An F denotes Fellow status in the AAHPERD Research Consortium as of November 2012.
Peer-Reviewed Symposia and Tutorials
Tutorial: Avoiding the Pitfalls of an IRB Submission
Chris A. Ayres, East Tennessee State University
This tutorial will provide attendees with facts and tips to help them avoid common pitfalls that can slow the process of acquiring institutional review board (IRB) approval to conduct human subject research. The session's topics will include the role of an IRB, determining what constitutes human subject research, informed consent, child assent, parental consent, passive consent, privacy, confidentiality, minimal risk, and other related topics. The goal of this program is to aid researchers in their quest for IRB approval and ultimately to facilitate the completion of their research endeavors. The program will provide researchers with examples of IRB submissions that comply with federal guidelines and the necessary language. Attendees will be provided with step-by-step examples of completing a submission narrative and informed consent documents. Examples will include but not be limited to conducting research in public schools, in the university setting, and with the general public. Time will be set aside for questions and discussion.
Tutorial: Mediation Analysis: Why Every Researcher Should Know It
To understand the relationship between independent and dependent variables is essential to any research study. Meanwhile, many researchers have experienced the impact of other hidden variables during their studies (e.g., socioeconomic status on children's physical activity behaviors and fitness status). Without understanding the impact and taking these so-called mediation variables into the consideration of data analysis, the finding and conclusion from any study will likely be questionable. Differing from “confounder” and “covariate,” “mediation variable,” known also as “mediator,” often play a more complicated role among the variables. Fortunately, a set of statistical methods, known as the mediation analysis, has been developed to examine whether a particular data set exhibits a meditational structure, or simply whether an effect of one variable on another is direct or indirect, or both. Mediation analysis has a long and rich history: Theoretically, it can be traced back to the stimulus-organism-response model in psychology; technically, it can be connected with Wright's early path analysis. Yet, this important method has been basically ignored by the kinesiology research community making the findings of many published studies in kinesiology questionable. The purpose of this tutorial is to provide an introduction to the mediation analysis, including what are the mediation variables, the potential impact of mediation variables in research studies, statistical methods that can be used to detect these variables, advantages and disadvantages of each major method, as well as related software applications. Finally, examples of mediation analysis from various fields will be illustrated.
Mediation Variables and Mediation Analysis: What and Why?
Weimo ZhuF University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Although there are various definitions for mediation variables, the one by Baron and Kenny (1986) is considered the most classic definition: “In general terms, a moderator is a qualitative (e.g., sex, race, class) or quantitative (e.g., level of reward) variable that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between an independent or predictor variable and a dependent or criterion variable” (p. 1174). Mediation variables and their impact are everywhere. Using prevention studies as an example, smoking/cholesterol/blood pressure are the mediation variables when studying death due to myocardial infarction; and self-efficacy/enjoyment/knowledge of behaviors are the mediation variables when studying weekly physical activities. Clearly, ignoring mediation variables could lead to misinterpretation of the outcome measures of a study. The mediation analysis is used to examine the relation between the predictor and the criterion variables, the relation between the predictor and the mediator variables, and the relation between the mediator and criterion variables. The relation between predictor and criterion should be reduced (to zero in the case of total mediation) after controlling the relation between the mediator and criterion variables. Once a moderator effect is founded, mediation analysis is used to explain the source of the effect. This presentation will provide a comprehensive review on mediation variables and mediation analysis, including their definitions, their historical development, their relationships with similar variables (e.g., “covariate”), their importance in a research study, related research design, and the latest developments.
Statistical Analysis of Mediation Variables: A Review
Elena Boiarskaia University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Many statistical methods have been developed to detect the impact of mediation variables. The most classic means of testing for mediation is the procedures proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986), in which three regression models were employed. More recently, structural equations modeling is considered the more appropriate method. Other related methods include path analysis, latent variable models, longitudinal models, multilevel models, and the computer-intensive method. Related issues include mediation in categorical data analysis, meta-analysis and causal inference for mediation models, etc. After providing an overall view on the statistical methods that can be used for mediation analysis, a review of application software will be provided. Finally, a few examples with specific, step-by-step applications will be illustrated.
