Toys for children and adolescents: gendered preferences and developmental utilities

ABSTRACT

A toy is an object or device designed for play and enjoyment. Engagement of children and adolescents with appropriate toys can have significant influences on their cognitive, emotional and socio-psychological development. In this review, we first discuss factors underlying binary gender-based preferences of toys, and their implications for child development. Further, the potential of toys in psycho-social, emotional and sensorimotor development of children and adolescents are debated, with a particular focus on neuro-divergent children. Additionally, implications for toy-play from ancient Indian literature and culture are discussed. Finally, future aspects for play with next-generation toys and challenges associated with them are delineated. We hope that the review will serve as a platform for promoting toys as tools for removing binary gender-prejudices and aiding child/adolescent development. We also anticipate that our work will result in further research and elaboration of this largely ignored field of early/late childhood and adolescence research.

KEYWORDS:

• Indian traditional toys
• gender-neutral toys
• cognition
• social behaviour
• toy-design
• psychomotor

Introduction

A toy is defined as an object devised or found in nature, intended for play and pleasure. For thousands of years, toys have been a part of human society as play-tools for children (Figure 1). While play is not necessarily reliant on toys alone, children use them not only to amuse themselves but also as substrates to aid their development at multiple levels (Riede et al., 2018). Indeed, toy-play helps children develop communication and social skills, self-understanding and regulation, and a cognitively intact response system, with adequate judgemental, planning and organizational abilities (Deák, 2014; Goldstein, 2018). Further, toy-playtime during early and late development prepares children to form healthy societal relationships, and comprehend and respond to diverse environmental, social and psychological challenges (Bradley, 1985; Wheeler & Dillman Taylor, 2016). The choice of toys should be age-appropriate as they elicit manifold effects on children in an age- and developmental status-specific manner (Dostál, 2015).

Figure 1. Toys from different parts of the world.

Based on their formulation and intended functions, toys can be classified into five major categories: role-play/pretend (dolls, figurines, cars, hospital/doctor sets, kitchen/cooking set, etc.), adaptive and manipulative fine motor (blocks, shape- and colour-matching, puzzles, etc.), art-based (clay/dough, drawing and colouring tools, etc.), language- and concept-developing (scrabble, card and board games, toy letters, etc.), and gross motor-stimulating toys (large toy cars, scooters, tricycles, etc.) (Healey et al., 2019). However, limiting toy-play, for instance, based upon gender, which is often driven by socio-cultural stereotypes, may restrict realization of the full potential of toys for child development (Weisgram, 2019). Conversely, discouraging gendered segregation of toys and promoting unbiased toy-play has potential to restrict such biases from early stages of an individual’s development (Wang et al., 2023). Hence, it is important to revisit the factors pertaining to, and the consequences of binary gendered toy-play (section 3).

Another promising area of toy research is their utilities in aiding the development of neuro-divergent groups of children, such as those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism. Hence, given the overall developmental impacts on both neuro-typical and neuro-divergent children (section 4); and counteracting gender-prejudices, it is imperative to explore suitable toy-types for children/adolescents. In this regard, a fascinating facet of toy-play research which awaits detailed scientific assessment are traditional Indian toys (and principles of toy-play) which can be effective alternatives for play. Indeed, ancient Indian literature specifies principles of toy-design and toy-play with relevances for different aspects of socio-behavioural, cognitive, and emotional development of children/adolescents, many of which are in line with modern scientific concepts (section 5).

Methodology

To appropriately discuss the key aspects of toy-play outlined above, we followed a tri-fold approach; first to illustrate the factors associated with, and the complications caused by gendered segregation of toys (section 3). Next, we delineate the implications of toys as tools for psycho-social, emotional and sensorimotor development of children/adolescents, with a particular focus on neuro-divergent children (section 4). Finally, we discuss the principles of traditional Indian toy-play (section 5).

Pertinent literature for this narrative review was searched on scholarly databases: PubMed (Medline), Google Scholar and EMBASE. A variety of keywords such as ‘toys’, ‘gender-labels’, ‘child development’, ‘traditional Indian toys’, etc., were used alone and/or in combination. There were no restrictions on the year of publication. Initial retrieval of literature was performed by authors, ASN, LP and PB. Further examinations of the full-text for pertinence were performed by SH and FA. Citations in retrieved literary works as well as articles citing them were checked for relevant information by PB, DMM, SH and FA, and these were included in the list of retrieved articles wherever necessary. All authors were involved in the writing and editing of the manusript.

