CIA-MI6 psychological warfare and the subversion of communist Albania in the early Cold War

ABSTRACT

The west’s prototype covert action of the Cold War against Albania, codenamed BGFIEND/Valuable, is often characterized as a failure of the rollback policy against the Soviet bloc. This article argues that, from late 1949, the CIA and MI6 did not attempt to overthrow Enver Hoxha’s communist regime as historians have assumed, but to subvert and harass it primarily through psychological – not paramilitary – warfare. On one hand, western intelligence enjoyed some modest propaganda achievements, and valuable organizational and tradecraft experience was acquired for future operations. Nevertheless, BGFIEND/Valuable also faced innumerable challenges and setbacks, illustrating the difficulty of waging subversive psychological warfare against a hostile authoritarian state in the early Cold War.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. For detailed accounts, see Bethell, The Great Betrayal; and Lulushi, Operation Valuable Fiend. For chapter/article-length discussions see Corke, US Covert Operations; Cormac, Disrupt and Deny; Dorril, MI6; and Dravis, “Storming Fortress Albania.”

2. For example, Mitrovich, Undermining the Kremlin, 182.

3. Heuser, Western ‘Containment’ Policies, 79; Winks, Cloak and Gown, 399.

4. In particular, CIA Subject Files – Second Release, RG263, Entry ZZ-19 at the National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MA, United States (hereafter NARA); also see FO 1093/452, FO 1093/453, FO 1093/635 and FO 1093/636, The National Archives, Kew, United Kingdom (hereafter TNA).

5. These core activities were supplemented by airdrops of tinned food and consumer goods, highly-publicised offers of food aid by the White House and NCFA, a ‘poison pen’ letter-writing campaign and a defector scheme.

6. NSC 4-A “Psychological Operations”, 17 December 1947, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945–1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1996, Document 257: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d247 [Foreign Relations of the United States; hereafter FRUS].

7. NSC 10/2 “Office of Special Projects”, 18 June 1948, FRUS 1945–1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1996, Document 292: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d292. OPC was semi-autonomous within the CIA until Director Walter Bedell Smith integrated it with the Office of Special Operations in the Directorate of Plans in 1952. On the evolution of US covert policy and capabilities, see Corke, US Covert Operations; Long, The CIA and the Soviet Bloc; Lucas, Freedom’s War; and Mitrovich, Undermining the Kremlin.

8. Defty, “Close and Continuous Liaison”; Wilford, “The Information Research Department.”

9. On the development of British covert policy in the early Cold War see Aldrich, British Intelligence Strategy and the Cold War; Cormac, “The Pinprick Approach”; Gwinnett, “Attlee, Bevin, and Political Warfare”; and Lomas, Intelligence, Security and the Attlee Governments.

10. NSC 20/4 “U.S. Objectives With Respect to the USSR To Counter Soviet Threats to U.S. Security”, 23 November 1948, FRUS, 1948, General; The United Nations, Volume 1 Part 2. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1976, Document 60: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1948v01p2/d60.

11. “Outline Plan for Project No EE-10 Code Name BGFIEND”, undated, Box 46, Volume 2, Folder 1, BGFIEND Papers, NARA. [Hereafter B46, V2, F1].

12. “Country Plan – Albania”, undated, B45, V1, F1, NARA.

13. “Re-evaluation and Revision of OPC Plans Relating to Albania”, 14 February 1951, B46, V2, F1, NARA.

14. Untitled memorandum, 6 December 1949, FO1093/453, TNA; “OPC Plans and Operations in Albania”, 17 May 1950, B49, V15, F1, NARA.

15. Chief, EE-1, “Project BGFIEND Report”, 29 November 1951, B46, V2, F1, NARA.

16. “PARAM/BGFIEND: Information Regarding VALUABLE 1953”, 2 March 1953, B51 V24 F1, NARA.