Symposium: Assessing Motor Competency and Physical Fitness Among Elementary School Students
To effectively combat the alarming prevalence of obesity in children, one critical strategy is to engage children in regular physical activity (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010). Motor skill competency and health-enhancing physical fitness are key determinants of children's participation in physical activity (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2009). Quality physical education (PE) is essential to developing motor skill competency and promoting physical fitness. However, few studies investigate elementary school students' levels of motor skill competency and physical fitness as a result of participating in a quality PE. Thus, this symposium aims to present five related studies examining the extent to which K–5 students demonstrated motor skill competency and healthy physical fitness as a result of participating in a 3-year Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant project intervention. Throughout the PEP project, nine elementary PE teachers implemented the Coordinated Approach to Child Health PE curriculum, the Exemplary Physical Education Curriculum, and Mileage Club Recess Program. Completing the training with the PE Metrics assessment tools and the FITNESSGRAM tests, the teacher used them to assess 4,000+students' selected motor skills and four health-related physical fitness components in PEP Years 2 and 3. The first study examined motor skill-competent levels of K–1 students. The second study examined motor skill competency of students in Grades 2 through 3. The third study examined motor skill-competent levels of students in Grades 4 through 5. The fourth study examined 4th-grade students' physical fitness levels. The last study examined gender differences in physical fitness among 5th-grade students.
Assessing K–1 Students' Performance in Motor Skills
Sandy Zalmout, Steve Mason, Steve Wolters, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan
Background/PurposeThis study examined motor performance of K–1 students as they participated in a Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant intervention.
MethodMore than 1,225 K–1 students completed four motor skill tests conducted by their physical education (PE) teacher using the PE Metrics rubrics during a regular PE lesson in PEP Years 2 and 3. Nine teachers were trained for the PE Metrics assessment rubrics during PEP Year 1.
Analysis/ResultsIn Year 2, students demonstrated competency in running (77.5%), dribbling (65.5%), weight transfer (69%), and catching (72.7%). In Year 3, students again demonstrated competency in running (83.1%), dribbling (72.1%), weight transfer (87.6%), and catching (81.9%). A t test yielded a significant difference between Cohort Years 2 and 3 in running (M Year2 = 6.50, M Year3 = 6.71), dribbling (M Year2 = 6.13, M Year3 = 6.38), weight transfer (M Year2 = 12.37, M Year3 = 14.00,), and catching (M Year2 = 19.34, M Year3 = 20.35) at p < .01. A t test indicated that boys scored statistically higher in dribbling (M boys = 6.27, M girls = 5.97) at p < .01, and weight transfer (M boys = 12.53, M girls = 12.19) at p < .05, but not for running and catching in Year 2. In Year 3, boys scored statistically higher in dribbling (M boys = 6.85, M girls = 6.29) at p < .01, weight transfer (M boys = 14.66, M girls = 14.12), and catching (M boys = 20.59, M girls = 20.12) at p < .05, but not in running.
ConclusionsK–1 students demonstrated competency in motor skills needed for physical activities.
Assessment of Second- and Third-Grade Students' Performance in Motor Skills
Steve Wolters, Steve Mason, Sandy Zalmout, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan
Background/PurposeThis study examined second- and third-grade students' motor skill competency as a result of participating in a Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant intervention.
MethodNine physical education (PE) teachers were trained to use the PE Metrics assessment rubrics during workshops in PEP Year 1. More than 1,000 students in second and third grades were assessed on four motor skills by their PE teacher using the PE Metrics rubrics during a regular PE lesson in PEP Years 2 and 3.
Analysis/ResultsTo examine group differences, a t test indicated that the Year 3 cohort statistically outperformed the Year 2 cohort on jumping and landing (M Year2 = 6.62, M Year3 = 7.28, t = − 14.5, p < .01), catching skill (M Year2 = 19.96, M Year3 = 21.03, t = − 6.9, p < .01), and dribbling and jogging (M Year2 = 9.33, M Year3 = 10.19, t = − 12.2, p < .01), but not on locomotor sequence. To examine gender differences, a t test indicated that boys statistically scored higher than girls on overhand catching (M boys = 10.59, M girls = 10.18, t = 4.4, p < .01) and dribbling and jogging. Girls statistically outperformed boys on locomotor sequence (M boys = 7.14, M girls = 7.30, t = − 2.5, p < .01), but not on jumping and landing.
