Full Issue PDF, Volume 84, Supplement 1

2013 RESEARCH CONSORTIUM CONFERENCE

PREFACE        A-iii

2013 RESEARCH CONSORTIUM PROGRAM SCHEDULE        A-v

REVIEW PANEL CHAIRS AND REVIEWERS        A-xviii

2013 RESEARCH CONSORTIUM STUDENT AWARDS

Graduate Student Award Winner        A-xxii

Undergraduate Student Award Winner        A-xxv

PEER-REVIEWED AND INVITED SESSIONS

Peer-Reviewed Symposia and Tutorials        A-1

Invited Session        A-6

Distinguished Lectures        A-6

PEER-REVIEWED ABSTRACTS

Dance        A-9

Exercise Physiology and Fitness        A-10

Health        A-15

Leisure and Recreation        A-23

Measurement        A-26

Motor Behavior        A-30

Pedagogy        A-33

Physical Activity Epidemiology        A-65

Psychology        A-70

Sociocultural Aspects of Physical Activity        A-79

Special Populations        A-85

Sport Management and Administration        A-93

RESEARCH CONSORTIUM GRANT FINDINGS        A-96

AAHPERD Research Consortium 2013 Convention Program

An ^F denotes Fellow status in the AAHPERD Research Consortium as of November 2012.

Past President and 2013 Program Chair

Ang Chen,^F University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Review Panel Chairs

Biomechanics and Sport Medicine

Duane Knudson,^F Texas State University

Dance

Barbara Hernandez,^F Lamar University

Exercise Physiology and Fitness

Michael G. Bemben,^F University of Oklahoma

Health

Chris Eisenbarth, Weber State University

Interdisciplinary

Ang Chen,^F University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Leisure and Recreation

Siu-Yin Cheung,^F Hong Kong Baptist University

Measurement

Minsoo Kang,^F Middle Tennessee State University

Motor Behavior

Melanie Hart,^F Texas Tech University

Pedagogy

Kim Graber,^F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

James C. Hannon,^F The University of Utah

Ping Xiang,^F Texas A & M University

Physical Activity Epidemiology

Philip Scruggs,^F University of Idaho

Psychology

Lori Gano-Overway,^F Bridgewater College

Sociocultural Aspects of Physical Activity

Louis Harrison,^F The University of Texas-Austin

Special Populations

Samuel R. Hodge,^F The Ohio State University

Sport Management and Administration

Aaron Clopton,^F University of Kansas

Research Consortium Distinguished Lectures Committee

R. Scott Kretchmar,^F The Pennsylvania State University

Weimo Zhu,^F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Mary Jo Kane, University of Minnesota

Staff

Carol Kramer, Research Consortium Program Assistant

Thomas F. Lawson, Editor AAHPERD

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Preface

Ang Chen

2013 Conference Chair and Research Consortium Past-President

University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Two significant events were logged in the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD) history book for 2012. First, the AAHPERD Alliance Assembly voted to reunify the associations to become one professional organization with a focus on physical education, physical activity, and health. Second, AAHPERD had to cancel the 2012 National Convention and Exposition for the first time in the organization's history due to a massive electrical outage in Boston. In these two events, the Research Consortium (RC) responded by strengthening its positions and programs to ensure its continued contributions to the field and to AAHPERD. As a sustained component in AAHPERD since 1977, research will continue to be recognized as critically important in the unified organization. During the Boston convention crisis, the RC executive board and Director Gayle Claman worked closely with the AAHPERD leadership to successfully execute several important RC functions. For example, the C. H. McCloy Research Lecture and Breakfast, a signature RC event, will be one of the most memorable in AAHPERD history due to Kenneth Cooper's impromptu talk given in a packed room partially lit by emergency lights. These two major events in 2012 are among many that have demonstrated our viability as a professional organization in our fields.

In the fields of health and physical activity, the RC is known for providing the most diverse platform for researchers from the widest theoretical and empirical traditions. The 2013 RC program demonstrates this great tradition once again by bringing together researchers with various perspectives and research foci to share their evidence and thoughts about critical issues in health and physical activity. At the 2013 AAHPERD National Convention & Exposition in Charlotte, NC, the RC program will begin early on Wednesday, April 24, and end late Friday afternoon, April 26. During these 3 days, 267 studies will be presented in oral and poster formats to share recent research findings in exercise physiology and fitness, health, measurement, motor behavior, pedagogy, physical activity epidemiology, psychology, social-cultural aspects of physical activity, sport management, populations of special needs, and other related specializations. These presentations were selected from 353 submissions via a peer-review process. The acceptance rate was 76%. These presentations are organized into 13 oral sessions, 8 poster sessions (including a session featuring student research), and 6 symposia/tutorials. The papers in each session were organized according to a common theme.

Highlights in the RC program are the invited lectures by distinguished scholars in our field. Because Cooper (2012 R. Tait McKenzie Lecturer) was the only invited lecturer able to deliver his talk in 2012, which was recorded and posted online, the RC executive board invited the other three outstanding scholars selected for 2012 to give their lectures at the 2013 AAHPERD National Convention & Exposition. The lecture topics and scholars for the 2013 RC Distinguished Lectures Series are:

•	R. Tait McKenzie Memorial Lecture (cosponsored by AAHPERD and the RC): Deborah M. Parra-Medina, University of Texas Health Science Center-San Antonio; Key Strategies for Promoting Physical Activity in Underserved Communities
•	C. H. McCloy Research Lecture and Breakfast: R. Scott Kretchmar, The Pennsylvania State University; Symbols, Conventions, Games, Eleanor Metheny, and the Evolution of Human Intelligence
•	Raymond A. Weiss Lecture: Mary Jo Kane, University of Minnesota; An Examination of Female Athletes' Interpretations of Media Representations: A Window Into the Construction of Dual Identity & ‘Selling Sex’ in Women's Sports
•	Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Lecture: Weimo Zhu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Science and Art of Setting Standards (Cutoff Scores) in Kinesiology

In addition, the 2013 RC program will continue to provide an opportunity for graduate students to share their work and interact with experienced researchers. For this purpose, the AAHPERD/RC Graduate Student Forum (Thursday, April 25, 2:15 p.m.–4:15 p.m.) and the Student Research Works-in-Progress poster session (Friday, April 26, 10:45 a.m.–12:15 p.m.) are included in the 2013 RC program. These sessions should allow students and RC members/fellows to share their experiences in conducting research and to explore collaborative opportunities to advance the field.

Preparing the RC program requires tremendous effort from RC members, fellows, and staff. There were 17 review panels organized by disciplinary specializations and more than 200 reviewers. The review process was blind, and rigorous standards were applied. Each submitted abstract was reviewed by at least two reviewers and the panel chair responsible for accepting/rejecting recommendations on all submissions in his or her discipline area. When a review outcome was inconclusive, the program chair (me) provided an independent review. The review panel chairs were: Michael G. Bemben, Siu-Yin Cheung, Aaron Clopton, Chris Eisenbarth, Lori Gano-Overway, Kim Graber, James C. Hannon, Louis Harrison, Jr., Melanie Hart, Barbara Hernandez, Samuel R. Hodge, Minsoo Kang, Duane Knudson, Philip Scruggs, and Ping Xiang. I greatly appreciate their effort and care in the process. Without their high-quality work, as well as that of the reviewers, it would be impossible to develop such an advanced research program.

I extend my appreciation to RC Director Gayle Claman and RC staff member Carol Kramer. Gayle was instrumental in reshaping the 2012 RC conference program in Boston during the crisis and in coordinating the effort to structure the 2013 program without delay. With extensive knowledge of the RC and its many programs, Gayle, with assistance from Carol, provided excellent assistance to me, the review panel chairs, and the reviewers, thus making the review process a pleasant and productive experience.

It has been an honor for me to serve the RC in the program chair capacity. I appreciate the significant help I have received from RC members, fellows, and my predecessors throughout the past 3 years. With the unification reorganization underway, AAHPERD and the RC have turned to a new page in history, which will bring our field to a new, higher level of involvement in the pursuit of a healthier life for all Americans. I believe firmly that all the disciplines in our field play critical roles in this pursuit. Also, research that provides trustworthy evidence to guide policies and actions will continue to be an irreplaceable pillar in our field and the unified organization. I hope AAHPERD National Convention & Exposition attendees in Charlotte will find the 2013 RC conference program an inspiration for our future work.

2013 Research Consortium Program Schedule

2013 AAHPERD National Convention & Exposition, Charlotte, NC

An ^F denotes Fellow status in the AAHPERD Research Consortium as of November 2012.

WEDNESDAY, APRIL 24, 2013

10:30 a.m.–11:45 a.m.

Assessing Motor Competency and Physical Fitness Among Elementary School Students

Presider: David Stodden,^F Texas Tech University

Speakers: Sandy Zalmout, Steve Mason, and Weiyun Chen,^F University of Michigan

	Assessing K–1 Students' Performance in Motor Skills Sandy Zalmout, Steve Mason, Steve Wolters, Austin Hammond-Bennett, and Weiyun Chen, F University of Michigan
	Assessment of Second- and Third-Grade Students' Performance in Motor Skills Steve Wolters, Steve Mason, Sandy Zalmout, Austin Hammond-Bennett, and Weiyun Chen, F University of Michigan
	Assessing Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Students' Performance in Motor Skills Austin Hammond-Bennett, Steve Wolters, Steve Mason, Sandy Zalmout, and Weiyun Chen, F University of Michigan
	Assessing Fourth-Grade Students' Levels of Physical Fitness Weiyun Chen, F Steve Wolters, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Sandy Zalmout, and Steve Mason, University of Michigan
	Gender Differences in Physical Fitness Among Fifth-Grade Students Steve Mason, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Steve Wolters, Sandy Zalmout, and Weiyun Chen, F University of Michigan

10:30 a.m.–11:45 a.m.

