The constraints of public diplomacy: Don Alonso de Cárdenas in London, 1638–1655

ABSTRACT

This article analyses how Don Alonso de Cárdenas, the Spanish crown’s chief representative in London from 1638 until 1655, engaged in public diplomacy and print during the English Civil Wars and Interregnum. It demonstrates that in almost all instances, the numerous printed works associated with the ambassador during the period examined were the products of a press culture driven by conflicts between Royalist and Parliamentarian factions. Rather than actively engaging in printing to promote his embassy and goals, Cárdenas strived to use more conventional forms of public diplomacy, making oblique use of printed media on but a few occasions. This article concludes that he was constrained on both fronts by the local political situation, English sensitivities concerning Spain, and a hostile, competitive press community. It sheds light on some essential preconditions for a successful and active early modern public diplomacy.

KEYWORDS:

• Public diplomacy
• Alonso de Cárdenas
• English Civil Wars
• English Interregnum
• print culture
• New Diplomatic History

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. Helmers, “Public Diplomacy in Early Modern Europe”.

2. Peacey, “Print, publicity, and popularity”.

3. Loomie, “Alonso de Cárdenas”; Loomie, “New Light”; Loomie, “London’s Spanish Chapel”.

4. Based on my research into the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts, which consists of over 22,000 items primarily printed and circulated in London that have been made available and keyword searchable via Early English Books Online: https://eebo.chadwyck.com (accessed 2018–2019).

5. See Ruiz Fernández, England and Spain; Baker-Bates, and Malcom, “Sir Richard Fanshawe”; Longstaffe-Gowan, “‘Fashioning’ Sir Arthur Hopton”.

6. Cárdenas’s manuscript, with its political analysis of the state of affairs in England following the execution of Charles I, features in several studies concerning Anglo-Spanish relationships and the reception of revolutionary Republicanism. See, among others, Cárdenas, La Revolución Inglesa (1638–1656); Alloza Aparicio, and Villani, “Lecturas contemporáneas,” 449–51; Alloza Aparicio, La diplomacia canibal; Ballester Rodríguez, “Los ecos de un regicidio”.

7. Finet, The Notebooks of John Finet.

8. The Arrivall.

9. The controversial French princess Marie de Rohan-Montbazon was conveyed in secret from Madrid to London, among others, see Secretary Windebank to Sir John Pennington, 24 November 1637: Kew, The National Archives (hereafter NA), State Papers Domestic (hereafter SP) 16/372, fol. 49. Observers such as the Venetian ambassador, Giovanni Giustinian, noted that she was “the openly avowed author of the present operations of the Spaniards at this Court,” but her activities in England have largely gone unexamined by scholars. See Giustinian to the Senate and Doge, 17 February 1640, Calendar of State Papers Relating to English Affairs in the Archives of Venice (hereafter CoSP-V), vol. 25, letter no. 28.

10. Finet, The Notebooks of John Finet, 246–8; Ambassador to Spain Aston to Windebank, 28 February 1637–38, no. 1049: “Cardenas is to go to England como gentilhombre […] there existing in Spain four degrees of foreign ministers in lieu of the two English degrees of Agent and Ambassador, viz. Secretary, Agent, Resident, Gentilhombre,” Calendar of the Clarendon State Papers, vol. 1.

11. For more on Anglo-Spanish relations throughout the period, see Alloza Aparicio, Diplomacia caníbal.

12. Finet, The Notebooks of John Finet, 250. The master of ceremonies gives the date as 13 May.

13. Amerigo Salvetti to the Secretary, 11 June 1638: British Library, ADD.MS.27962, H.1, fols. 150v-153r.

14. Among others, see: Windebank to Ambassador to Spain Hopton, 14 December 1638, no. 1156; Windebank to Hopton, 27 December 1638, no. 1161; Windebank to Hopton, 8 May 1639, no. 1236; and “The Submission of Don Alonso de Cardenas, disavowing that he had any authority from his Majesty to justify him in writing to the Marquis de Castenada, that His Majesty approved of the treaty for restitution of the Palatinate being remitted to Brussels,” s.d., no. 1284, in Calendar of the Clarendon State Papers, vol. 1. Regarding these conferences and the role of Thomas Roe, see Beller, “The mission of Sir Thomas Roe”.