ConclusionsThe participants reached competent level in four skills. The Year 3 cohort was more competent than the Year 2 cohort on three skills. The boys performed better than the girls on two manipulative skills, but not locomotor skills.
Assessing Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Students' Performance in Motor Skills
Austin Hammond-Bennett, Steve Wolters, Steve Mason, Sandy Zalmout, Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan
Background/PurposeMotor skills competency is critical to physical activity promotion. This study examined elementary school students' motor skill competency in Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant Years 2 and 3. Participants included more than 1,000 students in Grades 4 through 5 who were assessed on four basic specialized skills by their physical education (PE) teacher using the PE Metrics rubrics during a regular PE lesson in PEP Years 2 and 3. Nine teachers were trained for the PE Metrics assessment rubrics during workshops in PEP Year 1.
Analysis/ResultsDescriptive statistics showed that 74.2% of the students in Year 2 (M = 9.35, SD = 1.97) and 74.9% in Year 3 (M = 9.61, SD = 1.82) demonstrated competency on the soccer dribbling, passing, and receiving assessment. Among students in Year 2, 64.4% (M = 18.86, SD = 3.48) reached competency on overhand throw, and 80.3% in Year 3 (M = 20.27, SD = 3.30) reached competency on overhand throw. For the basketball dribbling, passing, and receiving, 77.1% of the students in Year 2 (M = 9.52, SD = 1.79) and 88.2% in Year 3 demonstrated competency. Among students in Year 2, 55.9% (M = 5.81, SD = 1.63) demonstrated competency on the tennis striking skill, and 63.9% in Year 3 (M = 6.10, SD = 1.50) demonstrated competency on the tennis striking skill. T tests revealed that the Year 3 cohort scored statistically higher than the Year 2 cohort on each assessment at p < .01.
ConclusionsThe students demonstrated competency on all assessments in Years 2 and 3, except for the striking skill in Year 2.
Assessing Fourth-Grade Students' Levels of Physical Fitness
Weiyun Chen, F, Steve Wolters, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Sandy Zalmout, Steve Mason, University of Michigan
Background/PurposePhysically fit children tend to be physically active. This study investigated fourth graders' physical fitness as a result of participating in a 3-year Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant intervention. Five hundred seventy-three fourth graders in PEP Year 2 and 623 fourth graders in PEP Year 3 completed five FITNESSGRAM tests administered by their physical education (PE) teacher during regular PE lessons. Nine teachers were trained for use of the FITNESSGRAM test criteria and protocols in PEP Year 1.
Analysis/ResultsProgressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run tests indicated that 70.8% of the students in Year 2 and 68.1% in Year 3 met the age and gender guidelines. Curl-up tests revealed that 78.5% of the students in Year 2 (M = 28, SD = 20.62) and 76.9% in Year 3 (M = 26, SD = 19.6) performed 10 or more curl-ups, the criteria for healthy fitness. Pushup tests indicated that 75.2% of the students in Year 2 (M = 13, SD = 9.76) and 73.3% in Year 3 (M = 13, SD = 8.67) completed 7 or more pushups, meeting the healthy fitness criteria. Regarding trunk lift tests, 87% of the students in Year 2 (M = 11, SD = 1.69) and 89.2% in Year 3 (M = 11, SD = 0.81) reached 9 inches (healthy criteria) or higher. For shoulder stretch tests, 77.9% of the students in Year 2 and 82.2% in Year 3 met the healthy fitness zone.
ConclusionsThe greatest number of the students meeting the healthy fitness zone was during trunk lift test, followed by shoulder stretch test.
Gender Differences in Physical Fitness Among Fifth-Grade Students
Steve Mason, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Steve Wolters, Sandy Zalmout, Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan
Background/PurposeGender differences in physical fitness account for different lifestyles. This study examined levels of physical fitness between boys and girls in Grade 5. Six hundred twenty-seven fifth graders took five FITNESSGRAM tests administered by their physical education (PE) teachers during regular PE lessons in Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) Year 2. Nine teachers were trained for FITNESSGRAM tests in PEP Year 1.