Creating a Safe Environment for Learning

Presider: Roseann M. Lyle,^F Purdue University

	Impact of Responsibility-Based Teaching in an Alternative High School Cody Talbert, Francisco J. Martinez-Oronoz, and Tom Martinek, University of North Carolina–Greensboro
	An Emotionally Safe Environment That Promotes Student Interactions Mihae Bae, Lamar University; and Catherine D. Ennis, F University of North Carolina–Greensboro
	Students' Perceived Support in Relation to Bullying in Physical Education Jamie A. O'Connor, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire; and Kim C. Graber, F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
	Shifting and Narrowing Masculinity Hierarchies in Adventure Physical Education Amy Tischler, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse; and Nathan A. McCaughtry, F Wayne State University
	A Visual Inquiry Into Students' Responses to a Body Curriculum Mara Simon, Laura Azzarito, F and Risto Marttinen, Teachers College, Columbia University

11:00 a.m.–1:30 p.m.

Research Consortium Executive Board Meeting

1:30 p.m.–3:00 p.m.

Learning From the Learner—Students in Physical Education

Presider: Xihe Zhu,^F Old Dominion University

1.	Learning to Live an Energy-Balanced Life Through Technology Senlin Chen, Jungmin Lee, Youngwon Kim, and Gregory Welk, F Iowa State University
2.	Determinants of Competence and Self-Regulation Among Ghanaian Physical Education Students Seidu Sofo, Southeast Missouri State University; Daniel Kpebu, Damongo Senior High School; and Tontie L. Kanton, Bagabaga College of Education
3.	Developing Habitus Through Student-Designed Games Claire M. Mowling, Longwood University; and Helen Hazelwood, Michael Hobson, and Andrew Stopher, St. Mary's University College
4.	We Need to Take Fun More Seriously Daryl B. Essensa, University of Massachusetts–Amherst
5.	Urban Middle School African American Girls' Attitudes Toward Physical Education Victor Ramsey, New York City Department of Education; and Stephen J. Silverman, F Teachers College, Columbia University
6.	Facilitating Leisure-Time Physical Activity by Autonomy-Supportive Learning Climate Mine Muftuler and M. Levent Ince, Middle East Technical University
7.	Associations Between Adolescents' Situational Motivation and Physical Activity in Physical Education Weihong Ning, Texas Tech University; and Zan Gao, F University of Minnesota
8.	Children's Physical Activity and On-Task Behavior Following Active Academic Lessons Tan Leng Goh, James C. Hannon, F You Fu, and Steven L. Prewitt, The University of Utah
9.	Relationship Between Physical Activity and Student Behaviors: An Exploratory Study Heather E. Erwin, F Aaron Beighle, Alicia Fedewa, Ashley Candelaria, and Jenna C. Schwartz, University of Kentucky
10.	Perceived Efficacy of Stress-Reducing Techniques Following a Natural Disaster Zachary Wahl-Alexander and Oleg A. Sinelnikov, F The University of Alabama
11.	Influence of Instructional Climates on Management Tasks and Physical Activity S. Wood Logan, Leah Robinson, F E. Kipling Webster, Brandie Battiste, Chelsea Nortick, Michael V. Tigner, Christina Willmann, and Kara Palmer, Auburn University
12.	Hegemonic Masculinity in Sport Education Taught by Teaching-Oriented Interns Yu-Chun Chen and Matthew Curtner-Smith, F The University of Alabama
13.	Maximizing Time on Task During Physical Education Karen Smail, College of Charleston
14.	Capabilities of Primary Students Participating in a Sport Education Unit Todd Layne, University of Memphis; and Peter A. Hastie, F Auburn University
15.	Quality Elementary Physical Education: What Do the Children Think? Todd Pennington, Keven A. Prusak, Carol Wilkinson, and Tirza Davis, Brigham Young University
16.	Examining Chinese Students' Achievement Goals, Social Goals, and Motivated Behaviors Min Feng, Tongji University; Tao Zhang, F University of North Texas; and Ping Xiang, F Texas A&M University
17.	Social Relationships and Lived-Positive Emotionality in Adventure-Based Learning Paul T. Stuhr, California State University–San Marcos; Amaury Samalot Rivera, University of Puerto Rico–Bayamon; Esther M. Ortiz-Stuhr, California State University–San Marcos; and Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University
18.	Validity of Alternative FITNESSGRAM Upper-Body Tests Among Adolescent Students Kalani Hobayan, St. Pius X Parish School; and Debra Patterson, Clay Sherman, and Lenny Wiersma, California State University–Fullerton
19.	Physical Activity Levels During Secondary School Physical Education Hyun-Ju Oh, Sharon R. Rana, and Rhonda Hovatter, Ohio University
20.	TPSR Values and Life Skills: Impact on Former Program Participants Anthony Melendez, University of North Carolina–Greensboro
21.	MP3s for a Healthy Me: Healthy Messages for Teens Stephen Presley, University of Texas–Austin; Lynne Bryant, Westlake High School; and Darla M. Castelli, F The University of Texas–Austin
22.	Impact of Instructional Feedback Type on Student-Perceived Competence Daniel K. Drost, John R. Todorovich, and Heather L. Green, University of West Florida
23.	Effects of Feedback on Students' Process Performance and Motivation Daniel K. Drost and John R. Todorovich, University of West Florida
24.	Analysis of Daily Physical Activity Choices Among Homeschooled Children Yoojin Choi and Eric Carpenter, Salisbury University
25.	Student Perceptions of Choice and Teacher Support During Initiative Games Ron E. McBride, F Texas A&M University; Fatma Sacli, Hacettepe University; and Ping Xiang, F Texas A&M University
26.	Changes of Children's Motivation Toward Physical Education: A Longitudinal Perspective Xiangli Gu, University of North Texas; Melinda A. Solmon, F Louisiana State University; and Tao Zhang, F University of North Texas
27.	Physical Education Students' Health-Related Fitness Knowledge, Aerobic Capacity, and Body Composition Skip M. Williams, Illinois State University; Dan Phelps, Hononegah High School; and Dale Brown and David Q. Thomas, Illinois State University
28.	Achievement Goals and Diversity Attitudes in Physical Education Preservice Teachers Paul B. Rukavina F and Anne Gibbone, Adelphi University; Christy Greenleaf, F University of North Texas; Jody Langdon, Georgia Southern University; Jayne Jenkins, F University of Wyoming; Penelope A. Portman, University of Wisconsin–Whitewater; and Lynda Ransdell, F Boise State University
29.	Achievement Goals and Perceived Motivational Climate in Physical Education Jianmin Guan, F The University of Texas–San Antonio; and Rulan Shangguan and Xiaofen Keating, F The University of Texas–Austin
30.	Case Study of At-Risk Middle School Students in Physical Education Jinhong Jung and Paul M. Wright, F Northern Illinois University

1:45 p.m.–3:00 p.m.

Raymond A. Weiss Lecture: An Examination of Female Athletes' Interpretations of Media Representations—A Window Into the Construction of Dual Identity and ‘Selling Sex’ in Women's Sports

Presider: Melinda A. Solmon,^F Louisiana State University

Speaker: Mary Jo Kane, University of Minnesota

3:15 p.m.–5:15 p.m.

Developing the 21st-Century Professional Instructor

Presider: Catherine D. Ennis,^F University of North Carolina–Greensboro

	What's New in PETE? Programmatic Changes Based on NASPE/NCATE Standards Suzan F. Ayers, F Western Michigan University; and Andrea Taliaferro, Christine Griffith, and Lynn Housner, West Virginia University
	Influence of Preservice Teachers' Motivational Profiles on Students' Need Satisfaction Haichun Sun, F University of South Florida; Jianhua Shen, Shanghai Normal University; Yong Gao, F Boise State University; and Weijin Shi, Shanghai Normal University
	Physical Education Teachers' Self-Efficacy and Burnout Kimberly Maljak, Bo Shen, F and Nate McCaughtry, F Wayne State University; Alex Garn, Louisiana State University; and Jeffrey Martin, F Noel Kulik, Mariane M. Fahlman, F and Laurel L. Whalen, Wayne State University
	Expert Opinions: Fate of Kinesiology and Physical Education Pedagogy Jenna R. Lorusso and Nancy Francis, Brock University
	Preservice Teachers' and Students' Physical Activity Outcomes Tiffany A. Kloeppel, Horner Junior High School; and Kristin A. Scrabis-Fletcher, Eric Zullo, Nathalie Pfeifer, and Steve Leigh, Montclair State University
	Understanding the Impact of Service Learning on Preservice Teachers' Attitudes K. Andrew R. Richards, Andrew Eberline, and Thomas J. Templin, F Purdue University
	Characteristics of PETE Doctoral Institutions: Programs, Faculty, and Doctoral Students B. Ann Boyce, F University of Virginia; Jacalyn Lund, F Georgia State University; and Kason O'Neil, University of Virginia
	A Study of Male and Female High School Coaching Personalities Brian S. Berger, Jeff White, and Paul G. Schempp, University of Georgia

4:00 p.m.–5:30 p.m.