15. “… fuegos y luminarias, trompetas y diversas fuentes de dulces,” see the entry dated 30 June 1638 in Cardenas, “Relacion Jurada que yo Don Alonso de Cardenas doy a Su Mg^d,” 25 October 1666: Simancas, Archivo General de Simancas (hereafter AGS), Estado, Legajo 2532, no. 197.

16. Zonca to the Doge and Senate, 9 July 1638: CoSP-V, vol. 24, letter no. 472.

17. Calculated using the National Archives “Currency converter: 1270–2017” at https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk (accessed February 1, 2020).

18. Stadhouder Frederik Henry and the States General were represented throughout the marriage negotiations by Johan Polyander van der Kerkhoven, Lord of Heenvliet, Frederik Henry’s brother-in-law John Wolfert van Brederode, and Francis van Aerssens, Lord of Sommelsdijk. Support was provided by the Dutch resident, Albert Joachimi. For more details, see Poot, Crucial Years, 167–71, and Finet, The Notebooks of John Finet, 295–9 and 301.

19. Don Alonso Sancho Dávila y Toledo, Marquis of Velada, and Marquis Virgilio Malvezzi. For more on this mission see Elliot, “The Year of the Three Ambassadors”.

20. For a thorough analysis of the relationship between England and the Netherlands during the latter’s rebellion, see Dunthorne, Britain and the Dutch Revolt.

21. See Finet, The Notebooks of John Finet, 283–5 for the entry, 285–6 for the audience with the king, and 291 for the audience with the queen.

22. Alloza Aparicio’s cites Relación de la Grandiosa presa, but I have not yet examined this work. I have yet to uncover any English record indicating that he had a grand entrance or entertainment at the government’s expense. See Alloza Aparicio, Diplomacia Caníbal, 95–6.

23. Oliver Fleming, “Titles of sovereign kingdomes & how to treat their ambassadors,” April 1649: NA, SP 18/1, fols. 134r–144v. For the Dutch embassy of 1651–52, see Lodewijck Huygens, in The English Journal, edited and translated by Bachrach, and Collmer, 37–44.

24. Severall Proceedings in Parliament, December 19–26, 1650, no. 65.

25. Weekly Intelligencer of the Commonwealth, December 24–31, 1650; Severall Proceedings in Parliament, December 19–26, 1650, no. 65; Severall Proceedings in Parliament, December 26–2 January 1650, no. 66; Mercurius Politicus, December 19–26, 1650, no. 29.

26. Weekly Intelligencer of the Commonwealth, December 24–31, 1650.

27. Morison, The English Newspaper, 1622–1932, 29–30.

28. For Nedham’s early career, see among others, Peacey, “The Struggle for Mercurius Britanicus”. Richard Collings, putative editor of the Weekly Intelligencer of the Commonwealth, is a more nebulous figure. See Raymond, The Invention of the Newspaper, 27–8, and in particular footnotes 31 and 35, respectively.

29. For more on the Evan Tyler press, see Spurlock, “Cromwell’s Edinburgh Press”.

30. The Thomason Tracts contains just two English periodicals from 1640. However, this is unsurprising considering the number of publications lost to time. See Hill, Lost Books, 3.

