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Notes
1 Charles K Armstrong, Tyranny of the Weak: North Korea and the World, 1950–1992 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013), p. 195.
2 Mengistu initially approached the US for military and political support in the mid-1970s. When his requests were denied, he promptly turned to Moscow, which became an extremely generous patron.
3 US Defense Intelligence Agency, ‘North Korea: The Foundations for Military Strength’, October 1991, available at <https://www.fas.org/irp/dia/product/knfms/knfms_toc.html>, accessed 20 October 2015. See chap. 3 on ‘Foreign Policy Goals’.
4 Armstrong, Tyranny of the Weak, p. 196.
5 Joost Oliemans and Stijn Mitzer, ‘North Korea and Ethiopia, Brothers in Arms’, NK News, 4 September 2014, <http://www.nknews.org/2014/09/north-korean-military-support-for-ethiopia/>, accessed 20 October 2015.
6 ‘Defense Officials Impose Last-Minute Impediments on Arms Inquiry on North Korea’, Cable #08ADDISABABA87, 14 January 2008, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014.
7 ‘Defense Officials Request More Military Aid’, Cable #08ADDISABABA89, 14 January 2008, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014.
8 Ibid. See also Bernard F Griffard and John F Troxell, ‘The Ethiopian Defense Command and Staff College Initiative’, Center for Strategic Leadership, US Army War College, Issue Paper 13–09, August 2009, <http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a509094.pdf>, accessed 23 October 2015.
9 ‘Ethiopia: Scenesetter for Secretary Rice's December 5 Visit’, Cable #07ADDISABABA3430, 30 November 2007, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014.
10 Michael R Gordon and Mark Mazzetti, ‘North Koreans Arm Ethiopians as US Assents’, New York Times, 8 April 2007.
11 The T-55 was designed and first entered service in the 1940s, in contrast to the T-72 main battle tank, which entered service in the 1970s. It is believed that Ethiopia bought an initial consignment of second-hand T-72s from Yemen in 2003, and signed a large contract with Ukraine's state-controlled arms exporter for 200 units with new engines and armour, and upgraded guided weapons in 2011. The Ukrainian firm was also awarded the repair and servicing contracts. See Defence Web, ‘Ethiopian Military Receiving T-72s', 1 November 2013, <http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=32486:ethiopian-military-receiving-t-72s&catid=50:Land&Itemid=105>, accessed 23 October 2015.
12 ‘Finding Alternatives to DPRK Trade and Stopping Counterfeiting and Money Laundering’, Cable #07ADDISABABA1743, 5 June 2007, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014; ‘Ethiopia: Demarche to Ethiopia Over North Korean Imports’, Cable #07ADDISABABA1096, 12 April 2007, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014.
13 ‘Ethiopia: Demarche to Ethiopia Over North Korean Imports’, Cable #07ADDISABABA1096.
14 Gordon and Mazzetti, ‘North Koreans Arm Ethiopians as US Assents’.
15 ‘Defense Officials Request More Military Aid’, Cable #08ADDISABABA89.
16 ‘North Korea: Ethiopia Requests Alternate Supplier Information’, Cable #08ADDISABABA952, 7 April 2008, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014.
17 Also known as the Homicho Ammunition Engineering Industry.
18 Also known as the Gafat Armament Engineering Industry.
19 ‘Prime Minister Meles on North Korean Arms Relationship’, 13 December 2007, Cable #07ADDISABABA3528, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014.
20 It should be noted that North Korea is not Ethiopia's only source of foreign assistance for the Homicho plant. Homicho's websites indicate that it also has suppliers in India, China, the Czech Republic, Italy and Germany, though what they supply is not specified. METEC, ‘Homicho Ammunition Engineering Industry – Fact Sheet’, updated 2015, <http://www.metec.gov.et/index.php/en/metec-industries/homicho-ammunition-industry>, accessed 10 June 2014.
21 It is possible that Libya had some dealings with North Korea after the US issued demands that it cease them in the early 2000s. In 2011, at the start of the Libya crisis, North Korea allegedly had hundreds of nationals working in the country – far more than might ordinarily be working in the embassy, media organisations or hospitals. See NPR, ‘North Korea Doesn't Evacuate its People from Libya’, 15 June 2011, <http://www.npr.org/2011/06/15/137192600/north-korea-doesnt-evacuate-its-people-from-libya>, accessed 23 October 2015. Multiple reports at the time also spoke of North Korean-origin weapons being captured by rebel forces in Libya, though this author suspects most, if not all, of them were from Cold War-era contracts. See, for example, Daily NK, ‘North Korean Weapons Found in Libya’, 29 March 2011, <http://www.dailynk.com/english/read.php?num=7511&cataId=nk03100>, accessed 23 October 2015.
22 ‘Defense Officials Impose Last-Minute Impediments on Arms Inquiry on North Korea’, Cable #08ADDISABABA87.
23 ‘Report of the Panel of Experts Established Pursuant to Resolution 1874 (2009)’, S/2014/147, pp. 35–36.
24 METEC, ‘Homicho Ammunition Engineering Industry – A Fact Sheet, Metals and Engineering Corporation’, <http://www.metec.gov.et/images/PDF/Homicho%20Ammunition%20Engineering%20Industry.pdf>, accessed 23 October 2015. A search using Wayback Machine, an internet tool for retrieving archived versions of web pages, reveals that reference to the Korean entity was removed following the publication of the UN Panel's report.
