Code Words, Euphemisms and What They Can Tell Us About Cold War Anglo-American Communications Intelligence

Abstract

This study examines the code words and euphemisms which protected Anglo-American communications intelligence (Comint) during the Cold War. It explains how the code word security system operated and identifies the main Comint code words and euphemisms in effect from 1946 to 1999. The article then uses these code words and euphemisms to interpret declassified American documents and reveal more information about Anglo-American Comint on the Congo, Bolivia, Indonesia, South Vietnam and China in the 1960s.

Notes

¹Matthew Aid, The Secret Sentry: The Untold History of the National Security Agency (New York: Bloomsbury Press 2009); Richard J. Aldrich, GCHQ: The Uncensored Story of Britain's Most Secret Intelligence Agency, (London: Harper Press 2010).

²Richard J. Aldrich, The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence (London: John Murray 2001) p.541.

³British National Archive (TNA), HW 80/4, British–US Communication Intelligence Agreement, 5 March 1946; HW 80/6, Technical Conference for the implementation of the US–British Communications Intelligence Agreement, 11–27 March 1946, Introduction, not dated.

⁴TNA, HW 80/6, Technical Conference for the implementation of the US–British Communications Intelligence Agreement, 11–27 March 1946, Appendix B, not dated; HW 80/7, Technical Conference for the implementation of the US–British Comint Agreement, 15 July–26 July 1948, Appendix B, not dated.

⁵TNA, HW 80/9, Introduction to the Appendices to the US–British Comint Agreement, Appendix B, Annexure B1, 1 June 1951.

⁶TNA, HW 80/6, Technical Conference for the implementation of the US–British Communications Intelligence Agreement, 11–27 March 1946, Appendix B, not dated.

⁷Ibid.; National Security Agency (NSA), Joint Meeting of State–Army–Navy Communication Intelligence Board and State–Army–Navy Communication Intelligence Coordinating Committee, 15 February 1946, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/communication_intel_board/army_navy_19460215_mtg.pdf> (accessed 11 January 2011).

⁸TNA, HW 80/6, Technical Conference for the implementation of the US–British Communications Intelligence Agreement, 11–27 March 1946, Appendix B, not dated.

⁹TNA, HW 80/7, Technical Conference for the implementation of the US–British Comint Agreement, 15 July–26 July 1948, Appendix B, not dated.

¹⁰TNA, HW 80/6, Technical Conference for the implementation of the US–British Communications Intelligence Agreement, 11–27 March 1946, Appendix B, not dated.

¹¹TNA, HW 80/10, BRUSA Planning Conference 1953, Final Report, Appendix B, BPC53/B/Final, 19 March 1953.

¹²The wording of Appendix B suggests the categories may already have been in use when the Appendix was written in March 1953.

¹³TNA, HW 80/10, BRUSA Planning Conference 1953, Final Report, Notes to Appendix B, BPC53/B/Final, 19 March 1953.

¹⁴TNA, HW 80/11 UK–US Communications Intelligence Agreement, Appendix B, not dated.

¹⁵Jeffrey Richelson, The US Intelligence Community (Boulder, CO: Westview Press 2008) pp.512–13; National Security Agency (NSA), Cryptologic Almanac, 50th Anniversary Series, ‘Quiz’, July/August 2002, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/crypto_almanac_50th/Quiz.pdf> (accessed 3 February 2011).

²⁰Interview with Thomas L. Hughes, The Library of Congress, The Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection of the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, <http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/mfdipbib:@field(AUTHOR+@od1(Hughes,+Thomas+Lowe,+1925-))> (accessed 29 December 2011).

¹⁶TNA, HW 80/10, BRUSA Planning Conference 1953, Final Report, Notes to Appendix B, BPC53/B/Final, 19 March 1953.

¹⁷Richelson, The US Intelligence Community, p.511.

¹⁸Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1964–68, Volume XXXIII, Organization and Management of Foreign Policy: United Nations, Document 270, 16th Report of the Intelligence Organization of the Department of State, October 1967, p.592; David Wise, The Politics of Lying: Government Deception, Secrecy and Power (New York: Random House 1973) pp.55–6, 61.

