I. India's Defence Posture

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Notes

1 Daniel P Marston and Chandar S Sundaram (eds), A Military History of India and South Asia: From the East India Company to the Nuclear Era (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2008) chs. 10–11; Pradeep P Barua, The State at War in South Asia (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), pp. 159–266.

2 International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), The Military Balance 2015 (London: Routledge/IISS, 2015), p. 247. Unless otherwise specified, military data quoted hereafter should be assumed to come from this source.

3 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), ‘The Share of World Military Expenditure of the 15 States with the Highest Expenditure in 2014’, 2015, <http://goo.gl/EfYtxt>, accessed 20 October 2015.

4 SIPRI, ‘SIPRI Military Expenditure Database 1988–2014’, 2015, <http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex/milex_database>, accessed 20 October 2015.

5 Richard A Rinaldi and Ravi Rikhye, Indian Army Order of Battle (General Data LLC, 2011), pp. 12–15; on Re-organised Army Plains Infantry Division (RAPID), see Amit Gupta, Building an Arsenal: The Evolution of Regional Power Force Structures (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997), pp. 58–59. This excludes three artillery divisions.

6 Times of India, ‘Army Plans to Raise Arunachal and Sikkim Scouts for China Border’, 18 May 2010; Subir Bhaumik, ‘India to Deploy 36,000 Extra Troops on Chinese Border’, BBC News, 23 November 2010.

7 Nitin A Gokhale, ‘So It's Going to Be 17 Mountain Corps?’, NewsWarrior, 16 November 2013, <http://nitinagokhale.blogspot.co.uk/2013/11/so-its-going-to-be-17-mountain-corps.html>, accessed 20 October 2015; Rajat Pandit, ‘Fund Crunch Hits Army's New Strike Corps', Times of India, 16 April 2015.

8 Gareth Jennings, ‘India to Review Safety of Su-30MKI Fighter Fleet’, IHS Jane's Defence Weekly, 28 May 2015.

9 Ajay Banerjee, ‘IAF Combats Lowest Fighter Strength’, Tribune, 5 July 2015; George K Tanham and Marcy Agmon, The Indian Air Force: Trends and Prospects (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 1995), p. 60.

10 For the estimate of Chinese and Pakistani aircraft numbers, see Ashley J Tellis, ‘Dogfight! India's Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft Competition Decision’, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, January 2011, pp. 1, 18; Ajai, Shukla, ‘India Could Also Buy Light Fighter to Replace MiG-21: Parrikar’, Business Standard, 14 April 2015.

11 Indian Ministry of Defence, ‘Demands for Grants (2014–2015) Navy and Airforce Demand (Demand No. 23 & 24)’, fourth report to the Standing Committee on Defence, December 2012, p. 36.

12 IHS, ‘Jane's World Navies: India’, 7 May 2015, p. 2; Pradip R Sagar, ‘4 More French Submarines to Meet Indian Navy's Requirement’, New Indian Express, 6 October 2015.

13 Manu Pubby, ‘With Six New Nuclear Attack Submarines, India Officially Opens up on its Undersea Aspirations’, Economic Times, 15 July 2015.

14 Ajai Shukla, ‘INS Visakhapatanam Shows Growing Indian Ability to Build Warships Economically’, Broadsword, 21 April 2015, <http://ajaishukla.blogspot.co.uk/2015/04/ins-visakhapatanam-shows-growing-indian.html>, accessed 20 October 2015.

15 Ajai Shukla, ‘A Powerful Surface Navy Lacks Submarine Punch’, Broadsword, 2 October 2014, <http://ajaishukla.blogspot.co.uk/2014/10/a-powerful-surface-navy-lacks-submarine.html>, accessed 20 October 2015.

16 SIPRI, ‘SIPRI Military Expenditure Database 1988–2014’. Spending measured in US dollars at constant 2011 prices and exchange rates; note that India excludes defence pensions, paramilitary forces, border security and many import-related costs from its official defence budget, to the point where some argue the true number may be one-third to one-half higher than is reported. See George J Gilboy and Eric Heginbotham, Chinese and Indian Strategic Behavior: Growing Power and Alarm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 119.

17 Laxman K Behera, ‘India's Defence Budget 2015–16’, Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, 2 March 2015, <http://www.idsa.in/issuebrief/IndiasDefenceBudget2015–16_lkbehera_020315.html>, accessed 20 October 2015. Calculated at rates prevailing on 9 October 2015.