Binary gendered toys

Traditionally, binary gender-classification of toys has been quite prevalent amongst several societies (Table 1). Toys designed for male children have included construction/transportation models, action figurines, and weapons which portray competition and dominance, the perceived masculine traits. Conversely, toys meant for girls included dolls, beauty and domestic-themed toys that facilitate home-making skills, nurturance and grooming, qualities often alleged to be associated with women (Fine & Rush, 2018). In recent years, there has been a huge debate regarding the relevance of binary gendered division of toys. Societal stereotypes portray males and females based on characteristic traditional norms and have often driven the gender appropriateness of toy-play (Owen & Padron, 2015). Gender differences may be accepted in specific setups, such as schools (Krüger, 2008); however, gendered categorization of toys limits experience-dependent learning in children, further contributing to gender stereotypes (Yao, 2022). Below, we critically analyse the factors contributing to gender-preferences in children’s/adolescents’ toys, with references to their roles in creating unique, but narrowed self-perceptions. We also detail the detrimental effects on child development associated with such binary gender-categorization of toy-play.

Table 1. Binary gendered toys and their impacts on development.

Toys	Perceived binary categorization	Positive impacts
Vehicles (cars, trucks, trains, etc.)	Boys	Improve balance and coordination, enhance fine motor skills, dexterity, and hand-to-eye coordination
Construction toys (blocks and building sets)	Boys	Stimulate spatial perception, cooperation, building from templates, and memory
Guns and action figures	Boys	Induce self-regulation, regulate aggression and emotional outbursts, prepare for real-life violent impulses
Barbies and dolls	Girls	Develop social and emotional skills like empathy, cooperation, fine motor and self-help skills
Kitchen set	Girls	Develop fine motor skills, visual recognition, planning and organization, and numeracy
Stuffed toys (teddy bears)	Girls	Developing and maintaining sleep habits, language skills, creativity, and imagination

Factors underlying perceived gendered toy-preferences

Preferences for toys may be evaluated in multiple ways, including stated preferences of toys children want to own and play with, observing their actual play behaviour and visual attention. Such direct measurement of visual preferences are considerably helpful (Davis & Hines, 2020). It has been suggested that children prefer toys conventionally stereotyped for their gender over those ‘designed’ for the other gender (Martin et al., 1995). However, such preferences may be tremendously influenced by the parental perceptions (Boe & Woods, 2018; Eisen et al., 2021). Parents’ decision regarding basic variables, such as the choice of dress colour (e.g. pink vs. blue), toy-type or decoration of the room/play-area are largely in accordance with the existing socio-cultural perspectives (Morawska, 2020). Such stereotypical parental expectations about masculine and feminine characteristics may drive initiation of gender-biases in children/adolescents, including presumed gender-preferences of toys (Endendijk et al., 2019).

Interestingly, irrespective of their gender, 12 months old children prefer doll-like figurines over more mechanical toys like cars (Jadva et al., 2010). Perceived gendered preferences for toys may initiate only during the second year of life (Litfin et al., 2017), and consolidate with age. Toy-preferences and their gender-appropriateness amongst children are influenced by perceptual expectations created by explicit binary gender-labels and peer interaction/pressure (Pike & Jennings, 2005). Thus, the urge to own gendered-distinct toys may also be reliant on the popularity of toy-types amongst their gender-matched peers/playmates (Auster & Mansbach, 2012). Children tend to socialize themselves into gendered categories, and cultural gender stereotypes may give kids normative knowledge about what each sex should appear, behave, and think like (Murnen, 2018). Preferences of children to play with same-gender peers itself are based upon societal/parental binary gender stereotypes (Wang et al., 2023). Additionally, television, books, and explicit gender-labelling of objects/activities may strengthen such stereotypes in children/adolescents (Kahlenberg & Hein, 2010). Interestingly, socially transitioned transgender children/adolescents who express gender identities which are contrasting with their natal sex, may elicit gender-preferences similar to their gender-typical, gender-matched peers and siblings (Fast & Olson, 2018). However, unlike gender-typical counterparts, they are more likely to tolerate gender non-conformity in others and believe that preferences can vary in the same gender individuals. It is therefore, difficult to ascertain if preference for a toy is because of the qualities (including gender-label) of the toy per se, or because of the urge to comply with the same-gender peer interaction.