17. CIA Intelligence Memorandum No. 208, “Strengths and Weaknesses of the Hoxha Regime in Albania”, 12 September 1949, Box 213, President’s Secretary’s Files (PSF), Harry S. Truman Presidential Library (hereafter HSTL).

18. CIA Intelligence Memorandum No. 248, “Satellite Relations with the USSR and the West”, 7 November 1949, NSC File, B1, CIA Files, National Security Council (NSC) Files, HSTL.

19. Glenny, The Balkans, 566.

20. CIA Intelligence Memorandum No. 248, “Satellite Relations with the USSR and the West”, 7 November 1949, B1, CIA Files, NSC Files, HSTL.

21. Colonel Stilwell to State Department, “Data from Mr. Wisner’s briefing – Webb Meeting”, 27 September 1949, B48, V14, F1, NARA.

22. Memorandum of Conversation, “Possible Diplomatic Action Relating to Albania”, 21 October 1952, B51, V23, F1, NARA.

23. Memorandum for the Record, “Discussion regarding Albania and Other Related Matters”, 6 September 1951, B46, V2, F1, NARA.

24. “Valuable: Liaison Visit to Washington”, 12 December 1949, FO1093/453, TNA.

25. Long, “Strategic Disorder.”

26. On Wisner, see Hersh, The Old Boys, 177–200, 227–8; and Thomas, The Very Best Men, 15–31.

27. “Project BGFIEND Review for DCI”, 8 November 1951, B46, V2, F1, NARA.

28. Cull, “Roof for a House Divided,” 136; Cummings, Cold War Radio, 10.

29. Alfred Weld to Lang, untitled memorandum, 5 September 1951, Box 3, Washburn, Abbott, Papers 1938–2003, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library (hereafter DDEL); Cummings, “The Intelligence Underpinnings of American Covert Radio Broadcasting,” 187.

30. For example, Kenneth Osgood’s excellent study of Eisenhower-era US psychological warfare mentions BGFIEND/Valuable in passing but does not discuss the vast propaganda programme it encompassed. See Osgood, Total Cold War, 40.

31. OPC Memorandum, “Project Analysis BGFIEND”, 22 June 1951, B46, V2, F1, NARA; currency inflation calculator: http://www.in2013dollars.com/us/inflation/1950?amount=500000.

32. Assistant Director Special Operations to Assistant Director Policy Coordination, “Albanian Operation – Activities of Albanian Émigré Groups in Italy”, 18 November 1949, B48, V14, F2, NARA.

33. Memorandum to Chief, OPC, “Transmittal of BGFiend Documents”, March 1950, B49, V15, F1, NARA.

34. Mallory Browne to Gordon Gray, “Preliminary Evaluation of Radio Free Europe”, 12 February 1952, B3, Psychological Strategy Board Files, HSTL.

35. Acting Assistant Director for Policy Coordination to Assistant Director, Office of Communications, “Report on Project BGSPEED (SS JUANITA)”, 4 March 1952, B48, V12, NARA.

36. “EE-I Report of Operations for the Quarter Ended 30 June 1951”, B49, V17, F1, NARA.

37. See Cummings, R., “CIA’s Clandestine Radio Broadcasting From Greece in the early Cold War.” Blogpost (2016): https://swling.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/CIA%E2%80%99s-Clandestine-Radio-Broadcasts-Short.pdf.

38. Memorandum to Chief, OPC, “Transmittal of BGFIEND Document”, 31 July 1950, B49, V15, F1, NARA.

39. “History of OPC/EE-1, Sept 1949 – January 1952”, undated, B48, V13, F2, NARA. For British documents, see FO 1110/61, TNA.

40. “The Albanian Operation”, 21 March 1949, B48, V13, F1, NARA.

41. See above 15.

42. “HTGRUBBY Monthly Report, 15 May to 15 June 1953”, 20 June 1953, B52, V25, F1, NARA.