18 On SIPRI's measure, see SIPRI, SIPRI Yearbook 2011: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 167. Note that between 2009 and 2014 India's rupee-denominated spending rose by about 63 per cent, while spending in constant (2011) US dollars rose by less than 2 per cent because of the depreciation of the rupee. The latter measure therefore distorts Indian defence spending, much of which is relatively insensitive to inflation in tradeable sectors that shapes the prevailing exchange rate.

19 Ajai Shukla, ‘Army's Manpower Costs Give Reason to Rethink Policy’, Broadsword, 9 September 2015, <http://ajaishukla.blogspot.co.uk/2015/09/armys-manpower-costs-give-reason-to.html>, accessed 20 October 2015.

20 P R Chari, ‘India's Defence Expenditure: Can It Be Reduced?’, RCSS Policy Studies 12, Regional Centre for Strategic Studies, 2000.

21 Amiya Kumar Ghosh, India's Defence Budget and Expenditure Management in a Wider Context (New Delhi: Lancer Publishers, 1996), pp. 98–99, 106.

22 Laxman Kumar Behera, ‘India's Inadequate Defence Budget 2008–09’, Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, 26 March 2008, <http://www.ipcs.org/article/defence/indias-inadequate-defence-budget-2008–09-2521.html>, accessed 20 October 2015; Behera, ‘India's Defence Budget 2015–16’. See also the relevant Annual Reports of the Indian Ministry of Defence, available at <http://www.mod.nic.in/forms/List.aspx?Id=57&displayListId=57>.

23 SIPRI, ‘SIPRI Arms Transfers Database 1950–2014’, n.d., <http://www.sipri.org/databases/armstransfers>, accessed 20 October 2015.

24 Pre-1989 data are drawn from Raju G C Thomas, Indian Security Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), p. 191.

25 Behera, ‘India's Defence Budget 2015–16’.

26 Department of Defense, ‘DoD Releases Fiscal Year 2016 Budget Proposal’, news release, 2 February 2015, <http://www.defense.gov/Releases/Release.aspx?ReleaseID=17126>, accessed 20 October 2015. Here, as with the Japanese example below, the nature of the residual is unknown.

27 Evan S Medeiros et al., Pacific Currents: The Responses of U.S. Allies and Security Partners in East Asia to China's Rise (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2008), p. 51.

28 Bernard D Cole, The Great Wall at Sea: China's Navy in the Twenty-First Century (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2010), p. 58; Andrew J Nathan and Andrew Scobell, China's Search for Security (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2012), p. 288.

29 Tanham and Agmon, The Indian Air Force, p. 84.

30 Author's calculations, from IISS, The Military Balance 2015, pp. 248, 251.

31 SIPRI, ‘SIPRI Arms Transfers Database 1950-2014’.

32 Rajat Pandit, ‘US Pips Russia as Top Arms Supplier to India’, Times of India, 13 August 2014.

33 Ajai Shukla, ‘India–US Defence Ties Grow with Assertive Modi Govt’, Business Standard India, 21 January 2015.

34 Ashley J Tellis, ‘Beyond Buyer-Seller’, Force, August 2015, p. 6.

35 Ajai Shukla, ‘The Ghost of Gorshkov’, Rediff News, 25 July 2015, <http://www.rediff.com/news/report/defence-news-the-ghost-of-gorshkov/20150725.htm>, accessed 20 October 2015; Ajai Shukla, ‘Russia Can't Deliver on Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft: IAF’, Business Standard India, 21 January 2014; for a sanguine view of Indo–Russian friction, see Vijainder K Thakur, ‘IAF's FGA Project Entering a Death Spiral?’, Thum! Kaun Aata Hai?, 7 October 2015, <http://thumkar.blogspot.in/2015/10/iafs-fga-project-entering-death-spiral.html>, accessed 20 October 2015.

36 Smita Gupta, ‘Army Chief's Leaked Letter to PM Puts Centre in a Fix’, The Hindu, 28 March 2012.

37 Union Government, Defence Services, ‘Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India on Ammunition Management in Army (for the Year Ended March 2013)’, PA 19, May 2015, p. 10.