Implications of binary gender-categorization of toy-play

While binary categorization and labelling of toys influence play behaviour of children, gender-labels themselves can sometimes be subtle. This is observed in puzzle- and maths-related play, and when children construct structures/models (Blakemore & Centers, 2005). These toy-based activities test spatial and critical reasoning skills in relation to factors such as shapes, dimensions, and orientation of toy pieces. Male children are expected to engage in this type of activity, erroneously leading to the notion that they tend to be better at analytical skills as they grow older (White, 2022). Conversely, females are thought to be more fascinated by concepts that are advantageous for them in developing home-making and nurturance skills (Fine, 2015). There are issues with such perceived gender-based preferences. First, many of building toys are likely to fall under the category of unisexual (or moderately masculine, at best) (Blakemore & Centers, 2005). Second, apart from the discrepancies in gender-labelling of toys, paradigms of measuring toy-preferences vary considerably (Davis & Hines, 2020), giving misrepresentations of perceived binary preferences. Third and most important, gendered toys can induce differential development of cognitive and social abilities (Miller, 1987). Gendered-stereotyping is extremely precarious as it results in limiting the maturation of cognitive and judgemental abilities in children/adolescents during the crucial stages of their development (Wang et al., 2023; Weisgram, 2019). Eventually, gender-based prejudices and biases and unequal provision of opportunities during child development contribute to gender-specific under-utilization in many occupations, such as in engineering fields (Shoaib & Cardella, 2020). Subtle gender-based messages encoded in gendered toys and toy-play and their ability to differentially affect cognitive, behavioural and psychological development as well as their detrimental consequences in children have been discussed in detail by Dinella and Weisgram (2018). Even with the evolution of toys to match technological and cultural developments, their availability, especially to young children is largely dependent on parents and educators (Xhambazi et al., 2022). Hence, they must comprehend that limiting children’s access to certain toy-types could culminate in deterrence of exploring and learning key skills, severely limiting their social, cognitive and emotional development (Kane, 2012; Ramdaeni et al., 2019).

Unisexual (gender-neutral) toys carry significant advantages for amplifying individuals’ concept of self-identity beyond the binary gendered-structure. They encourage free-form play, allowing children/adolescents to explore and experiment, and make errors and learn from them. This will eventually aid in opening up occupational avenues, previously restricted to specific genders. Labelling toys as unisexual and perceptually salient (ambiguous) is the way forward for removing gender-prejudices in children/adolescents from a very early developmental stage (Cherney & Dempsey, 2010). Indeed, removal of gender colour-coding (Yeung & Wong, 2018), and marketing of toys as unisexual educational objects should be promoted (Yao, 2022).

Toys in child/adolescent development

It has been observed that children engaging in more play-related activities tend to be better liked by peers, show enhanced social skills, and have superior academic achievements (Olčar, 2013). Toy-play, in particular, has been implicated to stimulate multiple facets of cognitive development and learning in children (Guyton, 2011). However, the choice of toys is of critical importance and should address the key issues of enrichments of creativity, problem-solving, social relationships and language (Healey et al., 2019). For example, ‘educational’ toys for stimulating learning are designed to promote overall cognition and academic performances in children. These toys and the intended educational activity may also be useful for children’s social/interactive skills (DeCortin, 2015). Toy-play requiring problem-solving such as abacus, blocks and puzzles influence the development of fine motor dexterity, in addition to refinement of the spatial and mathematical skills (Yazgin, 2021). Other toys ‘educate’ children on critical aspects of day-to-day life, including personal hygiene (Kostkova et al., 2010), garbage-sorting and disposal (You et al., 2023), preparing them for potentially painful/stressful medical procedures such as venipuncture/injection (da Silva et al., 2016), and self-management of chronic diseases such as diabetes (Rewolinski et al., 2021). In the subsequent subsections, we outline some of the key aspects of toy-play associated with child development.

Color and shape perception

Comprehension of colour and geometric shape are two basic aspects of toys which are relevant for children. Human trichromatic colour vision begins to develop around 2–3 months of age. Hence, infant perception of colour must be kept in mind while designing rattles and teethers (Maule et al., 2023). Children are exposed to a variety of vibrant colours in their daily lives through toys, which may convey certain meanings and associations (Hotwani & Sharma, 2017). Colour patterns on toys also allow emotional development because of their strong association with emotions and reasoning (Karmakar et al., 2019). Hence, it is reasonable to assume that with diverse circumstances and scenarios reflecting various emotions, thoughts and behaviours, colour seems to be context appropriate with regard to toy-play (Pope et al., 2012).