43. BBC Monitoring Service, “Clandestine Albanian Radio Station: Memo to Chief”, 13 September 1951, FO 371/95038, TNA.

44. “Summary of Broadcasting Activities Under Project OBTEST”, undated, B48, V10, NARA.

45. “DD/P Project Approval Sheet: OBTEST”, 16 July 1954, B48, V10, NARA.

46. “BGFIEND Briefing, 22 August 1950”, undated, B49, V15, F1, NARA.

47. “EE-I Daily Progress Report”, 26 September 1951; “BGFIEND Monthly Project Status Report for Month of September 1951”, undated, B49, V18, F1, NARA.

48. “BGFiend/BGFlume Progress Report – 15 May – 15 June 1952”, 2 July 1952, B51, V22, F1, NARA.

49. “BGFIEND Monthly Project Status Report for Month of November 1951”, undated, B50, V19, NARA.

50. Chief, SE, “Monthly Survey Report – 15 August/15 September 1952”, 1 October 1952, B51, V23, F1, NARA.

51. See note 48 above.

52. Memorandum to Chief, SE, “BGFIEND/PARAM: BGFIEND Operations, 1952”, 5 February 1953, B51, V4, F1, NARA.

53. Joint Press Reading Report, Liri Belishova, Member of the Politburo of the Albanian Labour Party, “The Building of the Foundations of Socialism in Albania”, 8 February 1952, FO 371/101579, TNA.

54. Sir Anthony Rumbold, FO, to Lord Hood, British Embassy Paris, untitled memorandum, May 1950, FO 371/87499, TNA.

55. Memorandum to Chief, SE, “Psych/Albania: 1957 Year-end Progress Report”, 12 February 1958, B53, V30, NARA.

56. “Monthly Report, HTGrubby: 15 October-15 November”, 17 November 1952, B51, V23, F2, NARA.

57. “BGFiend/BGFlume Progress Report – 15 November-15 December 1951”, undated, B50, V19, NARA.

58. Memorandum to Chief, SE, “BGFIEND/PARAM: BGFIEND Monthly Survey Report, 15 April-14 May 1953”, 29 May 1953, B52, V25, F1, NARA.

59. “BGFIEND Status Report”, 9 January 1951, B46 V5, NARA.

60. “BGFIEND Meeting – LCDRINK – 23-25 July 1952”, B51, V22, F2, NARA.

61. “Monthly Survey Report – BGFiend – 15 June-15 July 1952”, B51, V22, F1, NARA.

62. A. John Cope Jr to Department of State, untitled memorandum, 30 June 1953, Central File: Decimal File 767.00, Records of the Department of State relating to Internal Affairs: Albania 1950–54, NARA.

63. Bethell, The Great Betrayal, 188–9; BBC Monitoring Service, “Coming Trial of 14 Spies; Extracts from Depositions Made to Examining Magistrate”, undated, FO 371/95043, TNA.

64. “Conversation with Department of State on 8 November 1951 – Current Status of BGFIEND”, undated, B50, V19, NARA.

65. People’s Republic of Albania Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Note No. 815 to the President of the United Nations General Assembly, 19 November 1951, FO 371/95027, TNA.

66. “Report on Radio Free Europe”, Business Research Staff, General Motors, 15 December 1952, B54, C. D. Jackson Papers, 1931–67, DDEL.

67. “BGFIEND Monthly Project Status Report for Month of February 1952”, B50, V20, F2, NARA.

68. Memorandum to Deputy Director (Plans), “Project OBTEST, Amendment No. 1”, undated, B48, V10, NARA.

69. “Monthly Project Status Report for Month of May 1952”, B51, V22, F1, NARA.

70. “Project Status Report: OBTEST, 1–31 October 1956”, B53, V30, NARA.

71. See note 44 above.

72. “Project BGFIEND Review for DCI”, 8 November 1951, B46, V2, F1, NARA; Memorandum to Chief, SE, ““Psych/Albania: 1957 Year-end Progress Report”, 12 February 1958, B53, V30, NARA.