38 IISS, The Military Balance 2015, p. 251.

39 Strategy Page, ‘Attrition: Pakistan Air Force Crumbling Away’, 27 December 2012, <http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htatrit/20121227.aspx>, accessed 20 October 2015; Ajai Shukla, ‘IAF Crashes Lose One Fighter Squadron Every 2 Yrs’, Business Standard, 21 March 2013.

40 Miguel Vasconcelos, ‘Civil Airworthiness Certification: Former Military High-Performance Aircraft’, Federal Aviation Administration, September 2013, pp. 2–3.

41 Damon Bristow, ‘India's New Armament Strategy: A Return to Self-Sufficiency?’, Whitehall Paper (London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies, 1995), p. 31.

42 S Anandan, ‘INS Viraat to Be Decommissioned in 2016’, The Hindu, 12 February 2015; Rahul Bedi, ‘India Defence Minister Admits Su-30 Serviceability Issues’, IHS Jane's Defence Weekly, 18 March 2015.

43 Rahul Bedi, ‘HAL Hands Back First Overhauled Su-30MKI to Indian Air Force’, IHS Jane's Defence Weekly, 11 January 2015.

44 IHS Jane's Defence Weekly, ‘Briefing – Fettered Flight: Indian Air Force Procurement and Capabilities', 28 January 2015.

45 Rahul Bedi, ‘Indian Parliamentary Committee Says IAF Facing Crisis in Combat Pilot Numbers', IHS Jane's Defence Weekly, 29 April 2015.

46 Indian Ministry of Defence, ‘Demands for Grants (2014–2015) Navy and Airforce Demand (Demand No. 23 & 24)’.

47 Rahul Bedi, ‘A Strike Staunched’, Frontline (Vol. 19, No. 12, June 2002); Manoj Joshi, ‘We Lack the Military That Can Deter Terrorism’, Mail Today, 26 November 2009; Siddharth Srivastava, ‘Indian Army “Backed Out” of Pakistan Attack’, Asia Times, 21 January 2009.

48 Paul Staniland, ‘Explaining Civil-Military Relations in Complex Political Environments: India and Pakistan in Comparative Perspective’, Security Studies (Vol. 17, No. 2, 2008).

49 Stephen P Cohen, The Indian Army: Its Contribution to the Development of a Nation, Revised. (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 226, xi.

50 Steven I Wilkinson, Army and Nation: The Military and Indian Democracy since Independence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), pp. 103–08, 140–46.

51 Shekhar Gupta, Ritu Sarin, and Pranab Dhal Samanta, ‘The January Night Raisina Hill Was Spooked: Two Key Army Units Moved towards Delhi without Notifying Govt’, Indian Express, 20 September 2013.

52 Anit Mukherjee, ‘The Absent Dialogue’, Seminar, July 2009, <http://www.india-seminar.com/2009/599/599_anit_mukherjee.htm>, accessed 20 October 2015.

53 Benjamin Lambeth, Airpower at 18,000 ′: The Indian Air Force in the Kargil War (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2012), p. 13. This echoed an earlier restriction on the Indian Navy in the 1965 war, which was forbidden from going more than 200 miles beyond Bombay or north of the parallel of Porbandar. ‘The Navy’, wrote Admiral S N Kohli, ‘had gone to war with their hands tied behind their backs'. See G M Hiranandani, Transition to Triumph: History of the Indian Navy, 1965–1975 (New Delhi: Lancer Publishers, 2000), p. 52.

54 Gaurav Kampani, ‘New Delhi's Long Nuclear Journey: How Secrecy and Institutional Roadblocks Delayed India's Weaponization’, International Security (Vol. 38, No. 4, Spring 2014), p. 102; Anit Mukherjee, George Perkovich and Gaurav Kampani, ‘Correspondence: Secrecy, Civil-Military Relations, and India's Nuclear Weapons Program’, International Security (Vol. 39, No. 3, Winter 2014/15).

55 V K Sood and Pravin Sawhney, Operation Parakram: The War Unfinished (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2003), p. 80.

56 Srinath Raghavan, ‘Civil–Military Relations in India: The China Crisis and After’, Journal of Strategic Studies (Vol. 32, No. 1, 2009).

57 Anit Mukherjee, Failing to Deliver: Post-Crises Defence Reforms in India, 1998–2010 (New Delhi: IDSA, 2011), pp. 28–30; Wilkinson, Army and Nation, p. 219; Anit Mukherjee, ‘Closing the Military Loop’, Indian Express, 1 April 2015.