Geometrical design of toys impacts their commercial value and has formidable effects on children’s neurodevelopment. Research indicates that definition-based categories of geometrical shapes can be created at the ages of 4 and 5 when supervised toy-play allows for the identification of those defining qualities (Verdine et al., 2014). Hence, children must be exposed to different categories of geometric shapes before formal school for their initial opportunity to engage in geometric and spatial perception. Exposure to toys of varied shapes is a useful strategy to develop spatial skills and increase ability for mental manipulation of spatial information (Verdine et al., 2014). Indeed, description of the various spatial features of toys is particularly crucial in bolstering children’s knowledge about shapes (Verdine et al., 2019), which enhances spatial perception, reasoning and ability (Yazgin, 2021). Additionally, playing with appropriately shaped toys also aids in basic perception of mathematical concepts of measurement and symmetry (Resnick et al., 2016).

Toys as tools for socio-behavioural development

Toys affect children’s multilateral development and their abilities to react to diverse situations. Scott and Cogburn have recently proposed the crucial impact of toys and play in general, on children of multiple developmental stages and age-groups in the initiation and refinement of almost all neurobiological processes, including social, emotional, language, cognitive and sensorimotor attributes (Scott & Cogburn, 2023). When played alone, they enhance their attention span. Maximal impact of toys on child/adolescent development, however, is seen in social play. In a play group, children/adolescents learn to interact and adapt to the needs of their peers (Yazgin, 2021). In particular, pretend-play is known to be a significant enhancer of children’s behavioural development (Weisberg, 2015). Interestingly, children may spend 90% of time playing with toys, pretending and creating their tales and dialogues (Sutton‐Smith, 1992). Indeed, functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) analyses in children aged 4–8 years showed that social (e.g. with playmates or pretend-play with dolls), as opposed to solo play robustly activated brain regions involved in social signal processing, such as prefrontal areas of the superior temporal sulcus (Hashmi et al., 2020), indicating the importance of such play in the development of socio-emotional skills such as internal state language and empathy (Hashmi et al., 2022). Moreover, social play may also specifically discourage behaviours such as hyperactivity, stubbornness, use of inappropriate language, apathy and anger (Knell, 2015). The impact of play in social and psychological development can be aptly illustrated by the findings of a direct link between the decrease in free playtime and the rise in mental health concerns and psychopathy in children/adolescents, as social characteristics such as empathy, emotions, and the ability to manage relationships are critically influenced by free playtime (Gray, 2011).

Toys for aiding development of neuro-divergent children

Play is a natural and important part of every child’s development and can be used to improve motor skills, cognitive abilities, and socio-emotional functioning, particularly in children with physical, cognitive, and emotional needs. Toy-play creates a safe and supportive environment, allowing children to express their emotional issues related to trauma, anxiety, and other mental health concerns. Specific toys must be chosen for children with disabilities and with medical conditions for maximal beneficial effects (Rasmussen et al., 2023).

One of the most significant groups which have been envisioned as beneficiaries of toy and toy-play-based outcome improvements are neuro-divergent children/adolescents. To emphasize this aspect of toy-research, we have chosen two of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental conditions; ADHD and autism. ADHD is characterized by inattentiveness, aberrant hyperactivity and impulsiveness. Children with ADHD elicit difficulty in maintaining attentiveness and focus-levels, and resisting impulses, leading to aberrantly high motor activity levels. The symptoms may persist into adulthood and may be associated with increased risk of psychiatric, social, behavioural and emotional issues (Luo et al., 2019). The main brain regions with differential functions in ADHD are prefrontal cortices, basal ganglia and corpus callosum. In addition, morpho-functional distinctiveness in caudate nuclei and cerebellum is also observed in ADHD children (Bruchhage et al., 2018). MRI data indicate considerable alterations in neuroanatomical features of cortical volume, thickness, gyrification and surface area, resulting in remodelled neuronal activation profiles (Albajara Sáenz et al., 2019). Such structural/functional distinctiveness results in the divergent behavioural attributes of ADHD children. Moreover, children with ADHD may elicit significant differences in toy-preferences and type of play when compared to their neuro-typical counterparts (Pfeifer et al., 2011).