¹⁹Aldrich, The Hidden Hand, p.541.

²¹The National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 24, ‘The National Security Agency Declassified’, ed. Jeffery Richelson, Document 23, SSO (Special Security Office), DIA, ‘Implementation Guidance for Elimination of Codewords’, 22 October 1999, <http://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB24/nsa23.pdf> (accessed 12 February 2011).

²²National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) Review and Redaction Guide for Automatic Declassification of 25-Year-Old Information, 2008, p.8, <http://www.nro.gov/foia/docs/foia-rrg.pdf> (accessed 14 January 2011).

²³Wise, The Politics of Lying, p.57.

²⁴NSA, Thomas Johnson, American Cryptology during the Cold War, 1945–1989, Book II Centralization Wins, 1960–1972 (Fort Meade, MD: Centre for Cryptologic History, NSA 1995) p.473, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_ii.pdf> (accessed 19 December 2010); NSA, In Camera Affidavit of Eugene F. Yeates, Citizens Against Unidentified Flying Saucer Secrecy v. National Security Agency, Civil Action 80-1562, 9 October 1980, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/ufo/in_camera_affadavit_yeates.pdf> (accessed 21 December 2010).

²⁵NSA, Cryptologic Almanac, 50th Anniversary Series, ‘Quiz’, July/August 2002.

²⁶NSA, Venona Documents, I.D. Special Analysis Report 1, ‘Covernames in diplomatic traffic’, by ASA I.D., 30 August 1947, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1947/30aug_special_analysis_report1.pdf> (accessed 4 January 2011); Intercept 3/NBF/T1201, ‘1. Query about a sample sent by Arthur 2. Taylor's information about guns’, (8 June 1943), 3 January 1961, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_tech_queries.pdf> (accessed 4 January 2011); Intercept 3/PPDT/101, ‘1. Barch's Meeting 2. Fuch's and probable reference to atomic energy project’, (10 August 1941), 11 October 1968, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1941/10aug_barch_mtg.pdf> (accessed 4 January 2011); Intercept 3/PPDT/T106, ‘London Addressee Artur’, (24 July 1941), 29 May 1969, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1941/24jul_artur.pdf> (accessed 5 January 2011).

²⁷Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Venona, Part 1: The American Response to Soviet Espionage, Minute Lamphere to Gardner, ‘FLORA DON WOYSCHIN with alias’, 9 May 1949, <https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939–1957/25.gif> (accessed 21 December 2010); Minute Lamphere to Gardner, ‘EMIL JULIUS KLAUS FUCHS, aka: Karl Fuchs’, 26 September 1949, <https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939–1957/28.gif> (accessed 21 December 2010); NSA Venona Documents, Intercept S/NBP/T87, ‘References to a promise of Soviet citizenship to “Lily” and “Aleksandrov” and to Beck's embarrassment’, (12 November 1944), 11 June 1951, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/12nov_kgb_officers.pdf> (accessed 5 January 2011); Intercept S/NBF/T94, ‘The failure of Albert to reply to the “office”’, (25 August 1944), 4 July 1951, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/25aug_failure_albert_reply.pdf> (accessed 5 January 2011); Intercept S/NBF/T380, ‘Recommendation by “Greek” of certain Germans’, (29 January 1944), 22 September 1953, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29jan_greek.pdf> (accessed 26 December 2010); Amendment to intercept S/NBF/T328, ‘Gustav’, (31 January 1944), 19 October 1953, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/30jan_gustav_p2.pdf> (accessed 26 December 2010); Intercept 6/NBF/T224 Reissue, ‘References to “The Polecats”’, (20 May 1944), 11 January 1955, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/20may_trotskyites.pdf> (accessed 26 December 2010); Intercept 3/NBF/T1147 ‘Alex's absence in Portland’, (23 June 1943), 9 July 1959, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/23jun_code_clerk.pdf> (accessed 26 December 2010)

²⁸TNA, HW 80/7, Technical Conference for the implementation of the US–British Comint Agreement, 15 July–26 July, 1948, Appendix B, not dated; HW 80/9, ‘Introduction to the Appendices to the US-Comint Agreement, 1 June 1951; ’Amendment No. 1 to Appendices to US–British Communications Intelligence Agreement (Third Edition), 27 July 1951; HW 80/10, ‘BRUSA Planning Conference 1953, Final Report’, 25 March 1953; HW 80/9, Appendix G, Exchange of Collateral Material and Comint material, 1 October 1953; HW 80/11, UKUSA Agreement, 10 October 1956.