Research Consortium Poster Social: Research Across the Disciplines

Presider: Melinda A. Solmon,^F Louisiana State University

1.	RC Grant Findings: Transformative Physical Education Professional Development: Views From Facilitators and Teachers Kevin Patton, F California State University–Chico; and Melissa Parker, F University of Northern Colorado
2.	Mediation Effect of Empathy Between Self-Esteem and Partnership in Dance Eun Sim Yang, Hyun-Soon Baek, and Sang-Jo Kang, Korea National Sport University; and Woo-Kyung Kim, Yongin University
3.	Preservice Teacher Perception of Dance in P–12 Physical Education Benjamin Heatherly, Brookhill Elementary School; and Yvette M. Bolen and Bruce R. Thomas, Athens State University
4.	Effects of Menstrual Cycle on Exercise in Collegiate Female Athletes Jennifer Bossi, Kimberly Kostelis, Sean Walsh, and Jason Sawyer, Central Connecticut State University
5.	RC Grant Findings: COPD Affects Variability in Spatiotemporal Gait Patterns Jennifer Yentes, University of Nebraska–Omaha; Stephen I. Rennard, University of Nebraska Medical Center; and Nicholas Stergiou, University of Nebraska–Omaha
6.	Rasch Calibration of a Partnership Scale for Ballroom Dance Participants Hyun-Soon Baek, Eun Sim Yang, Jin-A Kim, and Sang-Jo Kang, Korea National Sport University
7.	Adventuring Together: Exploring Lived-Positive Emotionality in the Wilderness Paul T. Stuhr and Esther M. Ortiz-Stuhr, California State University–San Marcos; and Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University
8.	The Impact of an Educational Tobacco Intervention on College Students Kelley E. Rhoads and Tina M. Penhollow, Florida Atlantic University
9.	Impact of Afterschool Soccer: Students' Perceptions of School Climate Larry P. Nelson, The University of Texas–Arlington
10.	Motor Proficiency Predicts Cognitive Performance in 4-Year-Olds Priscila Caçola, Amanda Martinez, and Jean Ann Helm, The University of Texas–Arlington
11.	Relationship of Throwing Pattern Changes and Distance in Boys' Baseball David D. Barrett, Augsburg College
12.	Spatial and Temporal Variability of Gait Parameters in Down Syndrome Manuela C. Barna and Michael Horvat, F University of Georgia; and Ron V. Croce, University of New Hampshire
13.	Impact of an ‘App’ on Psychosocial Measurements of Physical Activity Tom Watterson, University of South Florida
14.	Finishing Times Variation for Cross-Country National Championships by Gender Kevin Riley Peters, Linda Petlichkoff, Yong Gao, F Shelley Lucas, and Lynda Ransdell, F Boise State University
15.	Critical Discourse Analysis About Korean Student-Athletes' Human Rights Deockki Hong, University of North Carolina–Greensboro; and Taeho Yu, Korea University
16.	Preservice Elementary School Educators' Healthy Body Mass Index and Physical Activity Jungyun Hwang, University of Texas–Austin; and Jason M. Schafer, Darla M. Castelli, F and Xiaofen Keating, F The University of Texas–Austin
17.	The Choking Game: Knowledge and Awareness Among College Students Rosanne S. Keathley, Sam Houston State University; and Judy R. Sandlin, Texas A&M University
18.	Impact of Community-Based Participatory Initiative on Children's Pedometer-Determined Physical Activity Rahma Ajja, Rohan Shah, Falon Tilley, R. Glenn Weaver, Daria Winnicka, and Morgan Hughey, University of South Carolina; Collin A. Webster, F University of Wollongong; Aaron Beighle, University of Kentucky; and Russell R. Pate, F Ruth Saunders, and Michael W. Beets, F University of South Carolina
19.	Moral Jogging, Leadership, and Optimism in an Intergenerational Physical Activity Program Brian Culp, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis
20.	Getting the Most Physical Activity From an Afterschool Program Joel D. Reece, Saori Ishikawa, and Ryan T. Conners, Middle Tennessee State University
21.	Changes in Sleep Following Diet and Exercise Protocols in Women R. Theresa Prodoehl, Elizabeth S. Edwards, Layne E. Eidemiller, and Judith A. Flohr, James Madison University
22.	Effect of Mirrors on Intrinsic Motivation Toward Aerobic Dance Ariana Mason and Jack Rutherford, F Eastern Kentucky University
23.	Physical Activity by and for Individuals With Autism: Cross-Group Comparisons Kristi Sayers Menear, William Neumeier, and Lisle Hites, The University of Alabama–Birmingham; Joe Carter, Glenwood, Inc.; and Brooke Stephens, Triumph Services, Inc.
24.	Effectively Mentoring Kinesiology Doctoral Students: Perspectives From Mentors and Mentees Jared A. Russell, Asherah Blount, and Michelle Vaughn, Auburn University
25.	Protection Motivation Theory-Based Beliefs Predict Adolescents' Physical Activity and Intention Chaoqun Huang, Wayland Baptist University; and Zan Gao, F University of Minnesota
26.	Using Case Studies to Facilitate Graduate Teaching Assistant Instructional Development and Support Michelle Vaughn, Jared A. Russell, and Asherah Blount, Auburn University
27.	Wellness Legislation Awareness and Impact by Teachers of the Year Kim C. Graber F and Amelia Mays Woods, F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Karen Lux Gaudreault, University of Wyoming; and Chris Gentry and John Mercer, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
28.	Physical Educators' Attitudes Toward and Understanding of Online Physical Education David Newman Daum, University of Southern Indiana; and Amelia Mays Woods, F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
29.	Physical Educators' Exergaming Integration Behaviors, Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy Beliefs Jennifer Krause, The University of Texas–San Antonio

7:00 p.m.–8:15 p.m.

R. Tait McKenzie Memorial Lecture: Key Strategies for Promoting Physical Activity in Underserved Communities

Presiders: Irene M. Cucina, Plymouth State University; and Melinda A. Solmon,^F Louisiana State University

Speaker: Deborah M. Parra-Medina, University of Texas Health Science Center–San Antonio

Thursday, April 25, 2013

7:15 a.m.–8:30 a.m.

C. H. McCloy Research Lecture and Breakfast: Symbols, Conventions, Games, Eleanor Metheny, and the Evolution of Human Intelligence

Presider: Melinda A. Solmon,^F Louisiana State University

Speaker: R. Scott Kretchmar,^F The Pennsylvania State University–University Park

8:45 a.m.–10:00 a.m.

Research on Curriculum: From Student Choice to National Reform

Presider: Guy LeMasurier,^F Vancouver Island University

	Factors Contributing to Sport Prominence in Physical Education Teacher Content Selection Matthew D. Ferry, George Mason University; and Nate McCaughtry, F Wayne State University
	Role of Evidence in Physical Education Reform in China (2001–2010) Haiyong Ding and Youqiang Li, Shanghai University of Sport
	Factors Affecting Curriculum Implementation: One Teacher's Perception Matthew Madden, State University of New York–Cortland; Melissa Parker F and Mark A. Smith, University of Northern Colorado; and Kevin Patton, F California State University–Chico
	Impact of Student Choice in High School Physical Education Amanda L. Campbell, Bridgewater College
	Teacher Fidelity to Physical Education Curricular Models Tiffany A. Kloeppel, Horner Junior High School; and Pamela Hodges Kulinna, F Hans van der Mars, F and Michalis Stylianou, Arizona State University

8:45 a.m.–10:00 a.m.

Yes, You Can: Empowering Students to Conduct and Publish Research

Presider: Jennifer M. Beller, Washington State University

Speakers: Sharon Kay Stoll,^F University of Idaho; and Jennifer M. Beller, Washington State University

10:15 a.m.–11:30 a.m.

Physical Activity and Social Factors

Presider: Xiaofen D. Keating,^F University of Texas at Austin

	RC Grant Findings: Exploring Physical Activity and Social Capital in the Context of Parks Birgitta Baker, Louisiana State University; and Aaron W. Clopton, F University of Kansas
	Challenges in Offering Inner-City Afterschool Physical Activity Clubs Kimberly Maljak and Nate McCaughtry, F Wayne State University; Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University; and Noel Kulik, Laurel L. Whalen, Michele Kaseta, Bo Shen, F and Jeffrey Martin, F Wayne State University
	School Policies, Environment, and Physical Education and Recess Time Monica Lounsbery, F University of Nevada–Las Vegas; and Thomas L. McKenzie, F San Diego State University
	Barriers and Affordances for Physical Activity Among Individuals Experiencing Spasticity Viviene A. Temple, Jill Dobrinsky, Jasmine Kim, Iris Loots, Kim Choy, and Brayley Chow, University of Victoria; Caroline Quartly, James Dunnett, and Alexis Hampshire, Vancouver Island Health Authority; and Sandra Hundza, University of Victoria
	Why Inner-City High Schoolers Voluntarily Attend Afterschool Physical Activity Clubs Laurel L. Whalen and Nathan A. McCaughtry, F Wayne State University; Alex Garn, Louisiana State University; and Noel Kulik, Kimberly Maljak, Michele Kaseta, Bo Shen, F and Jeffrey J. Martin, F Wayne State University

10:15 a.m.–11:30 a.m.