31. La Gazette, no. 22, 99–100, entry “De Londres, le 23 Janvier 1640”.

32. Soloman, Public Welfare, Science and Propaganda, 124.

33. Regarding the Spanish and the Scottish Rebellion, see Alloza Aparicio, Diplomacia caníbal, 24–9.

34. Giustinian to the Doge and Senate, 18 May 1640: CoSP-V, vol. 25, letter no. 67.

35. Giustinian to the Doge and Senate, 25 May 1640: CoSP-V, vol. 25, letter no. 69.

36. “Les billets qu’on seme en cette ville augmétent les soupcons: ils en veulent à ceux qu’ils disent estre de la faction Espagnole, les maisons & deportements desquels le peuple observe particulierement & outre le garde qu’on faite par tout la ville,” see: La Gazette, no. 82, p. 436, entry “De Londres, le 19 Juin 1640”.

37. A Message from a Committee of both House of Parliament, to the Spanish Ambassador, to Make Stay of Ships at Dunkerk, Intended for the Supply of the Rebels in Ireland, London: Joseph Hunscott, 1641; “Message to the Spanish Ambassador by the Lords and Commons,” 17 February 1641 in Journal of the House of Commons (hereafter CJ), volume 2, 1640–1643, 437–9.

38. A Message from Both Houses of Parliament Sent to the King and Queen’s Majesties Touching Certain Letters Lately Intercepted … Whereunto is Added the Answer of Don Allonso de Cárdenas with slight variations in spelling, imprinted 21 February 1642 by John Wright and 21 February 1641 [1642] by Joseph Hunscott.

39. Shagan, “Constructing Discord”, 9.

40. Peacey, “The Struggle for Mercurius Britanicus”, 2005.

41. See the entry for 9 February 1643, in Journal of the House of Lords (hereafter CL), volume 5, 1642–1643, 596.

42. Hunscott also printed the initial broadsheet containing Parliament’s message to the ambassador. See the entry for 10 November 1643, in CJ, volume 3, 1643–1644, 306–7.

43. See the entry for 2 January 1642, in CJ, volume 2, 1640–1643, 910–11.

44. See the entry for 25 July 1643, in LJ, volume 6, 1643, 147–50.

45. Peacey, Politicians and Pamphleteers (see chapter four, “Licensing and propaganda” in particular).

46. Cromartie, “The Printing of Parliamentary Speeches,” 38–9.

47. A Speech, or Complaint, Lately Made by the Spanish Embassadour to his Majestie at Oxford, London: Nathaniel Butter, January 17, 1643. I have no confirmation that is what he said, but there may be a copy of the address to Charles I in the collection of “Papers relating to a Spanish vessel, Sancta Clara” in the uncatalogued portion of the State Papers Domestic, 1642.

48. In the records, Butter is listed as a “stationer”. For his early career, see Hill, Lost Books, 80. For Butter’s publishing and printing license see “Warrants, December 1–31, 1638,” in Calendar of State Papers Domestic: Charles I, 1638–1639 (hereafter CSPD), 139–95. For his arrest, see the entry for 10 November 1643, in CJ, volume 3, 1643–1644, 306–7. Regarding the dispute over the publication of proclamations, see – among others: “Proceedings on the King’s Letters to the City,” 24 January 1642, in CJ, volume 2, 1640–1643, 940–2.

49. See Pestana, The English Conquest of Jamaica, 2017.

50. See Devriese, “Royalist Politics in Flanders,” 67–9, 87–94.

51. Bette and Cárdenas, Memoire Presenté au Serenissime Protecteur, Paris: Sebastien Cramoisy, 1658 (“Imprimeur ordinaire du Roy & de la Reyne”). I have not yet located the text of this ambassadorial address in English collections. However, nothing within the text indicates that it is a forgery. The date “21 of May” (ns) matches the date of the Marquis de Lede’s second address to Cromwell on “May 11” (os). See Mercurius Politicus, May 10–17, 1655, no. 257.

52. See entry for 19 February 1642, “Spanish Ambassador’s Answer about Ships at Dunkirk with Arms,” in LJ, volume 4, 1629–42, 596–9.