Analysis/ResultsOf the boys, 57.9% met the healthy fitness zone for the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test, while 67.5% of the girls met the healthy fitness zone. For the curl-up test, 82.4% of the boys and 75.7% of the girls reached the healthy zone. For the pushup test, 78.5% of the boys and 69.5% of the girls met the healthy fitness zone. For the trunk lift test, 89% of the boys and 91% of the girls met the healthy zone. For the shoulder stretch test, 80.25% of the boys and 85% of the girls demonstrated the healthy criteria. The t tests revealed that boys statistically outperformed girls on the PACER test (M boys = 36, M girls = 30, t = 3.88, df = 617, p < .01) and pushup test (M boys = 14.4 vs. M girls = 11.8, t = 3.229, df = 624, p < .01), while the girls scored significantly higher than the boys on the shoulder stretch test (M boys = 0.84, M girls = 0.91, t = − 2.66, df = 616, p < .01), but not on the curl-up and trunk lift tests.
ConclusionsThere were gender differences in physical fitness levels.
Symposium: Examining Specialized Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge
In understanding the role of teaching content in physical education, it is important to draw a distinction between the knowledge needed to perform an activity such as the pick and roll in basketball, and the knowledge needed to teach the pick and roll. You do need to know the technique and how to perform the pick and roll to teach it, but you must also know tasks to teach it and the ways to explain it to students so that they (a) can perform the pick and roll, and (b) understand when to use the pick and roll. Ball, Thames, and Phelps (2008) have called the knowledge needed to perform “common content knowledge” (CCK) and the knowledge, other than CCK, needed to teach content “specialized content knowledge” (SCK). CCK is acquired in the process of learning the activity and playing. SCK is typically not acquired by playing (i.e., performing). In this symposium, we examine three dimensions of SCK. First, we look at the extent to which SCK occurs in physical activity content classes. Second, we examine the CCK and SCK knowledge acquired in a physical education major's class. Finally, we use SCK as an independent variable and examine its effects on teaching behaviors and student learning. Collectively these three studies represent the most recent research on content knowledge in physical education. The findings can be situated within and also extend the teacher effectiveness literature, drawing attention to the role of content in the professional development of effective teachers.
Badminton Content Knowledge Study
Bomna Ko, Insook Kim, Phillip WardF, Weidong LiF, The Ohio State University
Background/PurposeWard's (2010) functional definition of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) raises several questions such as, “What is the relationship (a) between content knowledge (CK) and PCK; and (b) between PCK and student achievement?” The literature to date has not shown demonstrable associations to either question. We report the effects of a specialized CK workshop on teachers' PCK and the resultant effects on student learning in a badminton instructional unit.
MethodFour middle school physical educators participated in this quasi-experimental study. Each teacher taught two classes of a 6-day badminton unit using their typical instruction. The teachers then participated in a CK workshop. Following the workshop, the teachers taught two different classes. Ninety-six students (6 per class) in 96 lessons were observed to collect both student performance data and teacher PCK data (i.e., task maturity, task appropriateness, and task adaptations).
Analysis/ResultsStudent data were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U nonparametric test. There were statistically significant differences between the comparison classes and the experimental classes in terms of the percentage of students' correct trials (U = 84, p < .001) and incorrect trials (U = 84, p < .001). Descriptive analysis was used to analyze the teacher data. Data showed that teacher tasks were more mature, developmentally appropriate, and precise after the workshop.
ConclusionsThe study showed that teacher behaviors following the workshop were qualitatively different from the behaviors they exhibited before the workshop on all variables. The teachers' PCK following the workshop was associated with significant positive changes in student learning.
International Physical Education Teacher Education Physical Activity Content Knowledge Study
Phillip Ward,F, The Ohio State University; M. Levent Ince, Middle East Technical University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven; Insook Kim, Western Illinois University; Yun Soo Lee, Middle Tennessee State University; Weidong Li,F The Ohio State University; Weidong Liu, Soochow University; and Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University
Background/PurposeBall et al. (2008) categorized knowledge for teaching into two domains: common content knowledge (CCK) and specialized content knowledge (SCK). As a general rule, CCK can be viewed as knowing how to perform an activity and SCK can be viewed as knowing how to teach CCK (e.g., teaching progressions). Recent research has shown that many teachers do not acquire SCK sufficiently well enough to teach (Kim, 2011; Lee, 2010).