Research Consortium Focus Group A

Presider: K. Andrew R. Richards, Purdue University

10:15 a.m.–11:30 a.m.

Student Responses in Health-Related Physical Education

Presider: Pamela Hodges Kulinna,^F Arizona State University

	RC Grant Findings: Classroom Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and Fourth-Grade Students' Selective Attention Michalis Stylianou, Kent Lorenz, Pamela Hodges Kulinna, F Shannon Moore, and David Erickson, Arizona State University
	Secondary Students' Healthy Behavior Knowledge: An Update Courtney Teatro and Pamela Hodges Kulinna, F Arizona State University; Weimo Zhu, F and Elena Boiarskaia, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Bridget Wilde, Arizona State University
	Sex Differences in Student Interest and Performances in Fitness Testing Xihe Zhu, F Old Dominion University; Senlin Chen, Iowa State University; and James A. Parrott, Old Dominion University
	Age and Gender Differences of Adolescents' Physical Activity in Physical Education You Fu, The University of Utah; and Zan Gao, F University of Minnesota
	Third-Grade Students' Naïve Theory of Heart Function During Exercise Denis Pasco, University of Occidental Brittany; Cody Talbert, University of North Carolina–Greensboro; Ioannis Syrmpas, University of Thessaly; Senlin Chen, Iowa State University; Deockki Hong, Jerry W. Loflin, and Tan Zhang, University of North Carolina–Greensboro; Jared Nathan Androzzi, Shepherd University; and Ang Chen F and Catherine D. Ennis, F University of North Carolina–Greensboro

10:15 a.m.–11:45 a.m.

Exercise and Sport Psychology: Examining Physical Activity Through Mental Processes

Presider: Kin-Kit Li,^F City University of Hong Kong

1.	Young Martial Arts Athletes' Motivation and Their Health-Related Behaviors Howard Z. Zeng, City University of New York–Brooklyn College; Lisheng Xie, Changshu Foreign Language School; and Wojciech J. Cynarski, University of Rzeszów
2.	Perceptions of Competence and Motor Skill Proficiency Among Kindergarten Children Rick I. Bell, Viviene A. Temple, Jeff R. Crane, Buffy-Lynne Williams, and Patti-Jean Naylor, University of Victoria
3.	Motivating Students in Middle School Physical Education Sami Yli-Piipari, University of Memphis
4.	Attitudes Toward Physical Activity Among Hispanic Elementary School Children Jose A. Santiago, Sam Houston State University; Julio Morales, Lamar University; and Emily A. Roper, Sam Houston State University
5.	The Impact of Season Success on New Coach–Athlete Relationships Lindsey C. Blom, Michelle R. Colvin, and Chelsea Bastin, Ball State University
6.	Dominant Energy System Influence on Burnout in Collegiate Female Athletes Shelley H. Bradford, Christopher M. Keshock, Phillip M. Norrell, Larry R. Gurchiek, and Robert J. Heitman, University of South Alabama
7.	Examining Children's Physical Activity Motives, Physical Activity, and General Well-Being Tao Zhang, F John Collins, Katherine T. Thomas, F and Xiangli Gu, University of North Texas
8.	Motivational Predictors of Students' Health-Related Quality of Life Tao Zhang F and Xiangli Gu, University of North Texas
9.	Sport Decision-Making: Lessons From Former High School Athletes Judy Reed Sandlin, Texas A&M University; Rosanne S. Keathley, Sam Houston State University; and Michael Sandlin, Texas A&M University
10.	Physical Education Motivation and Physical Activity Change During Middle School Anne E. Cox, Illinois State University; and Lindley McDavid and Meghan H. McDonough, Purdue University
11.	Prospective Analysis of Physical Activity Among Individuals With Physical Disabilities Rebecca Ellis, F Georgia State University; and Maria Kosma, F Louisiana State University
12.	Effects of Physical Education on Cognition and Total Daily Activity Morgan H. Gralla and Brandon L. Alderman, Rutgers University
13.	Selection Bias in Sport Psychology Research: A Mixed-Methods Analysis Elizabeth M. Mullin, William Paterson University
14.	Physical Activity and Self-Regulatory Capabilities L. Kent Griffin and Nicole J. Gilinsky, Texas Tech University
15.	Playing to Win: A Look Into the Motivation of Athletes Stefanee O. Maurice, Ashley A. Samson, and Mark P. Otten, California State University–Northridge
16.	Fitness, Fatness, and Mental Health in Adolescents Seok Yoon, Chowan University; and Justin Y. Jeon, Yonsei University
17.	Identifying Theoretical Predictors of Chinese International Students' Physical Activity Behavior Zi Yan, Bradley J. Cardinal, F and Alan C. Acock, Oregon State University
18.	Goals, Need Satisfaction, and Motivation of High-Intensity Exercise Participants Benjamin A. Sibley and Shawn M. Bergman, Appalachian State University
19.	Frequency and Psychological Predictors of Disordered Eating in Figure Skaters Dana K. Voelker, State University of New York–Brockport; Daniel Gould, F Michigan State University; Justine J. Reel, F The University of Utah; and Tracey Covassin, Michigan State University
20.	Collegiate Soccer Coaches' Philosophies on Systems of Play and Recruiting Andy Gillham, University of South Dakota; and Dale Weiler, Augustana College
21.	Effects of Psychological Skill Training on Anxiety Among Soccer Athletes Casey Ann Quinn, Kimberly Kostelis, Michael Voight, and Peter Morano, Central Connecticut State University
22.	Associations Between Physical Self-Perceptions, Autonomous Motivation, and Fitness Variables James R. Whitehead, F Andrea P. Charlebois, Dennis J. Caine, and Thomas B. Steen, University of North Dakota

11:45 a.m.–12:45 p.m.

Examining Specialized Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Presider: Phillip Ward,^F The Ohio State University

	Badminton Content Knowledge Study Bomna Ko, East Carolina University; Insook Kim, Kent State University; and Phillip Ward F and Weidong Li, F The Ohio State University
	International Physical Education Teacher Education Physical Activity Content Knowledge Study Phillip Ward, F The Ohio State University; M. Levent Ince, Middle East Technical University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven; Insook Kim, Western Illinois University; Yun Soo Lee, Middle Tennessee State University; Weidong Li, F The Ohio State University; Weidong Liu, Soochow University; and Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University
	Basketball Content Knowledge: Playing, Coaching, and Teaching Experience Weidong Li, F Phillip Ward, F and Harry Lehwald, The Ohio State University; Paul T. Stuhr, California State University–San Marcos; James Ressler, Northern Illinois University; Elena Boiarskaia, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University

12:45 p.m.–2:15 p.m.