Can toy-play positively affect developmental trajectories of ADHD children? There is evidence that toy-play, and play in general, aids the development of cognitive and behavioural parameters such as self-concept and self-efficacy, and regulates intrusive, oppositional, and depression- and anxiety-like behaviour in ADHD children (Hashemi et al., 2018; O’Neill et al., 2012; Robinson et al., 2017). In particular, pretend (Smirnova & Nieves-Rosa, 2018) and social (Hansen et al., 2000) play may be instrumental in stimulating social and behavioural attributes in ADHD children. Play with toys such as sandboxes, soft balls, construction toys and dress-up clothes may help in developing social skills in children with ADHD (Wilkes et al., 2011). Playful learning tools such as Rubik’s cubes, shape-shifting boxes, magnetic balls, watch rings, sensory bubble toys and reward-based toy-play are also preferred for ADHD children with respect to the development of their concentration and focusing skills, and regulation of their impulsivity and hyperactivity (Barzegary & Zamini, 2011; Fibert & Relton, 2020). In an interesting study, chess was proposed as a potentially viable option as part of a multimodal strategy for positively affecting the development of ADHD children aged between 6 and 17 years (Blasco-Fontecilla et al., 2016).

In recent years, fidget spinners (toys consisting of a ball bearing in the centre of a multi-lobed flat structure) have been advertised and marketed as tools for improving attention and motor functions. In adults with ADHD, these have elicited partial stimulatory effects, mainly with regard to fine motor functions and less cognitively-demanding tasks (Koiler et al., 2022). Fidget spinners have also been used as a classroom intervention to stimulate attention, and repress gross motor activity in primary school students with ADHD, however, with less promising results (Aspiranti & Hulac, 2022; Graziano et al., 2020). In fact, in spite of their popularity, the favourable impact of toys such as fidget spinners, bouncy bands and sensory putty remains scientifically unfounded (Driesen et al., 2023; Schecter et al., 2017). Other researchers have proposed design of more effective toys capable of enhancing sensory integration in ADHD children (Fekete & Lucero, 2020). One such study proposed designs of a children’s scooter which allows them to squat and balance on the scooter, aiding in the development of their spatial, proprioceptive and vestibular perception, while also increasing focus and concentration abilities. The entire design of the balance scooter was constructed in a manner that allows ADHD children to achieve comprehensive training of the sensory integration systems (Wu & Ding, 2022). Recently, an e-jigsaw puzzle-based toy was proposed as a tool to stimulate sensorimotor abilities and attention in ADHD children (Lai et al., 2023). Lastly, like neuro-typical children, toy-play settings must also be considered as a key factor for ADHD children/adolescents. Indeed, open green spaces have been evidenced to increase the potency of toys in aiding the development of children with ADHD (Faber Taylor & Kuo, 2011).

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a collection of neurodevelopmental conditions with a heterogeneous aetiology, characterized by differential social, communicative and other behavioural and sensorimotor attributes (Lord et al., 2018). Multiple brain systems in ASD children show altered morpho-functional profiles, including fronto-temporal, parietal, striatal and thalamic networks, particularly amygdala and superior temporal sulcus (Sato & Uono, 2019). ASD children elicit limited activities, atypical social engagement and communication skills, talking and learning issues, and repetitive stereotypical behaviour. They are generally less likely to both initiate and respond to attention, which might affect their quality of social play, and eventually the type of social interactions they form. Atypical toy-playing abilities may also be significantly related to the language issues in ASD children (Toth et al., 2006). Further, it has been suggested that divergent self-understanding attributes of ASD children may contribute to their lowered valuation and urge for ownership of toys (Hartley & Fisher, 2018). Preferences of toy-type and playtime and play-frequency varies amongst children with ASD and neuro-typical children, and may be dependent on gender of the subjects (Harrop et al., 2017, 2020). While female autistic children may not differ from neuro-typical girls in the choice of feminine toys, autistic boys elicit lesser gendered preferences for toys compared to neuro-typical male counterparts (Hull et al., 2022). Moreover, symbolic pretend-play is significantly repressed in ASD children, possibly due to their atypical exploratory and social interaction skills (Kang et al., 2016; Westby, 2022). Interestingly, time and type of play with prototype smart toys have been proposed as efficient diagnostic criteria for autism-related behaviour in children (Bondioli et al., 2020; Lanini et al., 2019). Eye-tracking during toy-play, focusing on gaze patterns and recognition of facial emotion may also serve as cognitive and social assessment strategies for children (Chien et al., 2023; Greene et al., 2021); however, this may not always be reliable (Yurkovic et al., 2021).

