The effect of spiritual and social norm in moral judgement

ABSTRACT

The main aim of the study was to explore information related to the concept of Islamic moral judgement among religious school students. For this group of students, academic syllabus and schooling daily activities was purposely designed to the enhancement of spiritual and religious interpretation in practical life. This study used a quantitative method based on cross sectional approach. The findings showed that the dimensions of Islamic spiritual disposition and social norm were significant in the moral judgement of Islamic secondary school students. Result from the study also indicates spiritual disposition and social norms to certain extent play as significant role in moral judgment process. This findings have helped developed the Islamic Moral Judgement Model. The impact of this study was that religious secondary school students' tendencies toward aspects of Islamic spirituality play an important role in determining the quality of their Islamic moral judgement.

KEYWORDS:

• Spiritual
• social norms
• moral judgement
• religious secondary school

Introduction

The function of moral is to provide basic guidance in resolving conflicts between individuals and to maximize the benefits of fellow individuals living together within the community group (Rest, 1986), while moral judgement is a process or cognitive activity that involves moral considerations to achieve a decision. According to Arbuthnot (1981), moral considerations have a strong relationship with cognitive development in moral decision-making. Many approaches to moral development try to link aspects of moral reasoning, moral judgement and moral action. The theory of moral development (Kohlberg, 1977) is an important basis in the study of morality consisting of three main aspects, namely moral thinking, moral feelings and moral actions.

The theory of moral development is also used as an important basis for interpreting and evaluating an act whether moral or not (Chang Lee Hoon, 2002). According to Bailey (1969), the theory of moral development focuses on the development of moral character, attitude to moral rules and making moral judgements. Lickona (1980) explained that moral development should include three interrelated networks of moral development, namely the development of moral thinking, the development of moral feelings and the development of moral behaviour. Developments in moral thinking, moral feelings and moral behaviour will lead to a progressive change towards moral maturity. This statement clearly shows that in such a complex world, students face various challenges and choices in their lives, so it is a challenge for every teacher to encourage and guide students in the moral domain so that they become a moral or noble individual.

The need for moral and noble conduct development is increasing due to social problems arising out of economic growth and rapid global progress (By et al., 2012; Kuchinke, 2010). The problem of discipline among students started at the early school level up until higher educated groups known as white-collar crimes such as embezzlement, corruption, and fraud (Banzon-Librojo et al., 2017; Komalasari & Saripudin, 2015; Ritter, 2018). Such harmful occurrences must be avoided from the start. All of this may be handled by integrating information and instilling moral and noble behaviour in children through education. (Idris, 2015; Komalasari & Saripudin, 2017; Tan et al., 2018).

The Malaysian education blueprint 2013–2025 has a clear goal of producing well-balanced and outstanding human capital. Meanwhile, education philosophy may be viewed as a guide, direction, or point of view on educational issues (Brezinka, 2012; Winch, 2012). The philosophy of education is also based on rational and critical thinking, national creed as reflected in the Report and Education Policy as well as the National Principles or Rukun Negara (Al-Hudawi et al., 2014; Ratnavadivel, 1999; Tan et al., 2018). As a result, the Ministry of Education of Malaysia has developed a strategy called the National Education Policy to fulfill the requirements of the country to build a nation where the citizens are knowledgeable, virtuous and have high moral values (Othman, 2016). Generally, education is a key factor in determining a person’s well-being, not only academically but also in the formation of a strong individual personality towards achieving a better life in this world and hereafter (Hakam, 2018). Proper education may support the development of ethnicity, nation, and religion (Brown & Taylor, 2008; Cinnirella & Schueler, 2018; Rakodi, 2012), and may also help boost the government goal realization.

In Malaysia, study of moral reasoning is fast gaining relevance. The justification for selecting the Malays as the sample is based on the Muslim majority in Malaysia. Cases of crime and disorder among the Malays have continued to increase annually compared to the Chinese and Indians. Following that, this study concentrated on the impact of the link between moral thinking and cognitive processes in moral judgement. Studies were conducted to identify their mindset based on belief and understanding of the teachings of Islam. To date, studies related to moral development among religious students have not been performed and such research is still relatively new. However, due to the moral crisis that has plagued school students and especially religious students, research to identify the patterns of reasoning, thinking and moral judgement among religious school students has to be conducted. This research aimed to gain an insight into the extent to which cognitive processes involving the moral conduct of religious school students were used in making moral judgement.