58 P S Das, ‘Jointness in India's Military: What it Is and What it Must Be’, Journal Of Defence Studies (Vol. 1, No. 1, 2007; Anit Mukherjee, ‘India's Joint Andaman and Nicobar Command is a Failed Experiment’, Asia Pacific Bulletin No. 289, East-West Center, November 2014; Vijai Singh Rana, ‘Enhancing Jointness in Indian Armed Forces: Case for Unified Commands', Journal of Defence Studies (Vol. 9, No. 1, January 2015); Patrick Bratton, ‘The Creation of Indian Integrated Commands: Organisational Learning and the Andaman and Nicobar Command’, Strategic Analysis (Vol. 36, No. 3, May 2012).

59 George Perkovich and Toby Dalton, ‘Modi's Strategic Choice: How to Respond to Terrorism from Pakistan’, Washington Quarterly (Vol. 38, No. 1, Spring 2015).

60 Rajesh M Basrur, ‘Kargil, Terrorism, and India's Strategic Shift’, India Review (Vol. 1, No. 4, 2002); S Kalyanaraman, ‘Operation Parakram: An Indian Exercise in Coercive Diplomacy’, Strategic Analysis (Vol. 26, No. 4, 2002).

61 Ashley J Tellis, ‘The Naval Balance in the Indian Subcontinent: Demanding Missions for the Indian Navy’, Asian Survey (Vol. 25, No. 12, December 1985), p. 1186.

62 Walter C Ladwig III, ‘A Cold Start for Hot Wars? The Indian Army's New Limited War Doctrine’, International Security (Vol. 32, No. 3, Winter 2007/08).

63 Pinaki Bhattacharya, ‘Army and IAF Face Off over New War Plan’, India Today, 14 December 2009; Tim Roemer, ‘Cold Start: A Mixture of Myth and Reality’, Ref: IIR684401010, 1 October 2010, US Embassy, New Delhi, available at <http://www.theguardian.com/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/248971>.

64 Vipin Narang, ‘Posturing for Peace? Pakistan's Nuclear Postures and South Asian Stability’, International Security (Vol. 34, No. 3, Winter 2009/10); David O Smith, ‘The US Experience with Tactical Nuclear Weapons: Lessons for South Asia’, Stimson Center, March 2013; Shashank Joshi, ‘Pakistan's Tactical Nuclear Nightmare: Déjà Vu?’, Washington Quarterly (Vol. 36, No. 3, Summer 2013); Rajuram Nagappa, Arun Vishwanathan, and Aditi Malhotra, Hatf-IX/Nasr – Pakistan's Tactical Nuclear Weapon: Implications for Indo-Pak Deterrence (Bangalore, India: National Institute of Advanced Studies, 2013). Note that as of October 2015, US officials estimated that Pakistan had built but not deployed tactical nuclear weapons. See David E Sanger, ‘U.S. Exploring Deal to Limit Pakistan's Nuclear Arsenal’, New York Times, 15 October 2015.

65 Christopher Clary, ‘Deterrence Stability and the Conventional Balance of Forces in South Asia’, Stimson Center, October 2013; Walter C Ladwig III, ‘Indian Military Modernization and Conventional Deterrence in South Asia’, Journal of Strategic Studies (Vol. 38, No. 4, May 2015).

66 Shashank Joshi, ‘India's Military Instrument: A Doctrine Stillborn’, Journal of Strategic Studies (Vol. 36, No. 4, August 2013).

67 Narang, ‘Posturing for Peace?’, p. 64.

68 Swami, Praveen, ‘India's New Language of Killing’, The Hindu, 1 May 2014; Perkovich and Dalton, ‘Modi's Strategic Choice’; Praveen Swami, ‘Both Active and Effective: A Short History of Indian Special Ops', Indian Express, 11 June 2015.

69 Samrat Chakrabarti, ‘It's Time to be More Assertive: Doval’, The Hindu, 5 August 2015.

70 Christrophe Jaffrelot, The Pakistan Paradox: Instability and Resilience (New York, NY: Oxford University Press 2015), pp. 562–96.

71 Jeff M Smith, Cold Peace: China–India Rivalry in the Twenty-First Century (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013), pp. 19–70.