73. See note 44 above.

74. “Albania”, undated, B3, NSC Staff – Papers, 1948–61, DDEL.

75. BBC Monitoring Service, “Albania Bans All Journeys Without Police Permits: Belgrade Report”, 26 February 1953, FO 371/107287, TNA.

76. “Project Status Report: OBTUSE, 1–31 July 1955”, undated, B53, V29, F2, NARA.

77. James W. Pratt to Department of State, “Radio Free Europe Reports on Albania”, 17 August 1955, Central File: Decimal File 767.00, NARA.

78. “Monthly Survey Report – BGFiend/BGFlume – 15 July to 15 August 1952”, undated, B51, V22, F2, NARA.

79. CIA OSI-1-50, “Historical Developments in the Jamming of the VOA by the USSR”, 20 January 1950, B218, PSF, HSTL.

80. Chief, SE-1, “Albania: September 1953”, undated, B52, V26, F1, NARA.

81. “Summary of 1953 Operations for VALUABLE”, 12 March 1954, B52, V27, F1, NARA.

82. Chief, SE to C/OPS, “Request for Radio Policy Guidance”, 3 November 1954, B48, V10, NARA.

83. See note 44 above.

84. “Albania”, undated, B3, National Security Council Staff – Papers, 1948–61, DDEL.

85. “FIEND/VALUABLE Conference: Record of Agreed Action”, undated, B52, V26, F1, NARA; “BGFIEND Monthly Project Status Report for Month of February 1952”, undated, B50, V20, F2, NARA.

86. Memorandum to Chief, OPC, “Seventh S.I. Letter from Pine”, 28 April 1952, B50, V21, NARA.

87. See note 77 above.

88. See note 84 above.

89. “Country Plan – Albania”, undated, B46, V3, NARA.

90. “Notification of Project Approval: OBTEST (FY 1959)”, 7 October 1958, B48, V10, NARA.

91. NSC 5811/1, “U.S. Policy toward the Soviet-Dominated Nations in Eastern Europe”, 24 May 1958, FRUS 1958–1960, Volume X, Part 1, Eastern Europe Region; Soviet Union; Cyprus. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1993: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v10p1/d6.

92. See note 55 above.

93. Memorandum to Chief, SE, “Plans/OBTEST: Considerations on the Termination of HTGRUBBY”, undated, B48, V10, NARA.

94. Memorandum to Chief, EE, “Operational/OBTEST: Review of OBTEST/1 Operations”, 9 April 1959, B48, V10, NARA.

95. See note 90 above.

96. “CA Project Action Record: OBTEST”, 11 July 1960, B48, V10, NARA.

97. MI6 memorandum, 4 March 1950, B49, V15, F1, NARA.

98. Bethell, The Albanian Operation, 108.

99. “Extract from Summary and Progress Report of EE-I Projects to 31 August 1950”, B49, V15, F1, NARA.

100. Chief, SE, “BGFIEND Defection Leaflet”, 25 September 1953, B52, V26, F1, NARA.

101. “Schedule of BGFIEND-VALUABLE Leaflet Drops 1950-19 – ”, undated, B47, V8, NARA.

102. “CIA/opc 1952 Albanian Operations”, 18 December 1951, B46, V2, F1, NARA; memorandum for Chief, SE Division, “Monthly Report of Activities of SE/PO-1”, 31 July 1952, B51, V22, F2, NARA.

103. “EE-I Report of Operations for the Quarter Ended 30 June 1951”, undated, B49, V17, F1, NARA.

104. Memorandum to Chief, OPC, Washington D.C., “Transmittal of BGFiend Documents”, March 1950, B49, V15, F1, NARA.

105. Memorandum to Chief, SE, “Albania/OBTUSE/OBTEST: Review of Albanian KUCAGE Activities During 1955 and General Plans for 1956”, 19 April 1956, B47, V9, NARA.