MethodWe examined the extent to which content knowledge classes include CCK and SCK in 77 physical education teacher education (PETE) programs in Belgium, Germany, China, England, Turkey, and the United States. Given the significant differences in the number of higher-education institutions in PETE in each country, we used purposeful and maximum variation sampling across a range of program sizes. We examined teacher education programs course of study and sample syllabi, and used short questionnaires to answer our research questions. Our data are reported descriptively.
Analysis/ResultsOur data show that within and across the countries we studied, PETE programs use their major's activity classes to emphasize performing the activity, and the knowledge that has been developed has been CCK, rather than SCK.
ConclusionsOur findings support a widespread assumption in PETE that: “To teach an activity, you must be able to perform the activity.” Our data suggest that SCK is underdeveloped in the curricula we examined and that activity classes should focus on the twin goals of CCK and SCK development.
Basketball Content Knowledge: Playing, Coaching, and Teaching Experience
Weidong Li,F Phillip Ward,F and Harry Lehwald, The Ohio State University; Paul T. Stuhr, California State University – San Marcos; James Ressler, Northern Illinois University; Elena Boiarskaia, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University
Background/PurposeContent knowledge (CK) is a foundation for effective teaching. Ward (2009) has conceptualized CK into four domains: knowledge of (a) rules and etiquette, (b) techniques and tactics, (c) student errors, and (d) instructional tasks and representations. There are few instruments to measure CK, and how CK varies as a function of playing, coaching, and teaching experience is unknown. This study validated a Basketball Content Knowledge Test (BCKT) and examined how CK varies as a function of playing, coaching, and teaching experience.
MethodParticipants were 277 in-service physical education (PE) teachers and college students majoring in PE and other areas, who completed a demographic survey and the BCKT online.
Analysis/ResultsContent validity of BCKT was established by a panel of experts. Psychometric quality of BCKT items was examined using two-facet Rasch analysis. Results showed good model–data fit according to infit and outfit statistics, well-spread difficulty ( − 2.07 to 2.74 logits), and students' basketball knowledge (2.68 to − 2.58 logits). Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine how four CK domains varied as a function of gender, playing, coaching, and teaching experience in basketball. Overall MANOVA showed that basketball CK significantly varied by gender and league-playing experience. Men and those with more league-playing experience scored better on Domains a, b, and c, thus further supporting validity of BCKT.
ConclusionsFindings from this study can be used to identify strengths and weaknesses of preservice and in-service teachers' basketball CK, thus facilitating the development and refinement of effective interventions to increase their teaching effectiveness.
Symposium: Relationships Among Motor Skills, Perceived Competence, Physical Activity, and Fitness
The reciprocal effects between physical activity and health-related physical fitness (body composition, cardiovascular endurance, flexibility, and muscle strength and endurance) have been well documented over the years. For example, regular participation in different types of physical activities has been identified as an important contributor to health-related physical fitness. Also, the development of motor skills has been proposed to be a casual determinant in promoting physical fitness, physical activity participation, and perceived competence in middle-to-late childhood, as learning to move is a skill critical to future physical activity. According to Harter's competence motivation theory, mastery of motor skills will bolster perceived competence, which in turn boosts motivated behaviors (e.g., physical activity participation) and actual performance (e.g., fitness tests and future motor skills). By contrast, children who have low perceived competence in motor skills opt out of physical activity. Empirical evidence shows that perceived competence mediates the relationships between children's motor skills and physical activity and fitness. However, the mediating effect of perceived competence has not been extensively examined, particularly in exergaming settings among underserved children. Additionally, regular physical activity participation and high physical fitness have been shown to facilitate the development and maintenance of motor skills. The purpose of this symposium is to investigate the dynamic relationships between children's motor skills, perceived competence, physical activity participation, and fitness in different settings among diverse samples. The symposium would lead to more research and practice to improve children's motor skills that will positively influence lifespan trajectories of physical activity and fitness.
Examining the Mediating Role of Perceived Competence in Exergaming Activities
Zan GaoF, David StoddenF, Tao ZhangF, University of North Texas
Background/PurposeThe relationships among children's motor skills, perceived competence, physical activity participation and fitness in exergaming settings remain unanswered. This study was designed to test a model of the mediating role of perceived competence on motor skills to physical activity and fitness relationships.