The philosophy of Islamic Education in Malaysia explains that Islamic education is a continuous effort to convey Islamic knowledge, skills and appreciation based on the Quran and al-Sunnah to shape the attitude, skills, personality and outlook of life as a servant of Allah who has the responsibility to develop oneself, society, environment and country towards achieving good in the world and eternal well-being in the hereafter (Centre for the development of the Curriculum, 2001). Thus, education is a process of adapting human development in terms of physicality, aqli, freedom and human feelings towards God as it appears in the realm of aqliyah, human feelings and will (el Muhammady, 1987).

Thus, moral consideration is one of the elements in shaping human life. Each moral consideration will determine the moral actions of an individual. The moral development of students at school greatly influences the results of their overall moral judgements. For students of religious schools, the moral education contained in the Islamic education curriculum becomes a cultural hold in life at school. The Islamic education curriculum is built to produce people who successfully perform their duties and responsibilities as required by Islam. This is because schools serve as educational institutions that play a role in developing the morals of students as well as the Muslim community as a whole.

In addition, the aim of the Malaysian education blueprint 2013–2025 is to produce individuals who are decent and pious (Hamid & Jaharudin, 2017). The philosophy of education clearly shows that it strives to achieve this goal, thereby forming a citizenry of good faith and practicing good deeds. Furthermore, the philosophy of Education also strives towards building a balanced human being materialistically and spiritually. Therefore, it is unacceptable for religious school children to participate in immoral behaviours outside of their grasp, according to the philosophy of education. However, the reality is different because symptoms of moral collapse also involve students from religious schools although these schools have a religious-based curriculum (Yusoff, 2013). This denies the concept of conduct or morality as a tool of social production that generates a positive effect on all individuals (Hooker, 2017).

Although there are only a few reports of severe discipline issues among religious school students, they must be addressed seriously. They cannot represent the status of religious school students. Furthermore, religious school students seem to be bolder in their actions and behaviours beyond their limits. This can be seen in the increase of disciplinary cases of religious school students. The aspect of religious knowledge among students of religious schools should be a key element in their moral and spiritual development. Religious knowledge should be systematically infused in the learning process and extra-curricular activities.

Moral judgement is a thinking process that requires moral and social-cognitive normative assessments (Abdul Rahman Md. Aroff, 1999). Subsequently, moral judgement according to Szekely and Miu (2015) refers to the assessment of moral acceptance of one’s actions as well as of others. Moral reasoning is the process through which an individual decides how to resolve a moral quandary (Rest, 1986). Generally, Colby and Kohlberg (1987) and Rest et al. (1999) belong to the cognitive behavioural psychology category in moral reasoning. Based on their definitions, moral reasoning is an intrapersonal process that happens at the intellectual level. The morality of Kohlberg is based on a justice paradigm that stresses macro-moral aspects. It involves the independent character of moral reasoning which is governed by the individual’s cognitive development. Kohlberg goes on to say that thinking happens and may be employed when people make moral decisions. As a result, the decisions made will be more successful due to the successful of mental structure (Hamzah, 2007).

Research methodology

Research design

This research used the quantitative cross-sectional method to collect the information about a group in a defined period (Gay et al., 2012). Only Form Four students from diverse religious institutions were selected as the sample. Students were also given a set amount of time to make moral decisions using the instruments offered.

The study model consisted of two main components. The first component (independent variable) contained three main aspects, the first, demographic factors consisting of gender and type of school, secondly, the Islamic Spiritual Tendency Questionnaire (ISDQ) and the third, the Attitude and Belief in Standard Social Norms Test (USPSK). The second component (dependent variable) consisted of moral considerations measured through the Moral Reasoning Scheme (UPSTA) Recognition Test which has four dimensions which were istiqamah scheme, knowledgeable taqlid scheme, taqlid scheme and decadent taqlid scheme. This study used two methods of analyses, namely descriptive statistics and inference statistics.