Is there any evidence that toy-play helps in the development of autistic children? Play as a physical and mental intervention has long been proposed to aid in the maturation of individualistic psycho-social functions in children with autism (Elbeltagi et al., 2023). Choice of toys seems to be critical for this as electronic toys have been evidenced to limit communicative skills of both neuro-typical and ASD children; while traditional toys have better stimulatory effects (Venker & Johnson, 2022). Contrarily, it has been suggested that playtime with digital toys with a ‘tangible user interface (TUI)’ enhances social behaviour in both neuro-typical and ASD children (Francis et al., 2019). Al Mahmud and Soysa have also proposed the utilities of TUIs in aiding the development of children with ASD (Al Mahmud & Soysa, 2020; Soysa & Al Mahmud, 2020).

Pretend-play has been found to have significant advantages for multiple domains of behaviour and cognition, including learning and memory, sensorimotor and fear perception, and aggression and social interaction in ASD children (Caliendo et al., 2021). Indeed, Chen et al. have argued that pretend-play in ASD children may inculcate playfulness and therefore have positive impacts on their social skill development (Chen et al., 2019). Pretend-play is also thought to be associated with positive effects on language development of autistic children (Murdock & Hobbs, 2011). Toy-play and play in general also aids in constructing a productive relationship between autistic children and their therapists (Josefi & Ryan, 2004) and siblings (Glugatch & Machalicek, 2021), thereby allowing maturation of independence, social responsiveness and empathy. Further, encouraging cooperative teamwork for in-game awards motivates children with ASD and may foster higher levels of social engagement and interaction. Cooperative playtime with suitably designed toys has added benefits over conventional toys for improving social and cognitive skills in these children (Tseng et al., 2016). In recent years, Baldassarre’s group has been actively involved in designing soft interactive toys (section 6), and evaluating and refining their utilities for stimulating social skills of autistic children/adolescents (Özcan et al., 2016, 2021, 2022). Similarly, robot-like toys have been shown to refine gestural recognition, comprehension and production in Chinese children with autism (So et al., 2018). Indeed, mechatronic and robotic toys have been increasingly receiving attention of scientists and clinicians because of their positive effects on behavioural performances of autistic children (Mikołajewski et al., 2017).

Traditional Indian toys as alternative for child/adolescent play

Toy production in India dates back to the 5000-year-old civilizations of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Archaeologists have found a sizable collection of toys which includes sophisticated toys like clay ox carts, whistles, rattles and dice (Davis, 1936). Interestingly, to this day, rural Indian roads still use actual versions of toy carts which were designed for pretend-play to transport goods without damage. This appears to a common theme of ancient Indian toys which serve as representative models for better comprehension and application of physical phenomena such as gravity, motion, centrifugal forces, equilibrium, levers and energy transformation, sound and optical illusion (S. C. Yadav, 2020).

Based upon the intended purpose, traditional Indian toys can be classified into seven broad categories; play, decorative, educational, therapeutic, ritualistic, political toys and toys for sexual pleasure (Bhattacharya, 2012). Toys as inseparable childhood tools for amusement, emotional satiation and learning have been extensively explored and described in Indian culture (Khanna, 1987). Importance of both static and dynamic toys has been recognized for realistic and creative child development (Khunyakari, 2023). This is evident in Ayurvedic principles, which is a comprehensive set of ancient system for the promotion of wellness (Rao, 2002). One of Ayurveda’s fundamental concepts is the ‘tridosha’ subsystem, which covers multiple aspects of physiological control (Hankey, 2005), and is heavily utilized in the process of designing toys. This is illustrated in Astanga Samgraha, an authentic ancient text on the Ayurvedic medicine, which proposes the importance of play and toys for children and adolescents. It exploits the natural attractiveness of vivid colours, and particular shapes and sound in the design of toys for children for emotional satisfaction, happiness and overall development. Indeed, traditional Indian toys have been tools for acceleration of various aspects of neurological development of children and adolescents (Yadav et al., 2017).