Methods
Participants were 236 third through fifth graders enrolled in a suburban elementary school. They participated in a 50-min exergaming class (e.g., Wii Just Dance, Dance Dance Revolution) each week. Participants responded to a battery of standardized questionnaires measuring their perceived competence and motor skills toward playing exergaming. Children's physical activity levels were assessed by NL-1000 pedometers in three consecutive exergaming classes. Then they had their fitness assessed via FITNESSGRAM 1 week later.
Analysis/ResultsThe results from structural equation modeling demonstrated an acceptable model fit to the data, χ2/df = 1.22, comparative fit index = .99, root mean square error of approximation = .04. The overall variance in perceived competence and physical activity explained by the model was 8% and 11%, respectively. Perceived competence had a significant direct effect on physical activity after controlling for the effect of motor skills (β = .29). Physical activity also had a direct effect on fitness (β = .17). Motor skills failed to exert direct effect on physical activity. However, the indirect effect of motor skills on physical activity via perceived competence was small yet significant.
ConclusionsOverall, the results supported the mediating role of perceived competence on the relationship between motor skills and physical activity levels in exergaming. Study implications are provided for educators and practitioners.
Fitness Mediates Motor Skills and Physical Activity in Hispanic Children
Tao ZhangF and Katherine T. Thomas,F University of North Texas; and Zan Gao,F University of Minnesota
Background/PurposeDespite public health efforts promoting physical activity (PA), the majority of Hispanic children do not meet national PA recommendations. Hispanic childhood obesity has dramatically increased in the past decades and has been a significant health concern. Given that childhood motor skills are critical to fitness and lifetime PA, this study attempted to examine the mediating role of fitness on relationships between motor skills and PA.
MethodOne hundred forty-three Hispanic children (77 boys; M age = 11.1 years) from an elementary school completed motor skills in basketball, overhand throwing, and striking assessed by PE Metrics (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2010). Their fitness was assessed by FITNESSGRAM. The total number of six fitness tests in which students achieved the healthy fitness zone was calculated and used as an overall measure of fitness. Students completed validated surveys assessing their PA 1 week later.
Analysis/ResultsThree motor skills were associated with one another. Fitness was related to motor skills and PA. Path analyses indicated the hypothesized model fit to the data: χ2/df = .73; comparative fit index = 1.0; root mean square error of approximation = .01. The model accounted for 13.0% and 2.9% of the variances in fitness and PA, respectively. Striking (β = .32) directly predicted fitness, which in turn significantly predicted PA (β = .17). The effect of striking on PA was fully mediated via fitness. No direct effect was found between basketball, overhand throwing, and PA.
ConclusionsThe results suggested fitness was a mediator between motor skills and PA. The findings have promising implications for practitioners to promote Hispanic children's PA.
Children's Physical Activity Levels in Interactive Dance Across Skill Levels
Zan Gao,F University of Minnesota; and Ping Xiang,F Texas A&M University
Background/PurposeInteractive dance games have been considered an innovative and effective solution to promote children's physical activity (PA) participation. However, no known studies have investigated PA levels in interactive dance between high- and low-skilled children. This study aimed to examine children's PA levels in Dance Dance Revolution (DDR) across different motor skill levels in DDR.
Methods
Participants were 123 first- through sixth-grade urban children who participated in a DDR-based afterschool program. Participants' motor skill levels (novice, beginner, intermediate, advanced) were assessed by the DDR system for their first DDR dance. Their PA levels for three DDR sessions were measured via NL-1000 piezoelectric pedometer and were reported as steps per minute (SPM).
Analysis/ResultsMore than 73% of children were identified at the intermediate (n = 38) and advanced (n = 52) motor skill levels, and their PA levels in DDR (SPMintermediate = 54.76; SPMadvanced = 62.64) were higher than those of novice children (SPM = 51.81) and beginner children (SPM = 47.48). One-way analysis of covariance with age and gender as covariates revealed a significant main effect for skill level, F(3, 197) = 2.91, p = .04, η2 = .07. Follow-up tests indicated advanced children displayed significantly higher SPM than did novice children (p < .05) and beginner children (p < .01). No other significant differences were found.
ConclusionsChildren with advanced motor skills in DDR demonstrated significantly higher PA levels than did novice and beginner children when playing DDR. This finding suggests that higher motor skill levels would result in higher levels of PA while participating in interactive dance games. Strategies to improve children's DDR skills will be discussed.