Research on Teaching and the Teaching Environment

Presider: Jayne Jenkins,^F University of Wyoming

1.	What Makes Physical Education Teachers Credible to Children? Nilo C. Ramos and Bryan A. McCullick, F University of Georgia
2.	Impact of Professional Development on Student Activity During Physical Education Heather E. Erwin, F Aaron Beighle, Christine Johnson, Eric Moore, and Michelle Thornton, University of Kentucky; and Donna Benton, Jefferson County Public Schools
3.	Preservice Teachers' Locus of Foci in Sport Education Oleg A. Sinelnikov, F Catherine E. Vollmer, Kate Shipp, and Andrew Young, The University of Alabama
4.	Teachers' Perceptions of Physical Education Skip M. Williams, Illinois State University; Kristin B. Carlson, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Amanda Draeger, Illinois State University
5.	PEP Grant Funding: An Impetus for Change in Physical Education Chris MacPherson, Newton Public Schools; and Karen Richardson, Bridgewater State University
6.	Analysis of a Discipline-Specific Instructional Technology Course in PETE James Wyant, Emily Jones, and Sean Bulger, West Virginia University
7.	Preservice Physical Educators' Development During a High School Virtual Internship Peg Nugent, Argosy University Online; and Nell Faucette F and Sara Flory, University of South Florida
8.	Effect of One Methods Class on Physical Education Teacher Efficacy Charlotte Humphries and Eddie Hebert, F Southeastern Louisiana University
9.	Idaho Physical Education: Quality and Quantity Surveillance Data, 2009–2011 Philip W. Scruggs, F Grace Goc Karp, Helen F. Brown, and Christa A. Davis, University of Idaho; Jane Shimon, Boise State University; Clay Robinson, Lewis-Clark State College; Michael J. Lester, Idaho State University; David R. Paul, University of Idaho; Terry-Ann Gibson and Lynda Ransdell, F Boise State University; Chantal A. Vella and Kathy D. Browder, University of Idaho; and John M. Fitzpatrick, Idaho State University
10.	An Examination of JTPE Authorship Patterns From 1981 to 2010 Jesse Rhoades, University of North Dakota; Amelia Mays Woods, F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; David Newman Daum, University of Southern Indiana; and John Mercer, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
11.	Inclusion of Act 31 in PETE Teacher-Training Curriculum Dan Timm, University of Wisconsin; and Heather Miller and Tom Cavanagh, Walden University
12.	Validation of the Pedagogical Content Knowledge Measurement Tool Yun Soo Lee, Donald Belcher, Tina J. Hall, and Minsoo Kang, F Middle Tennessee State University
13.	Service Learning for Preservice Teachers: Teaching Young Adults With Disabilities Elizabeth A. Woodruff and Oleg A. Sinelnikov, F The University of Alabama
14.	Teacher Candidates' Experiences Using Game Modification by Adaptation Karen Richardson and Deborah A. Sheehy, Bridgewater State University
15.	Influence of Negotiations on Preservice Teachers' Instruction Zachary Wahl-Alexander and Matthew Curtner-Smith, F The University of Alabama
16.	Changes in Physical Education Programs From 2006 to 2010 Xiaofen Keating, F The University of Texas–Austin; Prithwi Raj Subramaniam, F Ithaca College; Rulan Shangguan and Louis Harrison, F University of Texas–Austin; and Li Chen, F Delaware State University
17.	Influence of Sexual Identity Stereotyping on Heterosexual Female Preservice Teachers Yu-Chun Chen and Matthew Curtner-Smith, F The University of Alabama
18.	Principals' Attributes Associated With Promoting Physical Education Terry L. Rizzo F and Stephen J. Kinzey, California State University–San Bernardino
19.	Effect of Cognitive Disequilibrium on Preservice Teachers Using Constructivist Service Learning Stefan Ward, Mark I. Perez, and Heidi Henschel Pellett, Central Washington University
20.	Elementary Physical Education Teachers' Experiences in Teaching English-Language Learners Takahiro Sato, Kent State University; and Samuel R. Hodge, F The Ohio State University
21.	Perceptions of Physical Education Among Elementary School Classroom Teachers Kate H. Shipp, Zachary Wahl-Alexander, and Catherine E. Vollmer, The University of Alabama
22.	Principals' and Physical Educators' Perceptions of Administrative Support for Physical Education Chris Gentry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
23.	Roles of Teacher Educators' Modeling on Teacher Candidates' Identity Development Kihee Jo and Okseon Lee, Seoul National University
24.	Coaching Behaviors of Successful High School Girls' Basketball Coaches Tedi Searle, Beehive Academy; and James C. Hannon, F Barry B. Shultz, and Nicole Miller, The University of Utah
25.	Physical Education Teacher Candidates' Fitness Competency Margo M. Coleman, Skip M. Williams, Mary L. Henninger, and Amy Marzano, Illinois State University
26.	Physical Education and Non-Physical Education Major Students' Empirical Experiences in Sport Education Boung Jin Kang, Elizabeth City State University
27.	Physical Education Teachers and Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs Erin E. Centeio and Darla M. Castelli, F The University of Texas–Austin
28.	Reliability of Classification Decisions for the FG–COMPASS: A Follow-Up Ovande Furtado, Eastern Illinois University; Jere Gallagher, University of Pittsburgh; and Hasan Mavi, Eastern Illinois University
29.	Preservice Teachers' Perceived Competence and Attitudes Toward Promoting Physical Activity Jungyun Hwang, Jason M. Schafer, Darla M. Castelli, F and Xiaofen Keating, F The University of Texas–Austin
30.	Policy, Community, and Individual Influences on Teacher Knowledge Development Casey Ingersoll, Jayne Jenkins, F and Karen Lux Gaudreault, University of Wyoming

2:15 p.m.–4:15 p.m.

AAHPERD/Research Consortium Graduate Student Forum

Presiders: K. Andrew R. Richards, Purdue University; and Catherine Berei, University of Northern Colorado

2:15 p.m.–4:15 p.m.

Student Motivation and Experiences in Physical Education

Presider: Matthew Curtner-Smith,^F The University of Alabama

	Futsal in Higher Education: A Novel Sport Education Experience Mauro H. Andre, Auburn University
	The Influence of Novelty and Variety on Situational Interest John Mercer, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
	Game-Play Participation of Amotivated Students During Sport Education Tristan L. Wallhead, University of Wyoming; Alex Garn, Louisiana State University; and Carla Vidoni, University of Louisville
	Self-Determination as a Predictor of Effort and Future Activity Jae Young Yang, Ron E. McBride, F Ping Xiang, F Xiaoxia Su, Glenn Schroeder, and Robert Speer, Texas A&M University; and Fatma Sacli, Hacettepe University
	Implementation Fidelity of Responsibility Model in Elementary Physical Education Classes Okseon Lee, Kihee Jo, and Kyunghee Kong, Seoul National University
	The Prevalence, Beliefs, and Instruction of Using Physical Education Homework Daniel J. Burt, Texas A&M University–Kingsville; and Dean R. Gorman, George S. Denny, Steve Dittmore, Jack C. Kern, and Paul Calleja, University of Arkansas
	Student Conception of Grade in Physical Education Xihe Zhu F , Old Dominion University
	Achievement Goals as Predictors of Expectancy-Value Motivation, Effort, and Intention Xiaoxia Su, Ron E. McBride, F Ping Xiang F , and Jaeyoung Yang, Texas A&M University; Fatma Sacli, Hacettepe University; and Robert Speer and Glenn Schroeder, Texas A&M University

2:45 p.m.–4:15 p.m.

Foundations for Quality of Life: Health, Leisure, and Physical Activity

Presider: Joanne Hynes Hunter,^F

1.	Relationships Between Recreational Pursuits and Motor Skills in Young Children Jeff R. Crane, Amy Brown, Buffy-Lynne Williams, Rick I. Bell, Patti-Jean Naylor, and Viviene A. Temple, University of Victoria
2.	Teaching Health Online for HBCU College Freshmen Linda M. Gagen, Norfolk State University
3.	Practice Context and Levels of Physical Activity in Youth Basketball Julio Morales and Kimberly Gauthreaux, Lamar University; and Jose A. Santiago, Sam Houston State University
4.	Use of Adventure-Based Programs to Aid in Retention Carol A. Smith, Elon University; and Nestor W. Sherman, F Texas A&M University–Kingsville
5.	Using Motivational and Volitional Interventions to Promote Adolescents' Physical Activity Chaoqun Huang, Wayland Baptist University; and Zan Gao, F University of Minnesota
6.	A Comprehensive Coordinated Approach to Increasing Physical Activity in Afterschool Programs Morgan Hughey, R. Glenn Weaver, Falon Tilley, Rahma Ajja, Rohan Shah, and Daria Winnicka, University of South Carolina; Collin A. Webster, F University of Wollongong; Aaron Beighle, University of Kentucky; and Russell R. Pate, F Ruth Saunders, and Michael W. Beets, F University of South Carolina
7.	The Impact of Classroom Activity Breaks on Children's Physical Activity Teresa Berschwinger, State University of New York–Brockport; and Timothy A. Brusseau, The University of Utah
8.	School Demographic Factors That Predict Healthy Body Mass Index Brian D. Dauenhauer, Xiaofen Keating, F and Dolly Lambdin, The University of Texas–Austin
9.	The Relationship Between Unsupervised Leisure and Substance Use Among Skateboarders Judith A. Johns, State University of New York–Cortland
10.	Competency-Based Professional Development Training Impact on Physical Activity Promotion R. Glenn Weaver, Falon Tilley, Rahma Ajja, Rohan Shah, Daria Winnicka, and Morgan Hughey, University of South Carolina; Collin A. Webster, F University of Wollongong; Aaron Beighle, University of Kentucky; and Russell R. Pate, F Ruth Saunders, and Michael W. Beets, F University of South Carolina
11.	Apply Value Theory to Examine Values Associated With Spectator Sports Li-Shiue Gau, Asia University; and Jong-Chae Kim, Fairleigh Dickinson University
12.	Co-Occurring Health-Related Behaviors in a College Student Sample Cathy A. Kennedy and Deb Morris, Colorado State University
13.	Latent Class Analysis of Health Risk Behaviors Among Adolescents Youngdeok Kim, Saori Ishikawa, and Minsoo Kang, F Middle Tennessee State University
14.	Pre/Post-Comparison of Nine Constructs Within a Multidimensional Wellness Course Mindy Hartman Mayol, Brianna Scott, Lisa Hicks, and Heidi Hancher-Rauch, University of Indianapolis
15.	Sport Event Volunteerism: What Student Volunteers Learn Chen Ni, Jinmoo Heo, and Carina King, Indiana University–Indianapolis; and Youngshin Won, Yonsei University
16.	Predictors of Physical Activity in Nontraditional-Age College Students Ka Man Leung, Hong Kong Baptist University; and Lynda Ransdell, F Yong Gao, F Jane Shimon, and Shelley Lucas, Boise State University
17.	Tailoring a Physical Activity Promotion Program for a Rural Area Gavin Colquitt, Moya Alfonso, Ashley Walker, and Vanessa Dunmore, Georgia Southern University
18.	Correlates of School-Day Physical Activity of Young Children S. Wood Logan, Leah Robinson, F Laura T. Barber, Julia C. Smith, Alexa D. Isaacs, and Kara Palmer, Auburn University
19.	Connections Between Sex Education and High-Risk Behaviors Among University Students Emily K. Beasley and Birgitta L. Baker, Louisiana State University
20.	Attitudes of Thai and Mexican High School Students Toward Obese Individuals Larry K. Olsen, F A. T. Still University; Gabriela Pena De La Cruz, National Autonomous University of Mexico; Adriana Pena De La Cruz, N/A; Anchalee Duvall and Nattaya Phiromsid, Western University; and Mark J. Kittleson, F New Mexico State University
21.	Health and Diet Behavior of Korean Girls in Secondary Schools Dae-Kyung Kim, Korea National Sport University; Soojin Yoo, University of Texas–Pan American; and Jin-Sung Jung, Daejeon University
22.	Effects of Health Promotion Program on Older Women's Healthy Lifestyles Eun-Ju Park, Beakseok University; Soojin Yoo, University of Texas–Pan American; Dae-Kyung Kim, Korea National Sport University; and Jung-il Oh, University of Texas–Pan American
23.	Evaluating Preschool Children's Fruit and Vegetable Preference, Knowledge, and Consumption Andrew Hansen, Moya Alfonso, Robert Vogel, and Amy Hackney, Georgia Southern University
24.	Social Support, Diet, and Exercise in Afterschool Physical Activity Clubs Noel Kulik, Agata Zalewska, and Nathan A. McCaughtry, F Wayne State University; Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University; and Kimberly Maljak, Laurel L. Whalen, Michele Kaseta, Jeffrey Martin, F and Bo Shen, F Wayne State University
25.	Weight Status and Diet/Physical Activity Self-Perception in Afterschool Physical Activity Clubs Noel Kulik, Agata Zalewska, and Nathan A. McCaughtry, F Wayne State University; Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University; and Kimberly Maljak, Laurel L. Whalen, Michele Kaseta, Jeffrey Martin, F and Bo Shen, F Wayne State University
26.	Women and Running: Changes Beyond the Physical Dimension of Health Dina M. Hayduk, Kutztown University
27.	Self-Reports of Dietary Behaviors, Physical Activity, and Screen Time Jenifer E. Thorn, Nailya DeLellis, Judy Chandler, and Korey Boyd, Central Michigan University
28.	Increasing Nutrition-Related Knowledge: Intervention Effect on High School Female Athletes Wenhao Liu, F Slippery Rock University; Susan M. Pilarski, Beaver Falls Area High School; and Joanne M. Leight and Marybeth Miller, Slippery Rock University
29.	Time in Field Experience Predicts Efficacy to Teach Health Mariane M. Fahlman, F Wayne State University; and Heather L. Hall, Elmhurst College
30.	The Impact of Infant Feeding Choices on Childhood Obesity/Overweight Barbara Hernandez F and Ismatara Reena, Lamar University