²⁹TNA, HW 75/49, Intercept S/AAL/T24 ‘Albanian Security Message’, 19 August 1947; Intercept S/AAL/T23 ‘Albanian Security Reports concerning fugitives and persons attempting to escape into Greece’, 2 September 1947; HW 75/23, Intercept, S/ACK/T65 ‘Mention of decree concerning official relations of Czech offices with foreign consular offices’, 6 July 1949; HW 75/24, Intercept, S/ACK/T104 ‘Granting of Leave to SNB Units’, 1 August 1950.

³⁰Guy R. Vanderpool, ‘COMINT and the PRC Intervention in the Korean War’, Cryptologic Quarterly 15/2 (1996) p.22, endnote 13.

³¹NSA Venona Documents, Amendment to intercept S/NBF/T328, ‘Gustav’, (31 January 1944), 19 October 1953, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/30jan_gustav_p2.pdf> (accessed 26 December 2010); Intercept S/NBF/T662, ‘Reference to “the distant neighbour's line”’, (19 February 1946), 10 December 1954, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1946/19feb_distant_neighbor.pdf> (accessed 26 December 2010).

³²HW 75/49, Intercept, S/AAL/T24 ‘Albanian Security Reports concerning fugitives and persons attempting to escape into Greece’, 2 September 1947; HW 75/23 Intercept, S/ACK/T64 ‘State Security Organisation’, 29 June 1949.

³³NSA, Venona Documents, Intercept 6/NBF/T224 Reissue, ‘References to “The Polecats”’, (20 May 1944), 11 January 1955, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/20may_trotskyites.pdf> (accessed 26 December 2010); Intercept 3/NBF/T1143, ‘1. A warning about conduct 2. Proposed transfer of Zyryanov’, (21 February 1943), 16 June 1959, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/21feb_reprimand.pdf> (accessed 26 December 2010). However, while the overwhelming majority of Eider documents from Venona and other sources fit within this date range, there are three Venona intercepts from January 1960 marked with Eider. This is the period when Daunt was in use as a code word and the only occasion when two code words overlap. It is not known why this occurred. Perhaps there was simply a shortage of paper pre-printed with the Daunt code word and NSA officials used Eider paper instead.

³⁴HW 75/23, Intercept, S/ACK/T65 ‘Mention of decree concerning official relations of Czech offices with foreign consular offices’, 6 July 1949; HW 75/24, Intercept, S/ACK/T103 ‘Infiltration of agents into Czechoslovakia’, 17 July 1950.

³⁵NSA, Venona Documents, Intercept 3/NBF/T1147 ‘Alex's absence in Portland’, (23 June 1943), 9 July 1959, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/23jun_code_clerk.pdf> (accessed 26 December 2010); Intercept 3/NBF/T1334, ‘Reference to “Oleg”’, (13 May 1945), 13 December 1960, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/13may_oleg.pdf> (accessed 27 December 2010).

³⁶HW 75/24, Intercept, S/ACK/T104 ‘Granting of Leave to SNB Units’, 1 August 1950; CIA Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), Special Collections: Korean War, Current Intelligence Bulletin, 28 June 1951, <http://www.foia.cia.gov/KoreanWar/DailyReports/1951/1951-06-28a.pdf> (accessed 5 January 2011).

³⁷NSA, Venona Documents, Intercept 3/NBF/T1201 Re-issue, ‘1. Query about a sample sent by Arthur 2. Taylor's information about guns’, (8 June 1943), 3 January 1961, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_tech_queries.pdf> (accessed 27 December 2010); Intercept 3/NBF/T1720, ‘The Despatch and Legalization of the Australian Woman’, (31 December 1942), 24 August 1965, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1942/31dec_naval_gru.pdf> (accessed 27 December 2010).