Instruments and procedures

The research used questionnaires as the main medium to gather information on the research model. These included the Moral Judgement Questionnaire based on the moral Reasoning Scheme Recognition Test (UPSTA) (Aswati Hamzah, 2007), the Spiritual Questionnaire based on the Islamic Spiritual Tendency Questionnaire (ISDQ) (Yusoff, 2009) and the Social Norms Questionnaire based on Attitude and Belief in Standard Social Norms Test (USPSK) (Hamzah, 2007). Furthermore, there were two main components in the applied research model. The first contained spiritual and social norms questionnaires (independent variables). The second consisted of Islamic moral judgement (dependent variable) measured through Moral Reasoning Scheme Recognition Test questionnaire (UPSTA) which has four aspects, as follows; first, the Istiqamah scheme which shows a strong and consistent combination of knowledge, faith, charity and goodwill in shaping the scheme of moral excellence with the presence of Islamic moral thought forms based on the existence of Allah. The forms of thinking that can be studied include the avoidance of torture in the hereafter, the high form of humanity, and the form of a strong and accurate concept of self. Second is the knowledgeable taqlid scheme which can be evaluated from the standpoint of the minimum needs that can lead to understanding and morality. They can tell the difference between good and bad. This feature will lead individuals to select one of the aspects of good or bad. Third, the taqlid scheme which depicts one’s suffering from the phenomenon of ‘lizard hole’ that is stuck in a foolhardy belief and does not seek to know the truth about the pros and cons of a matter. This feature describes a phenomenon of one who follows a teaching or knowledge based on another person’s opinion. These sources of knowledge include either true and absolute knowledge or false sources based on secular logical thinking. Fourth, the decadent taqlid which is characterized by a decline in moral values set by the Shari’ah and symbolizes the phenomenon of delaying the truth, or not choosing the truth advocated by the Shari’ah (Al-Ghazali, 1992). This scheme also reflects the influence of high emotions and personal importance in decision making.

Meanwhile the construction of the concept of Islamic spiritual inclination was based on the opinions of scholars such as Al-Ghazali and Ali Chasan Umar (1982), Maskawaih (1959), Hamka (Life Philosophy) and others. The dimensions selected in the concept of Islamic spiritual inclination based on tauhid are the spine of the concept of Islam as ad-Din. This concept of tauhid can be clearly seen in the behaviour and daily actions of a person (Muhammad ‘Uthman El-Muhammay, 2002).

The concept of Islamic spiritual bias has three main constructs containing sub-constructs that have been determined by the researchers. The three constructs were:

A) Belief and faith

It is a person’s embrace on the orientation of tauhid in him to Allah SWT (Din, 2007). The orientation of tauhid means the concept of God’s oneness, the unity of creation of beings, the unity of truth and knowledge, the unity of life and the unity of humanity. Faith is the basis of change in one’s self, family and society.

B) Intrinsic

According to Qutb (1978) the concept of intrinsic is a natural basis based on one’s faith in Allah SWT. This concept is born from within the human heart. The desired superiority of the heart is simple and grateful for the earthly achievements and earnestly executes the Divine commandment in all areas of life to achieve the perfection of faith and morality for the sake of everlasting happiness in the hereafter (Sa ‘id Hawa, 1988). Getz (1984) explained that intrinsic is an appreciation of the source of values and the direction of life based on religion. Ibn Miskawayh (1961) is of the opinion that faith-based moral perfection is a condition that exists in the human soul and should be realized without the use of common sense because it is a tabi ’ie and custom which is either good or bad. Therefore, the intrinsic aspect of the concept of Islamic spiritual tendencies will test the foundation of one’s identity towards the real spiritual appreciation of Islam.

C) Extrinsic

According to Islam, extrinsic values are seen as an external factor contrary to the will of Islam (Ridha, 2000). This concept is an understanding of religiosity that is seen from one’s thoughts externally. In the concept of Islamic spiritual inclination, the concept of extrinsic is evaluated as an important aspect of one’s thinking in order to assess the extent of the level of appreciation of Islamic spirituality. According to Getz (1984), an extrinsic word based on religious understanding is a position and self-righteousness in determining the direction of life. The two aspects assessed are the separation of religion and the world and religion is not the main thing. These two aspects are evaluated based on a person’s thinking about something that happens in everyday life.