4:30 p.m.–5:30 p.m.

Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Lecture: Science and Art of Setting Standards (Cutoff Scores) in Kinesiology

Presider: Bradley J. Cardinal,^F Oregon State University

Speaker: Weimo Zhu,^F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

4:30 p.m.–5:30 p.m.

Avoiding the Pitfalls of an IRB Submission

Presider: Chris A. Ayres, East Tennessee State University

Speaker: Chris A. Ayres, East Tennessee State University

5:30 p.m.–7:00 p.m.

Research Consortium Business Meeting

7:30 p.m.–9:00 p.m.

Research Consortium Past-Presidents' Dinner

Presider: Ang Chen,^F University of North Carolina–Greensboro

Friday, April 26, 2013

7:30 a.m.–8:30 a.m.

Physiological Responses to Exercise

Presider: Diane Wiese-Bjornstal,^F University of Minnesota

	A Meta-Analysis of Physiological and Psychological Benefits of Exergaming Weihong Ning, Texas Tech University; Zan Gao, F University of Minnesota; and Melanie A. Hart, F Yan Zhang, and Hansel Burley, Texas Tech University
	FMS Profiles of Law-Enforcement Trainees Before and After Physical Conditioning William E. Buckley, Lauren C. Kramer, Daria M. Oller, Ryan P. Rosendale, Alicia M. Montalvo, and Michele L. Duffey, The Pennsylvania State University
	Association of Body Composition and Resting Blood Pressure Changes Following Aerobic Exercise Guoyuan Huang, F University of Southern Indiana
	Accuracy of Step Detection Using a Customized Mobile Phone App David A. Rowe, F Allan Hewitt, Campbell Reid, and Arlene M. McGarty, University of Strathclyde

7:30 a.m.–8:30 a.m.

Relationships Among Motor Skills, Perceived Competence, Physical Activity, and Fitness

Presider: Zan Gao,^F University of Minnesota

Speakers: Tao Zhang,^F University of North Texas; Ping Xiang,^F Texas A&M University; Chaoqun Huang, The University of Utah; and Zan Gao,^F University of Minnesota

	Examining the Mediating Role of Perceived Competence in Exergaming Activities Zan Gao, F University of Minnesota; David Stodden, F Texas Tech University; and Tao Zhang, F University of North Texas
	Fitness Mediates Motor Skills and Physical Activity in Hispanic Children Tao Zhang F and Katherine T. Thomas, F University of North Texas; and Zan Gao, F University of Minnesota
	Children's Physical Activity Levels in Interactive Dance Across Skill Levels Zan Gao, F University of Minnesota; and Ping Xiang, F Texas A&M University
	Body Fat Influences Children's Perceived Competence, Physical Activity, and Fitness Chaoqun Huang, The University of Utah; Zan Gao, F University of Minnesota; and Weihong Ning, Texas Tech University

8:45 a.m.–10:00 a.m.

Examining Physical Activity and Sport Through Cultural Lenses

Presider: Li Chen,^F Delaware State University

	NCAA Black Male Student-Athlete Identity and Academic Outcomes Albert Y. Bimper, Kansas State University
	A Qualitative Investigation: A Short-Term Global Experiential Learning Program Hongwei Guan, Nicholas Quarrier, and Yao Li, Ithaca College
	Examining LGBTQ Concerns on a University Campus Emily K. Beasley and Birgitta L. Baker, Louisiana State University
	Facilitators and Barriers to Physical Activity Participation Among Chinese Women Zi Yan and Bradley J. Cardinal, F Oregon State University
	Sport Transformation and the King III Report on Good Governance Anneliese E. Goslin, University of Pretoria; and Darlene A. Kluka, F Barry University

8:45 a.m.–10:00 a.m.

Physical Activity and Fitness in Children's Lives

Presider: Li Li,^F Georgia Southern University

	Validating Middle School Fitness Knowledge Assessments Courtney Teatro and Pamela Hodges Kulinna, F Arizona State University; Weimo Zhu F and Elena Boiarskaia, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Bridget Wilde, Arizona State University
	Children's Physical Activity Levels in DDR by Body Mass Index Zan Gao, F University of Minnesota
	Are Children With Autism Less Active Than Children Without Autism? Courtney Johnson and Joonkoo Yun, F Oregon State University
	Stereotypic Behaviors of Children With Autism During Gross Motor Activities Jihyun Lee and David L. Porretta, The Ohio State University
	Children's Physical Activity at Recess: Kindergarten Through Fourth Grade David Newman Daum, University of Southern Indiana; and Amelia Mays Woods F and Kim C. Graber, F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

8:45 a.m.–10:00 a.m.

Research Consortium Focus Group B

Presider: K. Andrew R. Richards, Purdue University

10:00 a.m.–12:30 p.m.

Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Editorial Board Meeting

10:15 a.m.–12:15 p.m.

Professional Socialization: College and Beyond

Presider: John Miller,^F Troy University

	RC Grant Findings: Women in Positions of Power Within U.S. High School Sports Cindra S. Kamphoff, Minnesota State University–Mankato; and Nicole LaVoi, University of Minnesota
	Socialization Experiences of Kinesiology Graduate Students of Color Jared A. Russell, Asherah Blount, and Desmond Delk, Auburn University
	Formative Reflections of Recreation Science Students on Academic Service Learning Anneliese E. Goslin, University of Pretoria; Darlene A. Kluka, F Barry University; and Johannes G. U. Van Wyk and Engela Van der Klashorst, University of Pretoria
	Physical Education Teachers' Compliance With Professional Codes of Ethics and Conduct Stephen Mabagala, University of Dar Es Salaam
	Sign on the Dotted Line: An Analysis of College-Choice Factors Landon T. Huffman, University of Tennessee–Knoxville
	Personality and the ‘Clutch’ Athlete Eric Huebner and Lynn M. Owens, Montana State University
	Parental Perceptions of Professional Behaviors in Coaching and Teaching Melissa A. Murray, University of Southern Mississippi; Linda J. Schoenstedt, Xavier University; Kimberly J. Bodey, Indiana State University; and Kristen Dieffenbach, West Virginia University
	Professional Socialization Experiences of Early Career Urban Physical Educators Sara B. Flory, University of South Florida

10:45 a.m.–12:15 p.m.

Student Research Works-in-Progress Poster Session

Presider: Melinda A. Solmon,^F Louisiana State University

12:45 p.m.–2:15 p.m.