³⁸NSA, Venona Documents, Intercept S/NBF/T94, ‘The failure of Albert to reply to the “office”’, (25 August 1944), 4 July 1951, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/25aug_failure_albert_reply.pdf> (accessed 27 December 2010). CIA FOIA, Special Collections: Korean War, Current Intelligence Bulletin, 29 June 1952, <http://www.foia.cia.gov/KoreanWar/DailyReports/1952/1952–06–29.pdf> (accessed 5 January 2011).

³⁹NSA, Cryptologic Almanac, 50th Anniversary Series, ‘Quiz’, July/August 2002.

⁴⁰CIA FOIA, Special Collections: Korean War, Current Intelligence Digest, 1 July 1952, <http://www.foia.cia.gov/KoreanWar/DailyReports/1952/1952–07–01a.pdf> (accessed 5 January 2011); NSA, Venona Documents, Intercept S/NBF/T380, ‘Recommendation by “Greek” of certain Germans’, (29 January 1944), 22 September 1953, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29jan_greek.pdf> (accessed 26 December 2010).

⁴¹NSA, Cryptologic Almanac, 50th Anniversary Series, ‘Quiz’, July/August 2002; Richelson, The US Intelligence Community, p.513.

⁴²TNA, HW 80/10, BRUSA Planning Conference 1953, Final Report, Appendix B, BPC53/B/Final, 19 March 1953.

⁴³TNA, HW 80/11 UK–US Communications Intelligence Agreement (UKUSA Agreement), Appendix B, not dated.

⁴⁴NSA, Cryptologic Almanac, 50th Anniversary Series, ‘Quiz’, July/August 2002; James Bamford, The Puzzle Palace: A Report on America's Most Secret Agency (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1983) p.162.

⁴⁵Wise, The Politics of Lying, p.57; Bamford, The Puzzle Palace, pp.161–2.

⁴⁶Bamford, The Puzzle Palace, pp.161–2; NSA, Thomas Johnson, American Cryptology during the Cold War, 1945–1989, pp.473–4.

⁴⁷NSA, Thomas Johnson, American Cryptology during the Cold War, 1945–1989, p.474; Bamford, The Puzzle Palace, p.162.

⁴⁸Aid, The Secret Sentry, pp.141–2.

⁴⁹NSA, Thomas Johnson, American Cryptology during the Cold War, 1945–1989, p.448; National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 278, The Secret Sentry Declassified, Document 24, Les Actes D'Agression Declares de L'Imperialisme U.S. Contre Le Peuple Coreen (Pyongyang: Editions en Langues Etrangeres 1968) (extract) <http://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/24.PDF> (accessed 4 March 2011).

⁵⁰National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 278, The Secret Sentry Declassified, Document 3, Robert Newton, The Capture of the USS Pueblo and its Effect on SIGINT Operations, US Cryptologic History, Special Series, Crisis Collection, Vol. 7 (Fort Meade, MD: Center for Cryptologic History 1992) p.124, <http://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/03.PDF> (accessed 4 March 2011).

⁵¹NSA, Cryptologic Almanac, 50th Anniversary Series, ‘Quiz’, July/August 2002.

⁵²Ibid.; Kimbo: NSA, Cuban Missile Crisis, ‘Reflection of Soviet Bloc Pilots/Technicians in Cuban Air Force Training’, 24 August 1962, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cuban_missile_crisis/24_august_reflection.pdf> (accessed 5 April 2011); Sabre: NSA, Cuban Missile Crisis, ‘Cuban Air Force VHF communications procedure’, 17 May 1962, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cuban_missile_crisis/17_may_cuban_air.pdf> (accessed 5 April 2011).

⁵³Bamford, The Puzzle Palace, p.398; TNA, HW 75/30, Note ZIP/RUP/C9 ‘Note on the RUP/T series’, 17 January 1947.

⁵⁴Richelson, The US Intelligence Community, pp.512–14.