Sample of research

The samples consisted of Form Four students (aged 16) in five religious schools, namely National Religious Secondary School (SMKA), Maahad Muhammadi, Maahad Tahfiz, State Funded Religious School (SAR) and Private Religious School (SAS). The samples were selected at random to confirm that the identification of specific moral judgement can be done in religious school students. The selection of respondents used Kohlberg’s (1977) theory about the moral development that sixteen years old is the conventional stage. Based on moral reasoning theory by Piaget’s (1965), teens (especially those under the age of 16) are morally autonomous, understand the norms, and follow them according to their moral requirements. The school was selected using stratified random sampling, and non-proportional stratified sampling. There were 500 samples in this study as indicated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Research Sampling.

Analysing of data

The analysis of this study involved inferential statistics based on correlation and multiple regression analysis to identify influences in attitudes and Islamic spiritual tendencies aspects and adherence to standards of social norms on moral judgement in general and according to the determined scheme which was the istiqamah scheme only. The multiple regression method applied in this analysis involved a stepwise procedure.

Research findings

Multiple regression analysis of spiritual aspects’ influence on moral judgement

There were three variables for the regression model among namely: a. trust and faith, b. intrinsic, and c. extrinsic, which were included at p.05. The score of 0.687 was the correlation between the criteria variable and the predictor variable (belief and faith) and the score of 0.658 was the correlation between the criteria variable and the combination of belief, faith, and intrinsic; while the score of 0.682 was the correlation between the linear combination of three predictor variables and the criterion variable.

The R² value of .345 indicated that changes in belief and faith accounted for 34.5% of modifications in moral judgement variable. The mixture of belief and faith as well as intrinsic characteristics accounted for (43.3–34.5) % of the additional change in moral judgement which was 8.8%. The extrinsic dimension was responsible for 3.1% of the variation in moral judgement. These three predictor factors explained 46.5% of the variance in the moral judgement criteria. Table 1 illustrates this:

Table 1. Multiple Regression Analysis Result of Spiritual aspects Influence on Moral judgements.

Model		R	R^2	F	β	SE B	Beta	t	Sig
1	Constant	.587(a)	.345	261.989	.087	.193		.451	.652
	Belief & Faith				.782	.048	.587	16.186	.000
2	Constant	.658(b)	.433	189.849	−.415	.189		−2.196	.029
	Belief & Faith				.685	.046	.514	14.779	.000
	Intrinsic				.254	.029	.306	8.802	.000
3	Constant	.682(c)	.465	143.431	.022	.201		.109	.913
	Belief & Faith				.752	.047	.564	16.078	.000
	Intrinsic				.255	.028	.308	9.104	.000
	Exstrinsic				−.151	.028	−.184	−5.396	.000

a A1– Belief and faith.

b A2– Belief and Faith & Intrinsic.

c A3– Belief and Faith & Intrinsic & Extrinsic.

d Dependent variable (Criterion) – Moral judgements.

Based on the analysis, it revealed that three predictor factors, namely belief and faith (A1), intrinsic (A2), and extrinsic (A3), in the research sample (sample size = 500), were the determinants of moral judgement. Consequently, both intrinsic and extrinsic spiritual factors of religion and faith were discovered to be determinants of moral judgement among religious students.

Significantly, the belief and faith score [F (1, 498) = 261.989, p.05], 34.5% of the variation in moral judgement was explained, (R² = .345). This showed that believe and faith (=.587, p < 0.05) or the concept of just one God in Islamic teaching was the key factor for religious school students’ moral judgement. In Islamic moral judgement, the combination of belief and faith (=.514, p < 0.05) and intrinsic (=.306, p.05) rose by (43.3–34.5) % or 8.8% to variance (R2 = 0.433) [F (2, 497) = 189.849, p < 0.05].

The A3 predictor variable, on the other hand, had no significant contribution to the alterations in moral judgement caused by the combination of predictor factors A3 (=.184, p < 0.05) with A1 (=.564, p < 0.05) and A2 (=.308, p < 0. 05) only increased moral judgement by (46.5–43.3) % or 3.1% of the variance (R² = .465). This meant that the null hypothesis that no significant spiritual influence on religious school pupils’ moral judgement was rejected.