53. Loomie, “Alonso de Cárdenas”, 292–4.

54. Cárdenas, To The Right Honourable the Councell of State, The Remonstrance of Don Alonso de Cárdenas …, s.n., s.d.; there are at least two extant copies: one in the pamphlet series within the State Papers section of the National Archives at Kew (SP 116/293), and another in the John Carter Brown Library. There exists also a short, Spanish relation of the execution of Charles I, without author, publisher, or date – presumably from sometime around 1649 – thought to have been at least informed by Cárdenas’s reporting, but I have not had opportunity to examine it. See Ballester Rodríguez, “Los Ecos de un Regicido,” 107.

55. Like those studied by Peacey, it has been folded and appears to have been endorsed by an MP at some point. In this instance by one “Car J RH.”, possibly the Right Honourable John Carew, member of Parliament for Tregony, later member of the Council of State, and one of the signatories of Charles I’s death warrant. It also lacks any indications about the stationaries who printed or sold it: Peacey, Print and Public Politics, 269, 351.

56. See the entry for 5 April 1649, CJ, volume 6, 1643–1651, 179–80.

57. “Spanish ambassador to the council of state,” January 1650, in A Collection of the State Papers of John Thurloe … vol. 1, 1638–1653, 132–9. The Spanish version, “Don Als. de Cárdenas, Representa al Consejo” can be found in AGS, Estado, Legajo 2528. It is, however, loose from the correspondence to which it belonged and is part of a set of documents marked 13 January 1652, “P^a embiar a Su Maj^d con despacho”.

58. See the entry for 5 April 1649, CJ, volume 6, 1643–1651, 179–80.

59. Council of State entry, 27 February 1649, CPSD: Interregnum, 1649–1650, 1–24.

60. Peacey, Print and Public Politics, 259–96.

61. Peacey, Print and Public Politics, 269.

62. Raymond, Pamphlets and Pamphleteering, 168–70.

63. See, for example, Council of State entry 1 July 1652, Calendar of State Papers Domestic: Interregnum, 1651–1652, 312–52.

64. D.A. de F.y.B, Relacion de las Fiestas. This copy is located in the library at Merton College, Oxford, shelfmark 66.G.4(11).

65. Lorenzo Paulucci to the Venetian ambassador in Paris Giovanni Sagredo, 17 January 1653: CoSP-V, vol. 29, letter no. 11.

66. “Gusta la Nacion Inglesa de gozar de las Fiestas, y festejos, y en haviendo ocasion, nole pareze la debe perder”: [Fuertes y Biota, Antonio de?], Relacion de las Fiestas.

67. See the entry dated 16 January 1653, in Cárdenas, “Relacion Jurada que yo Don Alonso de Cárdenas doy a Su Mg^d”. Calculated using the National Archives “Currency converter: 1270–2017”.

68. “An Act against Unlicensed and Scandalous book and Pamphlets, and for better regulating of Printing,” 20 September 1649, in Acts and Ordinances of the Interregnum, 1642–1660.

69. Cárdenas was indeed indisposed. Lodewijk Huygens described him in January of 1652 as “so thin and sallow that he seemed more like a skeleton covered with skin than a human being” who had trouble moving. Huygens, The English Journal, 47.

70. See the entry dated 16 January 1653, in Cárdenas, “Relacion Jurada que yo Don Alonso de Cárdenas doy a Su Mg^d”.

71. Velasco y Herrara, Compendio de la Nobilissima, 216.

72. Fuertes y Biota, Historia de N. Señora del Pilar de Caragoza. This Marian cult was particularly associated with the Order of Santiago.

73. See the entries for March 1644, in Cárdenas, “Relacion Jurada que yo Don Alonso de Cárdenas doy a Su Mg^d”.

74. For more information on Lisola’s earlier embassies to London, see Reynald, “Le Baron de Lisola”.

75. For Lisola’s known works, see Baumanns, Das publizistische Werk. Many thanks to Klaas Van Gelder who provided me with access to this work.