⁵⁵In an interview with Oliver Kirby, his period in the NSA's Office of Collection from approximately 1954 to 1956, was described as ‘pre-GAMMA time’: NSA, Declassification and Transparency, Oral History Interviews, Oliver R. Kirby NSA-OH-20-93, pp.53, 55–6, <http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/oral_history_interviews/nsa_oh_20_92_kirby.pdf> (accessed 4 April 2011). Gamma appears on a State Department document from 1967: Declassified Document Reference System (DDRS), Intelligence Note, ‘The Soviet Contribution to the Start of the Current Mid-East Crisis’, Denney to Secretary of State, 1 June 1967.

⁵⁶Aid, The Secret Sentry, pp.144–5, 152–3; Bamford, The Puzzle Palace, p.160.

⁵⁷Digital National Security Archive, Department of the Air Force, Administration of the Gamma Control Program, FTD Regulation 205–9, 3 January 1989.

⁵⁸Bamford, The Puzzle Palace, pp.160–1.

⁵⁹Aid, The Secret Sentry, pp.144–5, 152–3.

⁶⁰DDRS, Intelligence Note, ‘The Soviet Contribution to the Start of the Current Mid-East Crisis’, Denney to Secretary of State, 1 June 1967.

⁶²CIA FOIA, Central Intelligence Bulletin, 6 September 1972.

⁶¹CIA FOIA, Current Intelligence Weekly Review, SC No. 00578/63, 8 February 1963; Intelligence Memorandum SC No 06810/66, ‘Buildup of Vietnamese Communist forces continues after resumption of air attacks’, 21 February 1966; National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 187, US Intelligence and the Indian Bomb, Document 16, NSA Comint Report, ‘Capital Projects Planned in India’, 31 August 1972, <http://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB187/IN16.pdf> (accessed 2 March 2011).

⁶³Ibid. The top secret version was only to be seen by US personnel indoctrinated and authorized to receive Comint; FRUS, 1969–1976, Volume II, Organization and Management of US Foreign Policy, 1969–1972, Document 217, Memorandum Latimer to Kissinger, 1 December 1970, p.468.

⁶⁴Federation of American Scientists, CIA, Centre for the Study of Intelligence, Intelligence Monograph, ‘Critique of the Codeword Compartment in the CIA’, March 1977, <http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/codeword.html> (accessed 14 February 2011); National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 225, ‘Secrecy and U.S. Satellite Reconnaissance, 1958–1976’, Document 23, Chief Special Intelligence Staff, Special Centre Notice 6-64, ‘Classification of Talent and Keyhole Information’, 16 January 1964, <http://www.gwu.edu/∼nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB225/doc23.pdf> (accessed February 27 2011).

⁶⁵FRUS, 1969–1976, Volume II, Organization and Management of US Foreign Policy, 1969–1972, Document 217, Memorandum Latimer to Kissinger, 1 December 1970, p.468.

⁶⁶CIA FOIA, Current Intelligence Weekly Review, SC No. 03826/56, 30 August 1956.

⁶⁷CIA FOIA, Current Intelligence Weekly Review, SC No. 01999/58, 3 April 1958; Current Intelligence Weekly Review, SC No. 00578/63, 8 February 1963.

⁶⁸TNA, CAB 176/59, Minute JIC/2691/56 Atkinson to JIC, 2 November 1956.

⁶⁹TNA, AIR 19/852, Minute W.M.L MacDonald to ACAS(P), 5 November 1956.

⁷⁰NRO, Review and Redaction Guide for Automatic Declassification of 25-Year-Old Information, p.149.

⁷¹CIA FOIA, CIA Report, CIA/SC/RR 122, ‘Soviet Defense Expenditures’, 27 October 1955.

⁷²CIA FOIA, Memorandum SC No. 00613/63B, ‘France's Position in Tropical Africa’, 11 October 1963; DDRS, ‘Synopsis of Intelligence Material Reported to the President’, 16 April 1959; CIA FOIA, Intelligence Memorandum, ‘India–Pakistan: Comparative Capabilities in a New Military Confrontation’, 13 September 1971; DDRS, ‘Synopsis of Intelligence Material Reported to the President’, 11 August 1960; CIA FOIA, Intelligence Memorandum SC No. 09646/66, ‘The Effectiveness of the Rolling Thunder Program in North Vietnam 1 January–30 September 1966’, November 1966; DDRS, CIA Intelligence Memorandum SC No. 03818/66, ‘South Africa on the Crest of the Wave’, 30 August 1966; CIA FOIA, Special Intelligence Estimate, SIE-5, ‘The Scale and Nature of the Soviet Air Defense Effort 1952–4’, 3 December 1952.