Multiple regression analysis of social norms dimension influence on moral judgement

The regression model analysis presented in Table 2 demonstrated that there was only single prediction for the outcome variables of moral judgement, namely human rights component that was used in the regression model at p < 0.5. Traditions, education, and politics were not included as predictor factors underneath the social norms variables since they did not have significance value at the p < .05 level. In addition, the correlation coefficient between the criterion and the predictor variables (human rights) was .132. The R² value of 0.017 indicated that just 1.7% of the change in the criterion variable (moral judgement) could be related to differences in human rights.

Table 2. Multiple Regression Analysis of Social Norms Dimension Influence on Moral judgements.

Model		R	R^2	F	β	SE B	Beta	t	Sig
1	Constant	.132(a)	.017	8.837	2.814	.134		21.003	.000
	Human Rights				.098	.033	.132	2.973	.003

a AA1– Human Rights.

b Dependent Variable (Criterion)– Moral judgements.

According to the data analysis, human rights (AA1), was the predictor of moral judgement for the study population (sample size = 500). As a consequence, the findings accepted the hypothesis that the social norms factor (human rights) predicted moral judgement among religious school pupils. The findings of this study, however, refuted the idea that traditional, political, and educational characteristics were predictors of moral judgement among religious school pupils.

The contribution of human rights score [F (1, 498) = 8.837, p < 0.05] was 1.7% to moral judgement with the variance (R² = .017) so that the most important predictor of social norms that drove these high school pupils to form moral judgements was the human rights component (=.132, p.05). Somehow, no meaningful effect of predictor variables changes in moral judgement. The findings of this study clarified the null hypothesis that there was no significant influence of social norms on religious school students’ moral judgement, and partially accepted the hypothesis by rejecting the human rights dimension while accepting the other three aspects, namely political, educational, and traditional aspects.

Multiple regression analysis of spiritual aspects’ influence on moral judgement based on the Istiqamah scheme

Table 3 depicts the analysis of the regression model with only one predictor variable, namely the dimension of belief and faith, which was included in p.05 regression model. The remaining two predictor variables in the spiritual aspects were excluded since they were not significant at the p.05 level. The criterion’s correlation with the predictor variables (believing and faith) was .523. The R2 value of .274 indicated that changes in belief and faith accounted for 27.4% of changes in moral judgement.

Table 3. Multiple Regression Analysis Spiritual aspects Influence on Moral judgements based on the Istiqamah Scheme.

Model		R	R^2	F	β	SE B	Beta	t	Sig
1	Constant	.523(a)	.274	187.663	9.834	4.002		2.457	.014
	Belief & Faith				13.702	1.000	.523	13.699	.000

a B1 – Belief & Faith.

b Dependent Variable (Criterion)– Moral judgements (Istiqamah Scheme).

The results indicated that the belief and faith (B1) was the predictor of moral judgement. This result supported the assumption that the spiritual dimension of belief and faith was a predictor of moral judgement for religious secondary school students. However, the results rejected the premise that the intrinsic and extrinsic aspects were moral judgement of religious school students.

Significantly, the belief and faith score [F (1, 498) = 187.663, p < 0.05] accounted for 27.4% of the variation in moral judgement (R² = .274). This suggested that belief and faith (=.523, p.05) or the notion of Islamic teaching’s oneness was the key sign of spirituality that drove students in religious institutions to make moral judgements. It demonstrated that the study partially accepted the null hypothesis by rejecting the aspects of belief and faith and admitting two aspects, namely intrinsic and extrinsic aspects.

Multiple regression analysis of the social norms aspects’ influence on moral judgement based on the Istiqamah scheme

Based on the regression model analysis of Istiqamah scheme, the analysis indicated that there were only three predictor factors for the moral judgement, namely (i) human rights, (ii) traditions, and (iii) education included in the p .05 regression model. Another predictor variable on the political dimension was excluded since it did not have a significant value at the p <5 level.