72 Ibid., pp. 41–42.

73 A K Lal, Transformation of the Indian Armed Forces 2025: Enhancing India's Defence (New Delhi: Vij Books, 2012), p. 47.

74 Sudhi Ranjan Sen, ‘Only 20 Per Cent of India-China Strategic Border Roads Ready Till Now’, NDTV, 27 February 2015. A decision adopted in 1959 had earlier prohibited roads and airfields from being constructed within thirty miles of the border with China. See John W Garver, Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2001), p. 99.

75 Rajat Pandit, ‘Army Reworks War Doctrine for Pakistan, China’, Times of India, 30 December 2009; PTI, ‘Unsure of China's Motives, but 1962 Repeat Not Possible: VK Singh’, Times of India, 7 November 2010; Rajat Pandit, ‘Two-Front War Remote, but Threat from China Real’, Times of India, 12 October 2012; Hindustan Times, ‘NSA Ajit Doval: India Must Prepare for a Two-Front War’, 25 November 2014; ABP Live, ‘India Must Be Prepared for a Two-Front War, Says Air Marshal Reddy’, 5 January 2015, <http://www.abplive.in/india/2015/01/05/article469273.ece/India-must-be-prepared-for-a-two-front-war-says-Air-Marshal-Reddy>, accessed 20 October 2015.

76 Ali Ahmed, ‘Ongoing Revision of Indian Army Doctrine’, IDSA Comment, IDSA, January 2010.

77 Rajat Pandit, With Eye on China, India Deploys Akash Missiles in Northeast’, Times of India, 22 August 2014.

78 C Raja Mohan, ‘Samudra Manthan: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Indo-Pacific’, Brief, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2012.

79 The phrase is Garver's, in Protracted Contest, p. 24.

80 V P Malik, India's Military Conflicts and Diplomacy: An Inside View of Decision Making (Noida, Uttar Pradesh: HarperCollins Publishers India, 2013), p. 3; David Brewster, India's Ocean: The Story of India's Bid for Regional Leadership (London: Routledge, 2014), p. 77.

81 Permanent Mission of India to the UN, ‘India and United Nations Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding’, n.d., <https://www.pminewyork.org/pages.php?id=1985>, accessed 20 October 2015; Indian Ministry of Defence, ‘Annual Report 2013–14’, n.d., pp. 27–28.

82 This includes 991 police personnel.

83 Geetanjali Chopra, ‘Rise of the Indian Peacekeepers’, Pioneer, 22 October 2015; ‘Full Text of PM Modi's Statement at the UN Peacekeeping Summit’, NDTV, 29 September 2015.

84 Permanent Mission of India to the UN, ‘India and United Nations Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding’.

85 Sushant K Singh, ‘Peacekeeping in Africa: A Global Strategy’, South African Journal of International Affairs (Vol. 14, No. 2, December 2007), p. 74.

86 Sushant K Singh and Richard Gowan, ‘India and UN Peacekeeping : The Weight of History and a Lack of Strategy’, in Waheguru Pal Singh Sidhu, Pratap Bhanu Mehta and Bruce Jones (eds), Shaping the Emerging World: India and the Multilateral Order (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2013), pp. 178, 181.

87 See ‘Chapter 5: Operation Khukri: The Hazards of UN Peacekeeping’ in Malik, India's Military Conflicts and Diplomacy, pp. 157–78.

88 Singh, ‘Peacekeeping in Africa’, p. 77.

89 Don Leslie, ‘Operational Logistical Support of UN Peacekeeping Missions: Intermediate Logistics Course’, Peace Operations Training Institute, August 2011, p. 13; Katharina P Coleman, ‘Overcoming Logistics Difficulties in Complex Peace Operations in Remote Areas’, presentation given at the International Forum for the Challenges of Peace Operations, Beijing, 14 October 2014.

90 UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support, ‘United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines’, 2008, p. 76.

91 60,000 is widely cited, but Sri Lankan military intelligence put the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) at 100,000, and others higher still. See P A Ghosh, Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka and Role of Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) (New Delhi: APH Publishing, 1999), p. 108.

92 A K Tiwary, Indian Air Force in Wars (Atlanta, GA: Lancer Publishers LLC, 2013), ch. 8; Ken Conboy and Paul Hannon, Elite Forces of India and Pakistan (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2012), pp. 15–16.