The specific branch of Ayurveda dealing with the characteristics of an ideal toy and play is known as Kridanaka. An ideal toy is described as one which imparts a skill or concept, and must have a powerful influence on children’s thinking and interaction with peers, as well as help enhance creative expression. The relevances of toy-play for children’s growth and stimulation with the aid of age-appropriate toy choices is emphasized in Indian culture (Pingle, 1985). For example, traditional toys such as the ‘jhumers’ (Figure 2), rattles, dolls and puppets have been used to stimulate visual, auditory and somatosensory perception during the ‘critical periods’ of brain development in infants. In toddlers, toys such as walkers (Figure 3), figurines, rocking horses and wooden blocks aid in motor, language and cognitive skill development (Khanna, 1981). During this age, children also start appreciating colours, and colourful toys not only provide aesthetic pleasure but are also important for developing colour perception and associations (section 3 (Bhattacharya, 2012)). Further, development of sensorimotor, behavioural, social and attention-executive functions in adolescents are facilitated by traditional toys such as table games such as Pachisi, Ludo, snake and ladder, chess, cycles, and paper crafts (Yadav et al., 2017). Table 2 summarizes age-appropriate aspects of different traditional Indian toys on various facets of child/adolescent development.

Figure 2. Traditional ‘Jhankpakhi/Jhumer’.

Made of cloth and/or wood, ‘jhumer’ stimulates visual perception and attention in infants to stimulate (Source: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/puppets-t-lights-jhoomar-2849624023291.html).

Figure 3. Traditional Indian walker.

Traditional Indian baby walker is a proprioceptive toy aiding in the development of limb coordination (Source: https://natkhatduniya.in/traditional-indian-baby-walker/, 11/08/2021).

Table 2. Traditional Indian toys and their developmental impacts.

Age	Toy-type	Impact
Infants (≤1 year)	Rattles, stuffed dolls, wooden blocks	Visual, auditory and sensorimotor
Toddlers (1-5 years)	Figurines, push and pull-toys, rocking horses, model vehicles	Physical phenomena understanding, sensorimotor and fine motor skill, proprioceptive, visual and auditory perception, visuomotor coordination
School-goers and Adolescents (5-19 years)	Gardening toys, kitchen models, blocks, board games	Self-control and emotional development, social skills, attention and execution, competitiveness, real-life understanding, craftsmanship, and problem solving abilities

Kridanaka also proposed the use of non-toxic, safe and natural materials for toy making. In the current perspective, use of such material provides employment for local artisans and may also serve as alternatives to plastic-based non-degradable educational toys (Das & Kalita, 2023). Of note, the materials used to construct these toys have been frequently infused with elements of India’s rich history and tradition, making them much more than simple playthings (Aggarwal et al., 2013). Toys made of bamboo, cloth, clay and wood, for instance, have depicted folktales and tales of legendary figures, suggesting their connections to and usefulness in comprehending religion, history, art, and education. Ancient Indian texts also give emphases on other aspects of toy-design; varying the shapes, sizes and colours (vichitrani), and making them appealing, lightweight and safe (atikshnani) (Sharma, 2018). Thus, wheat flour paste (apranaharani) has been proposed as a safe, ingestible toy-material for infants and toddlers. Moreover, it has been prescribed that the colour of toys must be prepared from leaves, flowers, fruits and other natural objects. Toys for infants should be safe, large, pleasant, and made of vibrant colours and without sharp edges. This is consistent with the opinion of healthy, comfortable and risk-free toy-play for children being a duty mandated on parents, elder siblings and paediatricians (Cetin Dag, 2021).

Ayurvedic principles dictate that play space features are an extensive criterion of healthy play, and the concept of Kridhabhumi (derived from ‘Kridha’ or play and ‘Bhumi’ referring to area) is heavily emphasized (Kanzode et al., 2016). There are a number of requirements that must be met in the Kridhabhumi, in order for appropriate development of a child. Recent research concurs with the associativity of nature-based play environment and healthy development of children (Herrington & Brussoni, 2015). Lastly, traditional Indian toys such as hand-crafted Bhatukali toys may be relevant in preventing binary-gendered segregation of toys (section 2), and in promoting open-ended free play for a multidirectional emotional, social and cognitive development in children (Enroute Indian History, 2023).