According to Table 4, the correlation between the predictor variable (human right) and criteria variable was 0.284, whereas the correlation between the combination of human rights and tradition and criterion variable was 0.318. Furthermore, the criterion variable had a .339 correlation with the linear sum of the three predictor variables. Only 8.1% of the criterion variable (moral judgement) changes were attributed to human rights, according to the R² value of .081. The combination of human rights and traditions factors contributed (10.1–8.1) %, resulting in a 2.1% increase in moral judgement. Furthermore, the educational factor alone accounted for 1.4% of the variation in moral judgement. The value of 11.5% explained the linear union of the three predictor variables of the variation in the criterion variable (moral) based on Istiqamah scheme.

Table 4. Multiple Regression Analysis of Social Norms aspects Influence on Moral judgements based on the Istiqamah Scheme.

Model		R	R^2	F	β	SE B	Beta	t	Sig
1	Constant	.284(a)	.081	43.689	47.811	2.548		18.767	.000
	Human Rights				4.161	.630	.284	6.610	.000
2	Constant	.318(b)	.101	28.036	38.754	3.676		10.543	.000
	Human Rights				3.652	.641	.249	5.699	.000
	Traditions				3.046	.900	.148	3.386	.001
3	Constant	.339(c)	.115	21.535	33.353	4.133		8.069	.000
	Human Rights				3.114	.665	.213	4.681	.000
	Traditions				2.826	.897	.137	3.150	.002
	Education				2.332	.837	.125	2.787	.006

a BB1– Human Rights.

b BB2– Human Rights & Traditions.

c BB3– Human Rights, Traditions & Education.

d Dependent Variable (Criterion)– Moral judgements (Istiqamah Scheme).

The data analysis revealed that three predictor factors, namely human rights (BB1), traditions (BB2), and education (BB3), were predictors of moral judgement based on the Istiqamah scheme for the study population (sample size = 500). As a consequence, this finding validated the hypothesis that social norm aspects such as human rights, traditions, and education were predictors of moral judgement in religious school students based on the Istiqamah scheme. However, based on the Istiqamah scheme for religious school students, this finding challenged the idea that the political dimension was a predictor of moral judgement.

The human rights score [F (1, 498) = 43.689, p < .05] significantly accounted for only 8.1% of the variance (R² = .081) in moral judgement. This meant that the human rights dimension (β = .587, p < .05) was a contributing factor for religious school students to make moral judgement. The combination of human rights (β = .249, p < .05) and traditions aspects (β = .148, p < .05) increased by (10.1–8.1) % or 2.1% of variance (R² = .101) in moral judgement [F (2, 497) = 28.036, p < .05]. However, the predictor variable BB3 did not contribute significantly to the change in moral judgement because the combination of the predictor variables BB3 (β = .125, p < .05) with BB1 (β = .213, p < .05) and BB2 (β = .137), p < .05) only increased by (11.5–10.1) % or 1.4% of variance (R² = .115) in moral judgement [F (3, 496) = 21.535, p < .05]. The hypothesis was partially accepted by rejecting three aspects namely human rights, traditions and education, and accepting political dimension.

Discussion

Spiritual and social norms influence on moral judgement

Spiritual and social norms have been addressed as elements that are expected to influence students’ moral judgement. Spirituality has a considerable impact on the moral judgement of religious school pupils, according to the study. This is consistent with prior research that found a high association between religious orientation characteristics and moral judgement in a religion (Han & Carlo, 2020; Kaur, 2020; Sulaiman et al., 2021). According to Kelechi Iwuagwu (2018), no link between morality and religion would result in morally deteriorating societal symptoms such as a culture of corruption, unfairness, selfishness, nepotism, adultery, thieving, violence, murder, and insincerity. Proios and Proios (2017) also investigated the association between moral judgement content and religious frameworks.

Based on the results, the moral judgement is influenced by the three spiritual aspects, namely belief and faith, intrinsic and extrinsic. It indicated that the concept of monotheism has a positive impact on personal morality among religious school students (Huda & Sabani, 2018; Puad & Ashton, 2021). Furthermore, an individual’s intrinsic element or religious appreciation influences moral judgement. However, there is a negative association between extrinsic factors and moral principle, which illustrates why the stronger the extrinsic component, the poorer the measures of perceived of religious school students. As a result, this study demonstrated a noteworthy phenomenon in which spirituality was unaffected by extrinsic factors. This was due to the fact that a student with religious understanding would not make this worldly component his primary goal in life, but rather would base his life on the notion of al-Din.