93 Rediff, ‘India's Vietnam’, 23 March 2000, <http://www.rediff.com/news/2000/mar/23lank.htm>, accessed 20 October 2015.

94 Celia W Dugger, ‘A Wary India Prepares to Step Back into Sri Lanka's War’, New York Times, 25 May 2000.

95 Devin T Hagerty, ‘India's Regional Security Doctrine’, Asian Survey (Vol. 31, No. 4, April 1991), pp. 358–59.

96 A G Bewoor, ‘Indian Armed Forces Defeat Coup in Maldives’, CLAWS Journal (Autumn 2014), pp. 150–56; A G Bewoor, ‘Op Cactus: Reminescenses [sic]’, n.d., <https://goo.gl/e5qlly>.

97 Tiwary, Indian Air Force in Wars, p. 295.

98 Ibid., pp. 295–98.

99 For good surveys, see Claudia Meier and C S R Murthy, ‘India's Growing Involvement in Humanitarian Assistance’, GPPi Research Paper, Global Public Policy Institute (GPPi), March 2011; Rahul Parmar, ‘HADR in the IOR & the Indian Navy’, Integrated Headquarters of Ministry of Defence, n.d., <http://goo.gl/CKEtEi> (cached version), accessed 20 October 2015; C Raja Mohan, ‘Indian Military Diplomacy: Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief’, Working Paper No. 184, Institute of South Asian Studies, March 2014; Sarabjeet Singh Parmar, ‘Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) in India's National Strategy’, Journal of Defence Studies (Vol. 6, No. 1, January 2012).

100 Indian Ministry of Defence, Press Information Bureau, ‘HADR Exercise by Indian Navy’, press release, 10 February 2015, <http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=115326>, accessed 20 October 2015.

101 Ashok K Chordia, ‘Airlift during Disasters: The Uttarakhand Experience’, Issue Brief, Centre for Air Power Studies, July 2013.

102 K P Fabian, ‘Oral History: Biggest Ever Air Evacuation in History’, Indian Foreign Affairs Journal (Vol. 7, No. 1, January–March 2011), p. 92; Manmohan Bahadur, ‘What India Needs to Learn from #YemenEvacuation’, Economic Times, 23 April 2015; Mohan, ‘Indian Military Diplomacy’, pp. 7–8.

103 Mohan, ‘Indian Military Diplomacy’, pp. 9–12.

104 G M Hiranandani, Transition to Eminence: The Indian Navy 1976–1990 (New Delhi: Lancer Publishers, 2005), p. 91.

105 Stephen Skinner, Hawker Siddeley Aviation and Dynamics: 1960–77 (Ramsbury: Crowood, 2014), ch. 3; Chris Smith, India's Ad Hoc Arsenal: Direction or Drift in Defence Policy? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 119; Rediff News, ‘Navy to Induct Russia's MiG-29K Fighter Jets', 2 February 2010, <http://news.rediff.com/report/2010/feb/02/navy-to-induct-russias-mig-29k-fighter-jets.htm>, accessed 20 October 2015.

106 Hiranandani, Transition to Triumph, pp. 17–19.

107 Stephen P Cohen and Sunil Dasgupta, Arming without Aiming: India's Military Modernization (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2010), p. 75.

108 Walter C Ladwig III, ‘Drivers of Indian Naval Expansion’, in Harsh V Pant (ed.), The Rise of the Indian Navy: Internal Vulnerabilities, External Challenges (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012), pp. 3–4.

109 Abhijit Singh, ‘The Indian Navy's “New” Expeditionary Outlook’, ORF Occasional Paper No. 37, Observer Research Foundation, October 2012, p. 5.

110 Sandeep Unnithan, ‘With Open Arms’, India Today, 1 August 2005.

111 Iskander Rehman, ‘India's Aspirational Naval Doctrine’, in Harsh V Pant (ed.), The Rise of the Indian Navy: Internal Vulnerabilities, External Challenges (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012), p. 71.

112 Integrated Headquarters, Ministry of Defence (Navy), ‘Indian Maritime Doctrine’, 2009, pp. 92, 125.

113 Rajat Pandit, ‘“Blue-Water Navy is the Aim”’, Times of India, 1 November 2006.

114 Cohen and Dasgupta, Arming without Aiming, pp. 76, 96; Benjamin S Lambeth, ‘India's Air Force Evolves', Air Force Magazine (March 2015), p. 62.