Future prospects and conclusions

Toys have evolved over the years from being just models of natural objects to intricate tools that help in the overall sensorimotor, social and cognitive skills development. It is expected that future toys will be even more complex and create immersive and interactive play experiences through utilization of the concepts of augmented reality and IoT (Druga et al., 2018). In fact, the transition has already begun. Next-generation ‘educational magic toys’ and virtual objects have been successfully implemented in learning schemes and ensure concomitant learning and play, contributing immensely to the overall development of children/adolescents (Yilmaz, 2016). ‘Smart’ toys which feature digital additions such as wireless-networked sensors or software for added benefits provide a more interactive interface compared to traditional toys, and may better aid in the development of children’s attributes of story-telling, problem-solving, collaboration, empathy, and spatial, computational, symbolic, and emotional thinking (Komis et al., 2021). These also provide rich learning environment and stimulate early childhood education by increasing the retention ability of children and inculcating higher-order thinking skills (Kara & Cagiltay, 2020). While some electronic toys with passive and limited pre-fed dialogues for responses to queries may compromise development of communicative/language skills in children (Steeves, 2020), others with the ability to record children’s movements and voices, may serve as useful tool to stimulate children’s narrative memories, communication skills, creativity and imagination (Cassell & Ryokai, 2001).

‘Augmented’ toys which employ computer-generated visuals to depict physical scenarios provide unique opportunities for interactive engagement (Keymolen & Van der Hof, 2019). Another interesting concept is the ‘internet of toys’ which features toys connected to each other and to a database via the internet (Holloway & Green, 2016). The basic advantage of these internet-associated toys is that they can be used for translation of multiple activities into computer-readable data through datafication. Further, these intelligent smart toys can be adapted using data analytics and machine learning software, which can modify their ‘behaviour’ in response to changes in the surroundings and the users (Druga et al., 2018). In conclusion, next-generation toys have the potential to revolutionize education during childhood/adolescence by stimulating children’s/adolescents’ natural abilities of problem-solving, creativity and exploration (Kewalramani et al., 2020). However, significant disadvantages associated with such next-generation toys must also be addressed. These include cost, ethical and privacy issues (de P Albuquerque et al., 2020), infrastructural challenges (Arnott et al., 2019), lack of outdoor activity and actual conventional social interactions among peers, siblings and parents (Brito et al., 2018).

Another relevant prediction for the future of toys is that due to the rampant issues of climate changes and environmental pollution, there will be increased production of sustainable, plastic-free toys (Saini et al., 2023). In this regard, we re-emphasizes the appropriateness of traditional toys as effective, safe and environment-friendly alternatives to modern plastic and electronic educational toys (Dostál, 2015). Further, toy-design and play strategies in future are expected to include sensory features and adaptable designs that cater to all children, including those with disabilities and slowed sensory and motor development (Bonarini & Jansens, 2020; Khalid & Ali, 2022). Such therapeutic toys/tools based on the principles of traditional Indian play have been conceptualized as learning aids for children with visual, auditory, speech, and motor issues, as well as those with neurodevelopmental conditions of ADHD and autism (Radhakrishna et al., 2012; Venkatesan, 2020).

In conclusion, toys play an important role in a child’s early and late development, with their impacts extending into adolescence. Toys allow participation in imaginative, exploratory and creative play, strengthen their fine and gross sensorimotor abilities, and enhance their communication, attention/organizational, social, emotional and problem-solving skills. Full exploitation of free toy-play for these purposes can, however, only be perceived from a gender-neutral perspective. Further, toy-play is also relevant for aiding the neurodevelopmental processes in neuro-divergent children. The current review is devised in order to serve as a platform for more inclusive studies and analyses, taking into account the inherent differences and diversity in children/adolescents, by researchers, teachers, toy-manufacturers and medical professionals for evaluating, implementing and refining/improving toys as tools for the overall benefit of children and young adolescents.

Acknowledgments

The authors, PB and FA, thank Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore for providing ‘VIT SEED Grant – RGEMS Fund (Sanction Order No. SG202301354)’ for carrying out this research work. The authors extend their appreciation to the Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia for funding this research work through the Project Number ISP23-101. The author FA wishes to especially mention his 6-year-old son, Umar Hamdaan, whose unwavering desires for converting all accessible objects into toys were indispensable and a constant source of inspiration and stimulation for completion of this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The authors, PB, and FA, thank Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore for providing ‘VIT SEED Grant –RGEMS Fund (Sanction Order No. SG202301354)’ for carrying out this research work. The authors, DMM and SH thank Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education, Saudi Arabia - Project Number: ISP23-101.