This outcome represented the stance of religious school pupils, who are frequently referred to as having excellent religious knowledge and moral standards (Bouhmama, 1990; Halstead, 2007; Shakeel, 2018; Skitka et al., 2018; Thobani, 2007). Morals in Islam encompass not just allegiance to Allah SWT, but also principles of common sense and behaviour (Tamuri, 2007; Tan et al., 2018; Willard et al., 2020). This is because moral judgement is highly linked to manners, morality, and conduct. Furthermore, each person’s action reflects their moral judgement (DeTienne et al., 2021; Yueqin, 2011). In behaviour and intercommunication, a moral individual will be referred to as a civilized person. The findings of this study have also shown that the principles of soul cleansing, human growth and religious worship have been successfully utilized in every part of moral education within the Islamic education curriculum.

Spiritual and social norms influence on moral judgement based on Istiqamah scheme

The results of this study showed that there was one dimension in spirituality in which belief and faith influenced moral judgement based on the Istiqamah scheme. This meant that students who were categorized in istiqamah schemes had the concept of monotheism in making moral judgement. Furthermore, this decision clarified that these students have no intrinsic and extrinsic values in making moral judgement. It also showed that students who were categorized in istiqamah scheme did not use religious appreciation in them to make moral judgement. Therefore, it was deduced that these students have no concept of tazkiyah al-Nafs (purification of souls) in their lives and that moral judgement for these students were based on their belief and faith in God alone (Al-Bar & Chamsi-Pasha, 2015; Halstead, 2007; Ji et al., 2009). Students categorized in the istiqamah scheme when considering moral judgement should have three aspects. It is stated by Hamka (1980) that a person with strong moral character must have a strong belief and a strong external and internal state of mind. This statement is in line with one of the spiritual themes presented by McGhee and Grant (2017), which is the internal developmental aspect. Therefore, according to Hamka (1980), the power of knowledge is highly important in deciding and considering a decision (Gorddard et al., 2016; Kersten, 2009). This decision made by an individual will have a huge impact on the relationship between himself and Allah S.W.T.

Meanwhile, the results of the study also showed that students who were categorized in the istiqamah scheme have social norms in making moral judgement. There were three aspects, namely human rights, traditions and education which influenced moral judgement. This explained that students who were categorized in the istiqamah scheme have social norms towards the ideas of equality, traditions, Malay culture, and understanding of education and social position in the society. These were the dominant influences when students made moral judgement (Bykov, 2019; Dubljevic et al., 2018; Puad & Ashton, 2021).

Therefore, this study clearly showed that these students believe in and have faith in God, and to make aspects of human rights, traditions and education as social norms in making moral judgement. This finding is consistent with a study which found that the behaviour of the Malay Muslims was governed by the concept of theology (belief and faith) and traditions as moral/conduct of the Malays (Aminnuddin, 2020; Grine & Saeed, 2017; Kasim & Yusoff, 2014; Laile Suzana Jaafar, 1999). Furthermore, the moral values of these students who were dominated by factors such as human rights, traditions, and education were based on the teachings of Islam. These elements can determine manners in moral judgement that place religious students in a high, moral and virtuous plane (Anam et al., 2019; Ishak & Abdullah, 2013; Ting & Lee, 2019).

Conclusion

This study clearly showed the importance of the holistic educational process to religious school students. This is because the development of the cognitive psychology aspects in the minds is very important for religious school students to enable them to become virtuous. The aspects of religious orientation and social belief among religious school students need to be emphasized by educational institutions whether in formal or informal education.

The findings showed that moral considerations are one of the elements that can have an impact in moral behaviour. Although morality is different from manners (akhlak), morality has a very close relationship with manners (akhlak) in Islam. Thus, the definition, resources and moral goals also adopt the resources and goals of akhlak in Islam. Islamic manners cover all areas of human life, from personal life to community life.