115 Tanham and Agmon, The Indian Air Force, p. 45.

116 R K Pal and A P Mote, Sentinels of the Sky: Glimpses of the Indian Air Force (New Delhi: Ritana Books, 1999), p. 50.

117 Carlo Kopp, ‘Backfires for China?’, Australian Aviation (September 2004), p. 42; Bharat Karnad, Nuclear Weapons and Indian Security: The Realist Foundations of Strategy (New Delhi: Macmillan, 2002), pp. 663–64.

118 Bharat Karnad, India's Nuclear Policy (Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2008), p. 100.

119 International Defence Digest, ‘India's First Airpower Doctrine Takes Shape’, 6 January 1997.

120 IHS Jane's Defence Weekly, ‘India Receives Il-78 Tankers', 3 July 2003.

121 Lockheed Martin, ‘Indian Air Force Receives First Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules', press release, 16 December 2010, <http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/news/press-releases/2010/december/IndianAirForceReceivesFir.html>, accessed 20 October 2015.

122 Bhashyam Kasturi, ‘Force Structuring and Doctrines of the IAF’, Air Power Journal (Vol. 3, No. 2, Summer 2008), p. 10.

123 Rajat Pandit, ‘IAF Plans War Doctrine to Expand “Strategic Reach”’, Times of India, 2 August 2007.

124 Arjun Subramaniam, ‘The Strategic Role of Airpower: An Indian Perspective on How We Need to Think, Train, and Fight in the Coming Years', Air & Space Power Journal (Vol. 22, No. 3, Fall 2008).

125 Lambeth, ‘India's Air Force Evolves', p. 63.

126 Indian Air Force, ‘Basic Doctrine of the Indian Air Force: 2012’, 2012, p. 10.

127 Headquarters Army Training Command, ‘Indian Army Doctrine’, October 2004 p. 10.

128 Vinod Anand, ‘Review of the Indian Army Doctrine: Dealing with Two Fronts’, CLAWS Journal (Summer 2010), p. 259.

129 Pandit, ‘Army Reworks War Doctrine for Pakistan, China’.

130 Indian Ministry of Defence, ‘In Defence of the Nation’ March 2015, p. 7; Amitabh Pashupati Revi, ‘In Major Policy Shift, Afghanistan Sends Army Cadets for Training in Pakistan’, NDTV, 6 February 2015.

131 David Scott, ‘India's “Extended Neighborhood” Concept: Power Projection for a Rising Power’, India Review (Vol. 8, No. 2, 2009).

132 David Scott, ‘India's Aspirations and Strategy for the Indian Ocean: Securing the Waves?’, Journal of Strategic Studies (Vol. 36, No. 4, February 2013), pp. 485–87.

133 Ely Ratner et al., ‘More Willing & Able: Charting China's International Security Activism’, Center for a New American Security, May 2015.

134 Rediff News, ‘Protect Tamils in LTTE-Held Areas, India Tells Lanka’, 15 September 2015; Press Information Bureau, Government of India, ‘PM Chairs Combined Commanders Conference on Board INS Vikramaditya at Sea’, media release, 15 December 2015, <pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=133265>, accessed 17 December 2015.

135 C Raja Mohan, ‘Balancing Interests and Values: India's Struggle with Democracy Promotion’, Washington Quarterly (Vol. 30, No. 3, Summer 2007), pp. 103, 113–14; Siddharth Mallavarapu, ‘Democracy Promotion circa 2010: An Indian Perspective’, Contemporary Politics (Vol. 16, No. 1, March 2010), pp. 53–60.

136 Fabian, ‘Oral History’, pp. 94–95.

137 Rudra Chaudhuri, Forged in Crisis: India and the United States since 1947 (Noida, Uttar Pradesh: HarperCollins Publishers India, 2014), p. 202.

138 Ibid., p. 207.

139 Vijay Prashad, ‘Syria, Libya and Security Council’, Frontline (Vol. 29, No. 5, March 2012)

140 Anindita Sanyal, ‘India Won't Join Military Action Against IS, Will Help US Control Terror’, NDTV, 1 October 2014.

141 C Raja Mohan, Modi's World: Expanding India's Sphere of Influence (Noida, Uttar Pradesh: HarperCollins Publishers India, 2015), ch. 10.