthermore, Woodward et al. (2014) reported that females with disordered eating symptoms were more likely to hold negative self-evaluations when BMI was higher. Accordingly, interventions aiming at treating individuals suffering from the negative consequences of having high BID and low perceived PAT may be focused on helping them reach a healthy BMI (Stice & Whitenton, 2002). Such a behaviour-focused therapy will help the individual set small attainable goals and will help promote a healthier perspective towards body image satisfaction.

In addition, self-worth emerged as a significant predictor of PAT – even after adding the trait EI factors – but not of BID. It seems that, while individuals with low self-esteem are likely to perceive themselves as physically unattractive, their low self-esteem is not likely to affect their body image perception.

Trait EI as a moderator of the appearance perception-depression relationship

Global trait EI moderated the relationship of BID and PAT with depressive symptoms, thus supporting Hypothesis 3a and Hypothesis 3b, respectively. This finding is expected knowing that trait EI is positively associated with psychological well-being, life satisfaction and happiness, and negatively with depression, stress, and feelings of loneliness (Mavroveli et al., 2007). In this sense, trait EI may be seen as a protective factor (Swami, Frederick et al., 2010), buffering against negative psychological outcomes.

Gender differences in appearance perception

There were non-significant differences in BID and PAT between males and females. In regard to BID, this is somewhat surprising given the extensive literature pointing to higher levels of dissatisfaction with appearance among females (e.g. Demarest & Allen, 2000). Non-significant gender differences in BID, however, have also been reported in the literature (Furnham et al., 2002). As for PAT, this is not surprising given the importance of both face and body attractiveness in mate selection for both sexes (e.g. Peters et al., 2007).

Findings showing higher BID among females may be due to the research design used. Ferreiro et al. (2014) reported that their result of an increase in depressive symptomatology and disordered eating for girls but not for boys should be interpreted with caution due to the selective attrition of boys with higher baseline levels of BID. As such, this might be the reason for higher BID among girls compared to boys in other studies (e.g. Demarest & Allen, 2000). This, however, needs to be specifically investigated in the Middle East since the existing literature on BID in this region has mostly been studied among schoolgirls (Latzer et al., 2007). Furthermore, gender differences may not manifest in the levels of BID and PAT per se, but rather in the way individuals deal with them and how they relate to different outcomes.

Implications and limitations

The findings from this study shed light on the clinical value of trait EI. Promoting awareness and assessment of trait EI may help clinicians identify individuals who are more likely to suffer the negative consequences of holding negative perceptions of one’s physical attractiveness and body image. These individuals may consequently be given the appropriate interventions incorporating coping mechanisms that aid in emotion regulation (e.g. avoiding situations that bring about self-consciousness about one’s body image). Also, interventions can be targeted at improving individuals’ perceptions of their whole selves and their future, as this can have a positive impact on the perception of their appearance, which in turn can protect them from depressive symptoms. It is worth noting that individuals who perceive themselves as physically attractive might be more likely to exhibit socially desirable personality characteristics and show higher resistance to peer pressure and conformity in comparison to individuals who are dissatisfied with their looks. In addition, it has been posited that having a positive body image may reduce the risk of developing an eating disorder (Lokken et al., 2008).

One of the limitations of this study is that participants were Lebanese university students, which reduces the generalizability of the results. Moreover, relying solely on self-report measures introduces mono-method bias, whereby the measures used may not be measuring all aspects of the variables of interest. Future studies would benefit from incorporating a different method of assessing body image such as a computer manipulation method (Sands et al., 2004). Also, the survey method used in this study does not allow for causal conclusions to be drawn, which highlights the need for future research to use experimental and longitudinal designs. Another methodological recommendation for future research is the use of more advanced statistical methods to explore latent variables, which was not an option in this study due to sample size constraints, as well as an objective measure of the participants’ BMI, rather than self-reported weight and height.