Critically Examining Movement as Social Processes

Presider: Iva Obrusnikova,^F University of Delaware

1.	Factors Affecting Chinese University Administrators' Physical Activity Rulan Shangguan, The University of Texas–Austin; Jianmin Guan, F The University of Texas–San Antonio; and Xiaofen Keating, F The University of Texas–Austin
2.	Promotional Strategies After the Reorganization: The Case of the AFL Eddie T. C. Lam, F Cleveland State University; Siu-Yin Cheung, F Hong Kong Baptist University; Demetrius W. Pearson, University of Houston; and Sungwon Bae, William Paterson University
3.	Factor Structure of the Chinese Service Quality Assessment Scale Siu-Yin Cheung, F Hong Kong Baptist University; Eddie T. C. Lam, F Cleveland State University; Jia-wen Shao, Hong Kong Baptist University; and Jennifer Yuen-ming Mak, F Marshall University
4.	Comparison of Fitness Performance Between Children With and Without Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Andrew M. Colombo-Dougovito, Western Michigan University
5.	Development of a Statewide Physical Activity Plan Using Concept Mapping Sean Bulger, Eloise Elliott, Emily Jones, Sean Fitzpatrick, Dina Jones, and Nancy O'Hara Tompkins, West Virginia University
6.	The Perceptions and Needs of Sport Management Students Steve Chen, Morehead State University; Heather R. Adams-Blair, Eastern Kentucky University; and Adora Miller, Morehead State University
7.	St. Augustine's Swimming Pool Incident and the Civil Rights Act Srecko Mavrek, New York City Department of Education; and Angela K. Beale, Adelphi University
8.	Swimming and State-Sponsored Doping in Communist East Germany Srecko Mavrek, New York City Department of Education; and Angela K. Beale, Adelphi University
9.	Kinesiology Students' Perceptions Toward Adapted Physical Education Service Learning Jose A. Santiago and Emily A. Roper, Sam Houston State University
10.	Scoreboard Buzzers and the Potential for Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Margaret Holder, Kayla Peak, and Joe Gillespie, Tarleton State University; and Jeff Burnett, Fort Hays State University
11.	Impact of Athletic Apparel Company Funding on Grassroots Basketball Matthew Keefe, Kayla Peak, and Steve Simpson, Tarleton State University
12.	Moral Reasoning and Adventure-Based Programs: Any Affect? Carol A. Smith, Elon University
13.	Investigating Preservice Teacher Self-Efficacy Through Adapted Physical Education Professional Preparation Andrea Taliaferro, Lindsay Brooke, and Kristi Satzer, West Virginia University
14.	Activity Participation Among Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorders E. Andrew Pitchford, University of Michigan; Megan MacDonald, Oregon State University; and Janet L. Hauck and Dale A. Ulrich, F University of Michigan
15.	History, Philosophy, and Sociology of Sport Recommendations for PETE Amanda A. Metcalf and Susan M. Ross, University of Central Missouri
16.	Neighborhood Transformation: Participatory Photo Mapping, At-Risk Youth, and Physical Activity Karen Meaney, F Jo An M. Zimmermann, Gloria Martinez-Ramos, Yungmei Lu, and Jungfang Chen, The Texas State University–San Marcos
17.	Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity: A Quality Indicator? Jennifer Morgan and Dalhyun Moon, Oregon State University; Jooyeon Jin, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse; and Cheng Cheng Jia and Joonkoo Yun, F Oregon State University
18.	An Integrative Framework: Physical Activity Predictors in Inclusive Physical Education Jooyeon Jin, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse; and Joonkoo Yun, F Oregon State University
19.	Volunteer Motivations at a Mega Sporting Event Jennifer L. VanSickle and Michael J. Diacin, University of Indianapolis
20.	On-the-Job Training: Physical Education Teachers' Perspectives on Learning to Teach Suzanna Rocco Dillon and Kevin Tepper, Wayne State University; and Timothy D. Davis, State University of New York–Cortland
21.	Exergames to Engage Youth With Visual Impairments in Physical Activity John T. Foley, F State University of New York–Cortland; Barbara A. Gasperetti, Jean Black School; Cathy M. MacDonald and Stephen P. Yang, State University of New York–Cortland; and Lauren Lieberman, State University of New York–Brockport
22.	Soccer for Peace and Understanding Program: Evaluation of Coaching Workshops Lindsey C. Blom, Lawrence Gerstein, Lawrence Judge, and David Pierce, Ball State University
23.	Investigating Social Support of Professional Volleyball Players on International Teams Janna Lafountaine, College of Saint Benedict; and Cindra S. Kamphoff, Minnesota State University–Mankato
24.	Physical Activity Barriers for Adults With Brain Injury: Qualitative Inquiry Simon Driver, Oregon State University; and Megan C. Self, University of North Texas
25.	Physical Activity in Youth With Down Syndrome and Autism Spectrum Disorder Irully Jeong and Dale A. Ulrich, F University of Michigan
26.	Improving Social Skills of Elementary Children With Special Needs Amaury Samalot-Rivera, University of Puerto Rico–Bayamon; Paul T. Stuhr and Esther M. Ortiz-Stuhr, California State University–San Marcos; Takahiro Sato, Kent State University; and Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University
27.	Service Learning Through Special Olympics: Examining Impacts Upon Student Volunteers Michael J. Diacin and Jennifer L. VanSickle, University of Indianapolis
28.	Understanding the Sport Commitment of Wheelchair Basketball Athletes Joshua Lavigne and Scott A. Forrester, Brock University
29.	Swimming Pool Accessibility: A University- and Community-Based Fitness Center Analysis Jeffrey Petersen, Baylor University; Cindy Piletic, Western Illinois University; Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University; and Janet K. Wigglesworth, Western Illinois University

12:45 p.m.–2:15 p.m.

Understanding the Body in Action: Physiology, Measurement, and Skillfulness

Presider: Charles F. Cicciarella,^F Louisiana Tech University

1.	Authorship and Sampling in Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Duane Knudson, F Texas State University
2.	Will Chronic Aerobic Exercise Benefit Cognitive Functioning in Young Adults? Hui-Jung Fu, Springfield College; and Feng-Ru Sheu, Indiana University
3.	Acquisition of Motor Skills by the Novice Through Varied Feedback Hui-Jung Fu, Springfield College; and Feng-Ru Sheu, Indiana University
4.	Underestimation of Perceived Exertion During VO2max Testing in Trained Runners Maridy Troy and Justin Menickelli, Western Carolina University
5.	Senior Fitness Testing Experience and Students' Attitudes Toward Older Adults Melissa Powers, Kayla Garver, Jill Robinson, and Antonio Ross, University of Central Oklahoma
6.	Convergent Validity of an Activity Monitor With a Research-Grade Accelerometer Justin Menickelli, Western Carolina University; Cara Sidman, University of North Carolina–Wilmington; David Claxton, Dan Grube, and Erin Leonard, Western Carolina University; and Sarah Lowell, Cartoogechaye Elementary School
7.	Skinfold Thickness and Handheld Bioelectric Impedance Analysis Agreement in Body Fat Estimates Ryan D. Burns, James C. Hannon, F Brett M. Allen, J. E. Cosgriff, and Timothy A. Brusseau, The University of Utah
8.	Association Between Visual-Object and Visual-Spatial Ability and Reach Planning Tasks Carl P. Gabbard, F Texas A&M University; Barbara Spessato, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul; and Priscila Caçola, The University of Texas–Arlington
9.	Physiological Measures During Treadmill Testing in Youth With Down Syndrome Philip Esposito, Texas Christian University; and Dale A. Ulrich, F University of Michigan
10.	Intensity Levels in Children Ages 7–10 While Traverse Climbing Cyrus Darling, Central Washington University; Harry Papadopoulos, Pacific Lutheran University; and Kirk E. Mathias and James DePaepe, F Central Washington University
11.	Predictors of Winning Korean Pro-Basketball Games Using Four Statistical Techniques Sae-Hyung Kim and Sang-Jo Kang, Korea National Sport University; and Miyoung Lee, F Kookmin University
12.	The Impact of Visual Impairment on Gross Motor Skill Performance Matthias O. Wagner, University of Konstanz; Pamela S. Haibach, State University of New York–Brockport; Tristan G. Pierce, American Printing House for the Blind; and Lauren J. Lieberman, State University of New York–Brockport
13.	Polygenic Association of ACE and ACTN3 Polymorphism With Power Chul-Hyun Kim, Korea National Sport University; Hyeoijin Kim, Korea National University of Education; Jae-Hyeon Park, Korea National Sport University; and Chong-Ryeol Park, Sung-Jun Cho, and Ho-Hyun Song, Korea National University of Education
14.	Mobile Computer App and Waist-Mounted Pedometer Accuracy Theresa Beezley, Tyler Beck, Seth Jones, Kirstin Jensen, Ryan Barbieri, and Philip W. Scruggs, F University of Idaho
15.	How Many Missing Days Can Be Recovered? Children's Step-Count Data Minsoo Kang F and Youngdeok Kim, Middle Tennessee State University
16.	A 10-Week University Program Improves Health-Related Variables Jennifer Summers, University of Oregon; and Lynda Ransdell F and Yong Gao, F Boise State University
17.	Retrospective Practice Histories of Female Basketball Players in the Carolinas Anthony S. Smith, Mars Hill College
18.	Aquatic- and Land-Based Plyometric Ground Contact Time Does Not Differ Christopher Matich and Ryan Fowler, Weber State University; and David Berry, Saginaw Valley State University
19.	Health-Related Fitness Tracking in Extreme Quartiles Among Adolescents Traci D. Zillifro, Wenhao Liu, F and Randall A. Nichols, Slippery Rock University
20.	Comparison of Men's and Women's Partnership Model: Multiple-Group Path Analysis Jun-Woo Lee, Hoseo University; Cho-Young Yook and Sae-Hyung Kim, Korea National Sport University; Youn-Sun Choi, Seoul Christian University; and Kyu-Ja Hwang, Hanyang University
21.	Aerobic Capacity in Children With Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Tim Martinson, Stephen A. Butterfield, F Craig A. Mason, and Robert A. Lehnhard, University of Maine
22.	Key Predictors of Aerobic Capacity in Youth Ages 9–19 Years Sarah Livingstone, Stephen A. Butterfield, F Craig A. Mason, and Robert A. Lehnhard, University of Maine
23.	Estimation of Aerobic Fitness From PACER Performance in Older Adolescents Matthew T. Mahar, F Matthew S. Hanna, C. David Kemble, Katrina D. DuBose, and Nelson Cooper, East Carolina University
24.	Relative Age Effects in Minor League Professional Baseball Benjamin Wellborn, Rob Doan, and Karen E. French, F University of South Carolina
25.	Effect of Core Conditioning on Youths' Trunk Strength and Endurance Brett M. Allen, J. E. Cosgriff, James C. Hannon, F and Ryan D. Burns, The University of Utah
26.	Effects of Afterschool Strength Training on Adolescents' Muscular Strength Wenhao Liu, F Slippery Rock University; Shawn L. S. Bean, Cranberry Junior Senior High School; and Traci D. Zillifro and Jeffrey Smith, Slippery Rock University
27.	Rasch Analysis to Assess Appropriateness of the NHANES Depression Screener Yong Gao, F Boise State University; Haichun Sun, F University of South Florida; and Lynda Ransdell, F Boise State University
28.	Examining Measurement Properties of a Novel Fall-Risk Assessment Tool Dan Gragert, Terry-Ann Gibson, Yong Gao, F and Lynda Ransdell, F Boise State University

2:30 p.m.–3:45 p.m.