76. “La France a été très irritée de voir que quelques membres du Parlement avaient songé à secourir Gravelines; elle penche d’ailleurs du côte des Puritains opposés opposés à l’Espangne et est occupée par d’autres guerres”, see Lisola’s memorial to the Roman emperor, 1644, reprinted in Reynald, “Le Baron de Lisola”, 346–7.

77. Loomie, “Alonso de Cárdenas”, 297.

78. Schröder, Trust, 167–8.

79. Juderias, La Leyenda Negra, 9.

80. Among others, see Maltby’s seminal work, The Black Legend in England and the more recent work by Bood, “‘The Barke Is Bad, but the Tree Good’”, 146.

81. The younger Wadsworth recounted his journey from St. Omer back to Spain in 1622 in his English Spanish Pilgrim but the details differ from another account found in a manuscript version in Burton Manor, Somerset. See note by Joseph Stevenson in The First report, 61–2.

82. Wadsworth was given a Spanish military commission, and was meant to serve in the Low Countries: Loomie, “Wadsworth, James [psued. Diego de Vadesfoote]”. Loomie’s entry is fairly complete, but inaccurate as to the details of some of the publications referenced.

83. Wadsworth, The Memoires, 66.

84. See Álavarez García, “Opposing peace”, 2019.

85. Wadsworth, The English Spanish Pilgrime; 1630 imprints: “T. Cotes, and R. Cotes for Mich. Sparke”. Second imprint “Thomas Cotes for Michael Sparke”.

86. Wadsworth, Further Observations. First imprint “Felix Kyngston for Nathaniel Butter”. Second imprint “Felix Kyngston for Robert Allot”.

87. Wadsworth, The Present Estate of Spayne. Imprints: “Augustine Mathewes for Ambrose Ritherdon”; “for Richard Thrale, and Ambrose Ritherdon”.

88. Wadsworth’s anti-Spanish sentiments were sometimes tempered by other consideration in his printed oeuvre. He translated and published Colmenero de Ledesma, A Curious Treatise, but using a Spanish pseudonym: Diego de Vadesfoote. He later republished it in 1652 using his own name. Wadsworth also used his own name for his publication of a translated traveler’s guide to Europe, and – according to the dedication – Wadsworth’s own observations. Compared to his earlier publications, the anti-Catholic content is remarkably scant. See Wadsworth, The European Mercury.

89. Loomie, “London’s Spanish Chapel”; Lozano, “Popular Protests”.

90. Hibbard, Charles I and the Popish Plot.

91. William Prynne, The Popish royall favourite, London: Michael Spark Senior, 1643.

92. An Exact Collection of all Remonstrances, 78–80. The publication also contains information indicating that Wadsworth’s diplomatic contacts may have helped his spying career because he was recorded as having collected evidence from a servant at the Portuguese embassy, see p. 234. However, he does not appear to have been very successful. A letter to the Earl of Arundel from Edward Nicholas dated 18 August 1641 indicates that one of Wadsworth’s prisoners had escaped, and he was described in 1655 as “a renegado proselyte turncote of any religion and every trade, now living [as] a common hackney to the basest catchpole bayliffs,” The Nicholas Papers, vol. 1, 15–6, and p. 15 footnote b.

93. [Cecil], The copie of a letter.

94. Martin, and Parker, The Spanish Armada, 243.

95. A Perfect Relation. First imprint “Printed for Robert Wood, October 14, 1642”. Second imprint “October 14. Printed for Robert Wood, 1642”. The imprint information is from the Early English Book Online’s catalogue – both of the image sets provided are of the second imprint.

96. See entry “Privilege-Printing Proceedings”, 28 March 1642, CJ, volume 2, 1640–1643, 500–2. For more on Woods, see Sprunger, Trumpets from the Tower, 143–4.

97. Schneider, Print Letters in Seventeenth-Century England (see in particular chapter 4, “Printing intercepted, captured, and discovered letters”).

98. Sieur de Marsys, cited in Morris, ed., The troubles, 330–1 (see the chapter on “The Venetian Ambassador’s Chaplain” in general).