25 For the photograph discussed, see Chad O'Carroll, ‘Exclusive: North Korean Minister Inspects Ugandan Police Force’, NK News, 13 June 2013, <http://www.nknews.org/2013/06/exclusive-north-korean-minister-inspects-ugandan-police-force/>, accessed 23 October 2015. For reports of the sale of tear-gas guns to Uganda, see Alex Masereka, ‘M7 Nominated for North Korea Top Award’, Red Pepper Uganda, 17 October 2014, <http://www.redpepper.co.ug/m7-nominated-for-north-korea-top-award/>, accessed 23 October 2015.
26 Tewodros Rufael, ‘Design of Enterprise Resource Planning: Framework and its Implementation’, supervised by Subhash Chandra at the School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University, November 2007, pp. 8–9.
27 UN Security Council, ‘The List Established and Maintained by the 1718 (2006) Committee’, <http://www.un.org/sc/committees/1718/pdf/1718.pdf>, accessed 23 October 2015.
28 ‘Defense Officials Impose Last-Minute Impediments on Arms Inquiry on North Korea’, Cable #08ADDISABABA87.
29 Ibid. At the time of Samora's statement in January 2008, Ethiopia was the 14th largest troop-contributing nation to UN missions, with approximately 1,800 deployed. That figure has risen substantially. As of August 2015, the country is now ranked fourth in terms of its contributions, with 7,800 personnel deployed with UN operations in Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, South Sudan, and the Darfur and Abyei missions in Sudan. Ethiopia also sends its forces to participate in the African Union mission in Somalia. UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, ‘Troop and Police Contributors’, <http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/contributors.shtml> , accessed 23 October 2015.
30 Gordon and Mazzetti, ‘North Koreans Arm Ethiopians as US Assents’.
31 ‘KOMID Demarche Delivered’, Cable #09SANAA268, 11 February 2009, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014.
32 See Daniel Wertz et al., ‘DPRK Diplomatic Relations’, National Committee on North Korea, last updated 25 March 2014, <http://www.ncnk.org/resources/briefing-papers/all-briefing-papers/dprk-diplomatic-relations>, accessed 23 October 2015. Pyongyang also established a diplomatic representation in North Yemen in the mid-1970s as part of its campaign to garner greater diplomatic support internationally than its South Korean foe. There has been some unsubstantiated suggestions that DPRK military advisers were also stationed in North Yemen, though it is important to remember that South and North Yemen were not overtly hostile to one another in the way that East and West Germany, or indeed North and South Korea, were. See Guy Hicks, ‘North Korea: Exporting Arms and Terror’, Heritage Foundation, Asian Backgrounder No. 11, 12 April 1984, <http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/1984/04/north-korea-exporting-arms-and-terror>, accessed 23 October 2015; Derek B Miller, ‘Demand, Stockpiles, and Social Controls: Small Arms in Yemen’, Small Arms Survey Occasional Paper No. 9, May 2003, p. 10.
33 ‘Yemeni Military Leaders Brief Ambassador on DPRK Contacts’, Cable #03SANAA1990, 12 August 2003, accessed via Wikileaks on 15 May 2014.
34 BBC News, ‘Legal Maze Over Scud Seizure’, 11 December 2002.
35 BBC News, ‘Yemen Protests Over Scud Seizure’, 11 December 2002.
36 ‘Scenesetter for Under Secretary Bolton's Visit to Yemen’, Cable #03SANAA1373, 16 June 2003, accessed via Wikileaks on 15 May 2014.
37 Ibid.
38 ‘Continuing Cooperation between North Korea's KOMID and Yemen’, Cable #09STATE50258, 15 May 2009, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014.
39 ‘Demarche to Yemeni FM Qirbi on DPRK Military Contacts’, Cable #03SANAA2769, 23 November 2003, accessed via Wikileaks on 15 May 2014.
40 ‘E.O. 13382 Entities – Examples of Proliferation’, Cable #06STATE152914, 14 September 2006, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014.
41 ‘Meeting with Yemen FM Qirbi: Discussion on Scuds, Diplomatic Pouch, USAID, CT, and Military Cooperation’, Cable #03SANAA154, 20 January 2003, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014.
42 ‘Scenesetter for Under Secretary Bolton's Visit to Yemen’, Cable #03SANAA1373.
43 ‘Yemeni Military Leaders Brief Ambassador on DPRK Contacts’, Cable #03SANAA1990, 12 August 2003, accessed via Wikileaks on 27 May 2014.
44 Ibid.
45 Based on numerous non-attributable interviews with officials and experts familiar with military affairs in Yemen.
46 ‘U/S Bolton's Visit to Yemen: President Saleh on the DPRK’, Cable #03SANAA1454_a, 24 June 2003, accessed via Wikileaks on 15 May 2014.
47 See ‘President Saleh to A/S Bloomfield: No New MANPADS’, Cable #04SANAA2346, 2 September 2004, accessed via Wikileaks on 15 May 2014. See also ‘Scenesetter for Visit of A/S Bloomfield to Yemen’, Cable #04SANAA2055, 24 August 2004, accessed via Wikileaks on 15 May 2014.
48 ‘Continuing Cooperation between North Korea's KOMID and Yemen’, Cable 09STATE50258.
49 UN, ‘Security Council Committee Determines Items, Designates Entities Subject to Measures Imposed in Resolution 1718 (2006)’, press release, 24 April 2009, <http://www.un.org/press/en/2009/sc9642.doc.htm>, accessed 23 October 2015.
50 Author conversations with Interviewees F and G, conducted by e-mail in July and August 2014.
51 Author conversations with Interviewees F and G, conducted by e-mail in July and August 2014. This view was echoed by Interviewees H and I during e-mail exchanges with the author in July 2014.
52 Michael Horton, ‘Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula: Challenges and Opportunities in Revolutionary Yemen’, Terrorism Monitor (Vol. 9, No. 16, April 2011).