Body Fat Influences Children's Perceived Competence, Physical Activity, and Fitness
Chaoqun Huang, The University of Utah; Zan Gao,F University of Minnesota; and Weihong Ning, Texas Tech University
Background/PurposeAlthough body fatness plays a critical role in health, there are limited data available on the relations among children's percent body fat (%BF), perceived competence, physical activity (PA), and health-related physical fitness. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of %BF on children's perceived competence, PA, and fitness.
Methods
A total of 325 elementary school children (140 girls; M age = 10.12 years) participated in 50-min weekly exergaming classes beyond 75-min weekly physical education. Participants' %BF was determined by skinfolds, and 25% of boys and 30% of girls were identified as being in the risk group (Williams et al., 1992). Participants responded to a questionnaire measuring their perceived competence toward exergaming and had their PA levels assessed by NL-1000 pedometers for three exergaming classes. Their fitness was assessed through FITNESSGRAM (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run [PACER], curl-up, pushup, and trunk lift).
Analysis/ResultsApproximately 8.3% of children fell into the risk group. Our data indicated that the healthy group and risk group did not differ on their perceived competence, F = 0.86, p < .35. However, the healthy group displayed significantly higher PA levels than those of the risk group, F = 6.66, p = .01. The healthy group also demonstrated higher PACER, curl-up, and push-up scores than the risk group did, Fs = 7.59–19.51, ps < .01. The two groups did not differ on trunk lift, F = 2.72, p = .10.
ConclusionsSkinfold-derived %BF had a significant impact on children's PA in exergaming and the majority of their fitness components, but it failed to influence perceived competence. Interventions should be implemented at the population level to decrease risk to children's %BF.
Invited Session
Tutorial: Yes, You Can: Empowering Students to Conduct and Publish Research
Jennifer M. Beller, Washington State University; and Sharon Kay Stoll,F University of Idaho
Students approach required research courses with several views: (a) that they cannot DO research, (b) research is not related to their real-world experiences/professional goals, or (c) research is boring. Few master's students choose a thesis option; few undergraduate courses engage students in real-world research studies where questions are asked, data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted, and findings are published. This program will help participants understand the structure of a successful research program and the necessary pedagogical components that lead to student national presentations and publications. This model uses a team-oriented approach where students learn to take initiative but are supported by a faculty-research team. Students become empowered and realize that research is a friend rather than foe to overcome. The model is a highly mentored yearlong program in which the first semester involves a faculty team helping students in proposal development and institutional review board approval. During the second semester, students collect, analyze, interpret the data, and then write for presentations, publication, or thesis. Students gain much confidence that they can DO research and are enthusiastic about completing the study. The result has been a high number of student abstracts and manuscripts published, as well as national presentations. Participants will learn: (a) how to structure a research course and daily classes to meaningful research in their respective disciplines, (b) the necessary pedagogical components, by using a highly mentored model, which enhances student self-efficacy and empowers students toward published/presented research, and (c) a hands-on approach of pedagogical methods that demonstrate the successful course.
Distinguished Lectures
C. H. McCloy Research Lecture and Breakfast: Symbols, Conventions, Games, Eleanor Metheny, and the Evolution of Human Intelligence
R. Scott Kretchmar,F The Pennsylvania State University – University Park
Eleanor Metheny was one of the first kinesiology philosophers interested in the functions of human intelligence in such nonverbal and putatively nonintellectual activities as sport, dance, and exercise. She was also among the first to examine the role these endeavors might have played in human evolution. Not surprisingly, she relied heavily on the work of Ernst Cassirer, who also focused on the mysteries of intelligence—in particular, differences between human cognition and the thinking of nonhuman animals. Both Cassirer and Metheny concluded that symbolic processes do much to explain the emergence of human levels of thinking and the onset of culture. In this 33rd Annual C. H. McCloy Research Lecture, Kretchmar suggests that Metheny was ahead of her time. He briefly analyzes her theory of movement as a symbolic process and indicates that she was on the right course. However, he argues that conventions, rather than symbols, provide the better window through which to view cognitive evolution. He relies principally on the writings of John Searle in discussing the logic required to negotiate conventions. Kretchmar then describes sport and games as one type of convention and speculates on the role these nonverbal, nonartistic, and supposedly nonintellectual activities may have played in human evolution. Kretchmar concludes that Metheny got the overall story right even if she had some of the details wrong.