106. Memo to Chief, OPC, “Memorandum from Valuable”, 21 February 1952, B50, V20, F2, NARA.

107. “Project Status Report: OBOPUS”, 7 May 1954, B52, V27, F2, NARA.

108. Memorandum to Chief, SE, “ALBANIA/LIAISON: VALUABLE Liaison Report 16 June – 15 July 1954”, 28 July 1954, B53, V28, F1, NARA; “Project Status Report: OBLIVIOUS, 1–31 July 1955”, undated, B53, V29, F2, NARA.

109. “Project Status Report: OBOPUS”, 17 March 1954, B52, V27, F1, NARA.

110. See note 38 above.

111. “Minutes FIEND/VALUABLE Conference: Rome, 22–24 October 1951”, undated, B49, V18, F2, NARA.

112. “Record of a Meeting held at the Foreign Office on November 29th, 1949”, undated, FO 1093/453, TNA.

113. Memorandum for Deputy for Policy Coordination, SE, “Daily Progress Report for Monday, 31 March 1952”, B50, V21, F2, NARA.

114. “Leaflet Drop Schedule to Albania”, undated, B47, V8, NARA.

115. “Composition of the Polish Aircrew – BGFIEND”, 29 August 1950, B49, V15, F1, NARA.

116. “EE-I Daily Progress Report”, 4 October 1951, B49, V18, F1, NARA.

117. Memorandum to Chief, SE, “OBOPUS: OBTUSE Progress Report, 15 December 1953 Through 14 January 1954”, 19 January 1954, B52, V27, F1, NARA.

118. These figures have been calculated from multiple documents within the BGFIEND records. See, for example: Memorandum to Chief SE, “Psychological Warfare Effort – ALBANIA”, 26 July 1956; “Summary Request for Renewal”, 18 July 1957, B47, V9, NARA.

119. Memorandum to Senior Representative, “OBTUSE/OBTEST: Program for 1955”, 4 February 1955, B47, V9, NARA.

120. NIE-42 “The Current Situation in Albania with Particular Reference to Greek, Yugoslav and Italian Interests”, 15 November 1951, B50, V19, NARA.

121. Memorandum for Chief, SE Division, “Monthly Report of Activities of SE/PO-1”, 31 July 1952, B51, V22, F2; “Project Status Report: OBTUSE”, 1–31 July 1955, B53, V29, F2, NARA.

122. Memorandum to Chief DYCLAVIER, “BGFIEND ROME MONTHLY SURVEY REPORT: 15 June to 15 July 1952”, 4 August 1952, B51, V22, F2, NARA.

123. Memorandum to Chief, OPC, “Murat [Hoxha] Attack BGBEGOOD – SHAM/BGFIEND”, 28 April 1952, B50, V21, NARA.

124. BBC Monitoring Report, 8 February 1956, FO 371/123811, TNA.

125. “Project Status Report: OBTUSE”, 1–31 October 1955, B53, V29, F2, NARA.

126. Memorandum of Conversation “Possible Diplomatic Action Relating to Albania”, 21 October 1952, B51, V23, F1, NARA.

127. See note 105 above .

128. Memorandum to Chief, DYCLUCK “Monthly Survey Report, BGFIEND: 15 April-15 June 1952”, B51, V22, F1, NARA.

129. Memorandum to Chief, SE, “SHAM/BGFIEND/PSYCH”, 3 July 1953, B52, V25, F1, NARA.

130. Bailey, The Wildest Province, 316–7.

Additional information

Funding

Truman Presidential Library Travel Grant, Eisenhower Foundation Research Grant.

Notes on contributors

Stephen Long

Stephen Long is a Lecturer in International Relations at Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University (XJTLU) in Suzhou, China, where he is Programme Director of the BA International Relations. His first book The CIA and the Soviet Bloc: Political Warfare, the Origins of the CIA and Countering Communism in Europe was published with IB Tauris in 2014. He is currently writing a monograph on CIA-MI6 covert action in Albania in the early Cold War.