⁷⁶DDRS, CIA Current Intelligence Weekly Review, SC No. 01165/61, 25 May 1961.

⁷³DDRS, ‘Synopsis of Intelligence Material Reported to the President’ by John Eisenhower, 11 August 1960.

⁷⁴Cold War International History Project, CWIHP Document Reader, ‘The Congo Crisis, 1960–1961’, ed. Lise Namikas and Sergey Mazov, Minute Amory to Director for Intelligence, The Joint Staff, JCS, 9 September 1960, <http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Congo%201960–611.pdf> (accessed 2 March 2011).

⁷⁵Sergei Mazov, ‘Soviet Aid to the Gizenga Government in the Former Belgian Congo (1960–61) as Reflected in Russian Archives’, Cold War History 7/3 (2007) p.431.

⁷⁷FRUS, 1964–1968, Volume XXXI, South and Central America; Mexico, Document 176, Information Memorandum, Rostow to Johnson, 26 June 1968, p.392.

⁷⁸Bamford, The Puzzle Palace, pp.495, 497, 499.

⁷⁹Audrey R. Kahin and George McT. Kahin, Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia (New York: The New Press 1995).

⁸⁰DDRS, ‘Synopsis of Intelligence material reported to the President’ by John Eisenhower, 4 March 1959; ‘Synopsis of Intelligence material reported to the President’ by John Eisenhower, 18 March 1959.

⁸¹Bamford, The Puzzle Palace, pp.189–90.

⁸²Aid, The Secret Sentry, pp.145–6.

⁸³Jack Anderson, ‘U.S. Is Forced to Spy on Saigon’, Washington Post, 30 April 1971, pp.19, D19.

⁸⁴Aid, The Secret Sentry, pp.145–7

⁸⁵Thomas Powers, The Man Who Kept The Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA (New York: Alfred A. Knopf 1979) p.198.

⁸⁶FRUS, 1964–1968, Volume VII, Vietnam, September 1968 – January 1969, Document 186, Editorial Note, pp.536–7.

⁸⁷Ibid.; Document 195, Notes of Meeting, 5 November 1968, p.566.

⁸⁸DDRS, Telegram KAB518, DIRNSA to White House, 21 October 1968.

⁸⁹CIA FOIA, Minute SC No. 10078/65/a, Cline to Bundy, 18 August 1965; Memorandum SC No. 10078/65, ‘Probable Effects in China and Taiwan of a GRC Attack on the Mainland’, 18 August 1965.

⁹⁰Ibid.; John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Digital Archives, China: Security, 1962–63, ‘The President's Intelligence Checklist’, 19 June 1962.

⁹¹Allen S. Whiting, The Chinese Calculus of Deterrence: India and Indochina (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan 2001) pp.xv, 261 endnote 67.

⁹²Ibid.; Allen S. Whiting, ‘China's Use of Force, 1950–96, and Taiwan’, International Security 26/2 (2001) p.111, footnote 31.

⁹³DDRS, Memorandum, Hilsman to Harriman, ‘Evidence of Peiping's Concern over Possible GRC-US Intentions’, 22 June 1962.

⁹⁴Whiting, ‘China's Use of Force, 1950–96, and Taiwan’, p.114

⁹⁵Whiting, The Chinese Calculus of Deterrence, p.177.

⁹⁶The CIA has actually declassified two copies of the report and redacted different sections on each copy. By comparing the two reports it possible to see the full text of the section ‘Military Preparations in Communist China’ and the code word DINAR. See CIA FOIA, Special Report SC No. 00657/65C, ‘Chinese Communists Brace for Possible Spread of Indochina War’, Copies numbered 014 and 407, 12 February 1965.

⁹⁷Chen Jian, Mao's China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press 2001) pp.208–9, 213–14; Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story, (London: Jonathan Cape 2005) p.502.