This phenomenon gives the understanding that moral considerations among religious school students have a significant impact based on Islamic spiritual tendencies and attitudes and holdings towards social norms standards. This has strong implications as a moral ideology based on the ideology of al-Din and the cultural ideology of the Malaysian community. Moral ideology refers to good values in oneself according to the appropriateness of good values in society (relationship among people only), while the ideology of al-Din refers to the concept of man as a caliph on earth who is obliged to fulfill the responsibility of man’s relationship with Allah, the relationship of man with man and the relationship of man with other beings. Cultural ideology refers to the attitude and belief towards the principles and customs and norms adopted in the social life of the Malaysian community. The combination of these three elements will have strong implications in determining the level of moral development of a person.

This relationship between humans covers a wide scope. It includes morals towards oneself, family and society. Morality towards oneself is like maintaining physical hygiene, purifying the soul, ensuring personal safety, constantly using common sense, senses and other body parts towards good, constantly improving one’s weaknesses and increasing self-sufficiency. Morality towards the family includes manners with husband and wife, parents and siblings, children and good association with other relatives. Morality towards the Muslim community includes greetings, jama’i charity, assisting in matters of good, being fair and preserving the rights of neighbours, friends and the surrounding community. Morality towards the non-Muslim community is like hating its disbelief; respecting each other and doing good in matters that do not contradict syarak. Man’s relationship with nature coincides with the following statement of Allah SWT:

But, seek, through that which Allah has given you, the home of the Hereafter; and [yet], do not forget your share of the world. And do good as Allah has done good to you. And desire not corruption in the land. Indeed, Allah does not like corrupters

(Surah Al-Qasas,28:77)

The findings showed that the factors in the implementation and dissemination of the curriculum are the main basis in determining students’ moral judgements. The issue of teaching in the Islamic Education curriculum is often the subject of discussion in producing quality teaching and meeting the standards towards achieving excellence and moral excellence among religious high school students. The implementation and dissemination of the curriculum, especially the perfect Islamic education curriculum, will be an indicator in producing quality human capital as demanded by Islam.

Recommendations

This study identifies several implications for future research; students with religious education should have the moral strength and persistent spirituality as a catalyst and driving force for the Muslim community to be more courageous in facing the changes and challenges of modern society. This courage and conviction will give birth to a strong faith Muslim community that is virtuous, knowledgeable, and principled, uplifts the neighbourhood, tolerant, accepting plural society, understands religious freedom, and always contributes positively towards community development and prosperity of the nation.

The spiritual influence in Islamic morality does not just happen. It occurs based on the relationship between spiritual factors and other factors. The result of this relationship will appear based on the results of the relationship between the Creator and the created. This suggests that the dimensions of the transpersonal approach are insufficient for the spiritual needs of Muslims. The spiritual process of Islam which is referred to as an absolute variable indicated by Allah can be understood in the following way, that as the most special being, human beings are given the ability to act based on a motive that is moral. If the gift of spiritual senses is used by humans for the purpose of devoting oneself to Allah alone, then there is no denying that one’s actions are based on moral values.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Mohd Zailani Mohd Yusoff

Mohd Zailani Mohd Yusoff is a Associate Professor in School of Education, Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM). His research expertise is Ethics and Moral Development, Moral Psychology, Religious Education, Islamic Education, Moral Education. He has published books and articles in Scopus journal and refereed journal. He has 20 years of teaching and research experience in Universiti Utara Malaysia.

Aswati Hamzah

Aswati Hamzah is Associate Professor of Special Education, School of Educational Studies Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM). His research expertise is Educational Psychology, Child development, Moral reasoning (Conventional and Islamic Psychology, Psychological Testing)

Iwan Fajri

Iwan Fajri is a Research Assistant at the Department of Civic Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Syiah Kuala University, Indonesia. He is also a postgraduate student in Civic Education at the University of Education Indonesia. His current research focuses on civic education, moral education, youth engagement, digital citizenship, and 21st century skills.

Tabrani Za

Tabrani ZA is a Lecturer at the Department of Islamic Education, Faculty of Education, Serambi Mekkah University, Indonesia. Current research focuses on religious studies, social sciences and Islamic education.

Sufriadi Muhammad Yusuf

Sufriadi Muhammad Yusuf is a research assistant at the Tarbiyah and Teacher Training Faculty, Ar-Raniry State Islamic University, Banda Aceh, Indonesia. Completed Ph.D in leadership in education, Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM). Currently the focus of research is in the field of educational leadership in Islam, Islamic education management and Islamic religious education.