R. Tait McKenzie Memorial Lecture: Key Strategies for Promoting Physical Activity in Underserved Communities
Deborah M. Parra-Medina, University of Texas Health Science Center – San Antonio
If achieving recommended physical activity levels were a class in school, American youth would be failing miserably. Only half of all youth meet current physical activity guidelines, and it is worse for some groups than for others. For a variety of reasons, youth of low socioeconomic status and racial/ethnic minorities are the least likely to meet physical activity recommendations, and the problem is even worse for girls and women than it is for boys and men. There is a great need for programs that promote physical activity among such underserved communities and that bring together all stakeholders—community leaders, researchers, advocates, policymakers, and members of the underserved communities themselves—to help individuals and their families overcome healthy lifestyle barriers rooted in culture, language, economic disparities, and life experience. Several programs have emerged to promote culturally relevant healthy lifestyles for families in low-income Latino communities. In her lecture, Parra-Medina describes examples of such programs and offers key strategies that account for culture and gain community-wide buy-in for effective and sustainable physical activity intervention programs.
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Lecture: Science and Art of Setting Standards (Cutoff Scores) in Kinesiology
Weimo Zhu,F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Setting standards, known also as cutoff scores, is essential to any measurement and evaluation practice. This presentation will provide a comprehensive review of the science and art of setting standards in kinesiology. After a brief introduction to norm- and criterion-referenced frameworks and related methods and statistics, the presentation will focus on the latest developments and remaining challenges in setting standards. Practical examples in kinesiology will be illustrated, and future research directions will be outlined.
Raymond A. Weiss Lecture: An Examination of Female Athletes' Interpretations of Media Representations—A Window Into the Construction of Dual Identity and ‘Selling Sex’ in Women's Sports
Mary Jo Kane, University of Minnesota
Scholars have produced a significant body of evidence demonstrating that sportswomen are portrayed in ways that emphasize their femininity/heterosexuality versus their athletic competence and argue that such coverage trivializes women's sports (Daniels, 2012). Much less research attention has been paid to how such coverage is interpreted by different audiences, including female athletes (Kane & Maxwell, 2011). This study explores how elite female athletes respond to the various ways they are portrayed in sport media outlets. Audience reception research—where viewers deconstruct the meaning of a media text and how that meaning impacts feelings toward a particular subject—was used to examine dual identities of female athletes, meaning their on-court athletic identity versus their off-court feminine identity. Would these two identities impact how they wished to be represented—as highly skilled athletes, “classy ladies,” or both? Thirty-six team and individual sport athletes were interviewed; each was randomly shown photos representing categories of portrayal ranging from on-court competence to off-court sexually provocative images, and they were asked to choose which best represented themselves and their sport, as well as increased interest in and respect for their sport. Findings indicated that in-action competence was the overwhelming choice for “best represents self/sport” and “best increases respect.” However, almost 50% of all respondents picked sexualized images as the way to “best increase interest.” This latter finding reflected participants' belief that “sex sells” women's sports, particularly for male audiences. Results were analyzed using critical feminist theory to unpack the role of sports media and its relationship to gender, privilege, and power.
STUDENT-FOCUSED SESSIONS ON THE RESEARCH CONSORTIUM PROGRAM INCLUDE:AAHPERD/Research Consortium Graduate Student Forum
Thursday, April 25, 2013, 2:15 p.m.–4:15 p.m.
This forum is oriented to the needs and interests of graduate students who are either considering or currently preparing for careers in research and higher education. The session will include round table discussions with peer-to-peer, faculty-led, and student-led formats. The session is co-hosted by the AAHPERD Student Services Committee and the Research Consortium and will feature refreshments and an opportunity to network. All graduate student members are invited and encouraged to attend.
Student Research Works-in-Progress Poster Session
Friday, April 26, 2013, 10:45 a.m.–12:15 p.m.
Co-sponsored by the National Associations of AAHPERD, this session features college students at all levels presenting work on their ongoing studies in a poster presentation format. Conference attendees are encouraged to stop by and learn more about the topics being investigated by our “next generation” of researchers.