Despite the cross-cultural validity of the CDRS (Swami, Frederick et al., 2010), the scale has been criticized for its poor ecological validity, whereby the figures used do not represent the full scale of changes that may naturally occur to a body when one gains or loses weight (Gardner, 2001). To replicate findings obtained in this study, future studies could benefit from using other methods of measure such as the video distortion computer software (Sands et al., 2004) to examine body dissatisfaction.

In addition, even though the total, well-being, and emotionality factor scores of trait EI had good internal consistencies, the reliabilities of the sociability and self-control factor scores were less-than-adequate. Thus, results involving these two factors should be interpreted with caution. A validation study of the TEIQue in this region is needed to explore possible cross-cultural differences in the structure of this test (Sanchez-Ruiz et al., under review).

Finally, as noted earlier, there are two main aspects of PAT, namely body attractiveness (Swami et al., 2006) and facial attractiveness (Kościński, 2008), which have been examined in relation to positive and negative outcomes. While the present study focused on overall PAT as an indicator of appearance perception, future research would benefit from examining facial and body attractiveness separately.

Conclusion

Our results point to the important role of trait EI as a predictor of BID and PAT and to its protective role against the negative impact of appearance dissatisfaction. Findings from this study can be valuable when developing preventive and remedial programs aimed at promoting body appreciation among university students. Therapeutic approaches that incorporate trait EI when treating patients with disordered eating greatly influenced by BID can be successful in alleviating any depressive symptoms. The importance of well-being and its facets (i.e. self-esteem, trait happiness, and trait optimism) could be emphasized in such programmes. This study offers preliminary evidence that there are non-significant gender differences in BID and PAT, indicating that the use of differential treatments for each gender might not be necessary, and it also adds evidence for the relevance of tackling BMI in order to reduce BID and increase PAT.

Finally, results add to the scant literature not only on appearance perception, but also on trait EI in the Middle East. Trait EI was associated with the rest of the key variables in the expected direction, which contributes to the evidence of its construct validity. Our results are in line with those obtained with other samples regarding the relationship between trait EI and depressive symptoms (Andrei & Petrides, 2013), self-worth (Cheung et al., 2014), and emotion regulation (Laborde et al., 2014). They also show the incremental validity of trait EI over the above-mentioned variables in the prediction of BID and PAT. Future studies in appearance perception and disordered eating and eating disorders would benefit from incorporating trait EI into their research designs.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Miriam Slikhanian, Tatiana Khalaf and Natalie Tadros for reviewing the final draft of this manuscript.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Maria-Jose Sanchez-Ruiz

Maria-Jose Sanchez-Ruiz is an associate professor of psychology at the Lebanese American University. She has also worked extensively with the trait emotional intelligence program at UCL, where she was recently appointed as an Honorary Senior Research Associate. She has worked extensively in the field of individual differences, and particularly personality and emotional intelligence. She is an associate editor of Frontiers and peer-reviewer of other reputable journals. She has published empirical work in high impact-factor journals and some of her papers have been widely cited (e.g., “Developments in trait emotional intelligence research”published in Emotion Review, Q1). She is currently interested in emotional intelligence and character strengths training.

Rana Merhi

Rana Merhi completed Master of Counselling degree from the University of Queensland in 2018 with an interest in trauma counselling. She is currently a sexual assault counsellor at the Centre Against Sexual Violence Inc. She supports young and adult women ages 13 and over who have experienced past or recent sexual assault by helping them understand how trauma effects the nervous system and body, by guiding them to process the trauma and regain their power and control, and by advocating for them to find safety. A major focus of her counselling is on the processing of feelings of low self-worth and poor body image as both have been consistently found to be linked to childhood sexual assault.

Maya Nicolaou

Maya Nicolaou holds a MA in Child and Adolescent psychology from The Chicago School of Professional Psychology (TCSPP). She has experience working in the field of nutrition and psychology and has collaborated with the Middle East Eating Disorders Association. She has also been working as a research assistant at the Lebanese American University, and her work has been presented at the International Social Biennial Meeting of the International Society for the Study of Individual Differences (ISSID). Maya is currently working as a counseling psychologist at Step Together Association (STA), an NGO for individuals with special needs in Beirut.