Factors Influencing Physical Activity Participation

Presider: Joonkoo Yun,^F Oregon State University

	Promoting Aerobic Physical Activity Through Cell Phones Chantrell Antoine and Rebecca Ellis, F Georgia State University
	Self-Efficacy as a Predictor of Ultramarathon Running Performance Katherine M. Polasek and John T. Foley, F State University of New York–Cortland
	Moderators of the Message-Framing Effects on Physical Activity Kin-Kit Li, F City University of Hong Kong; Sheung-Tak Cheng, The Hong Kong Institute of Education; Helene H. Fung, The Chinese University of Hong Kong; and Camille K. Li, City University of Hong Kong
	Changes in Runners' Motivations Across Training Ashley A. Samson, California State University–Northridge; and Laura K. Stewart, Louisiana State University
	Achievement Goals and Intentions of Students in Inclusive Physical Education Iva Obrusnikova, F University of Delaware; and Suzanna Rocco Dillon, Wayne State University

2:30 p.m.–3:45 p.m.

Research Consortium Focus Group C

Presider: Andrew Eberline, Purdue University

2:30 p.m.–3:45 p.m.

Understanding Health Risks

Presider: Barbara Lorraine Michiels Hernandez,^F Lamar University

	College Physical Activity Class Participation and Modifiable Health Risk Factors Kimberly Reich, High Point University
	Breast Cancer and College Women: The Health Belief Model Applied Kendra Guilford, University of Buraimi; Lori W. Turner and Brad E. Lian, The University of Alabama; and Kaduabu S. Ajongbah, Bethune-Cookman University
	Avenues to Curb Hookah Tobacco Smoking Among College Students Mary Martinasek, Allison Calvanese, Emily Bauman, and Cassandra Parks, University of Tampa
	Overweight or Obese Weight Perception on Weight-Control Behaviors in Adolescents Saori Ishikawa, Amanda R. Cole, Joel D. Reece, and Norman L. Weatherby, Middle Tennessee State University
	Microtrauma Sport Injury Psychology Narratives Among Long-Distance Runners Hayley C. Russell, Reed H. Steele, Ayanna Franklin, Diane Wiese-Bjornstal, F and Shelby A. Hoppis, University of Minnesota

4:00 p.m.–5:15 p.m.

Mediation Analysis: Why Every Researcher Should Know It

Presider: Minsoo Kang,^F Middle Tennessee State University

Speakers: Weimo Zhu,^F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Elena Boiarskaia, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

	Mediation Variables and Mediation Analysis: What and Why? Weimo Zhu, F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
	Statistical Analysis of Mediation Variables: A Review Elena Boiarskaia, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

4:00 p.m.–5:15 p.m.

Multifaceted Understanding of Motor Skills

Presider: Virginia Overdorf,^F William Paterson University

	RC Grant Findings: Trunk Control in Recreational Athletes Varies With Baseline Neurocognitive Performance Daniel Herman, University of Florida; and Jeffrey Barth, University of Virginia
	Fundamental Motor Skills Profiles of Fourth-Grade Children in Iraq Fadya Jerojeis and Crystal F. Branta, Michigan State University
	Developmental Trajectory of Physical Activity for Infants Ages 0–6 Months Janet L. Hauck and Dale A. Ulrich, F University of Michigan
	Movement Skills and Calibrated Severity Scores in Children With Autism Leah Ketcheson and Dale Ulrich, F University of Michigan
	Motor Skill Performance Profiles of Urban and Suburban School Children Virginia Witte, Michigan State University

Review Panel Chairs and Reviewers

The Review Panel Chairs (RPCs) are listed immediately under each topic area. The abstract and symposia/tutorial reviewers for each area then follow.

Biomechanics and Sports Medicine

Duane Knudson ^F (RPC), Texas State University

	Tom Kaminski,F University of Delaware
	Duane Knudson,F Texas State University
	Li Li,F Louisiana State University
	Sara Myers, University of Nebraska–Omaha
	H. Scott Strohmeyer, University of Central Missouri

Dance

Barbara Hernandez ^F (RPC), Lamar University

	Theresa Purcell Cone, Rowan University
	Barbara Hernandez,F Lamar University
	Janice LaPointe-Crump, Texas Woman's University
	Josie Metal-Corbin,F University of Nebraska–Omaha
	Nancy Schmitz, University of Wisconsin–LaCrosse (Retired)

Exercise Physiology and Fitness

Michael G. Bemben ^F (RPC), University of Oklahoma

	Jessica B. Adams, Kean University
	Pamela S. Anderson, Georgia Gwinnett College
	Michael G. Bemben,F University of Oklahoma
	Joel D. Brasher, Lakeshore Foundation
	Michele Fisher, Montclair State University
	Guoyuan Huang,F University of Southern Indiana
	Maria Macarle, Dowling College
	Guy Le Masurier,F Vancouver Island University
	Karen E. McConnell, Pacific Lutheran University
	Tracey Robinson, Adams State College
	Jane Roy, The University of Alabama–Birmingham
	Alberto Ruiz, Texas A&M University–Kingsville
	Nestor W. Sherman,F Texas A&M University–Kingsville
	Robert J. Spina, Old Dominion University
	Hirofumi Tanaka, The University of Texas–Austin
	Donna J. Terbizan,F North Dakota State University
	John Walker, Texas State University–San Marcos

Health

Chris Eisenbarth (RPC), Weber State University

	Dawn Anderson-Butcher, The Ohio State University
	John M. Batacan, Idaho State University
	David Berry, Saginaw Valley State University
	D. Randy Black,F Purdue University
	Jeffrey Clark,F Illinois State University
	David Cutton, Texas A&M University–Kingsville
	Dixie L. Dennis, Austin Peay State University
	John H. Downing, Missouri State University
	Chris Eisenbarth, Weber State University
	J. Sue Fletcher, California State University
	Brian F. Geiger, The University of Alabama–Birmingham
	Chris T. Harman, California University of Pennsylvania
	Bonni C. Hodges, State University of New York–Cortland
	Noy Kay, Indiana University
	Kathleen M. Lux, Capital University
	Kristi McClary King, University of Louisville
	James McKenzie, Ball State University
	Mindy Menn, University of Florida
	Larry K. Olsen,F A.T. Still University
	Ronda Sturgill, The University of Tampa
	Tara Michelle Tietjen-Smith, Texas A&M University
	Ralph Wood, Southeastern Louisiana University
	Keith Zullig,F West Virginia University

Interdisciplinary

Ang Chen ^F (RPC), University of North Carolina at Greensboro

	Michael G. Bemben,F University of Oklahoma
	Ang Chen,F University of North Carolina–Greensboro
	Samuel R. Hodge,F The Ohio State University
	Stephen J. Silverman,F Teachers College, Columbia University

Leisure and Recreation

Siu-Yin Cheung ^F (RPC), Hong Kong Baptist University

	Siu-Yin Cheung,F Hong Kong Baptist University
	Anthony W. Dixon, Troy University
	Jinmoo Heo, Indiana University–Indianapolis
	Carina King, Indiana University–Indianapolis
	Jennifer Yuen-ming Mak,F Marshall University
	Allison Wong, Hong Kong Baptist University

Measurement

Minsoo Kang ^F (RPC), Middle Tennessee State University

	Yong Gao,F Boise State University
	Jianmin Guan,F The University of Texas–San Antonio
	Minsoo Kang,F Middle Tennessee State University
	Eddie T. C. Lam,F Cleveland State University
	Anita N. Lee, Eastern Connecticut State University
	Miyoung Lee,F Kookmin University
	Matthew T. Mahar,F East Carolina University
	Tracey Dexter Matthews, Springfield College
	Julio Morales, Lamar University
	James R. Morrow, Jr.,F University of North Texas
	Jae-Hyeon Park, Korea National Sport University
	David A. Rowe,F University of Strathclyde
	Nestor W. Sherman,F Texas A&M University–Kingsville
	Joonkoo Yun,F Oregon State University
	Weimo Zhu,F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Motor Behavior

Melanie Hart ^F (RPC), Texas Tech University

	Casey M. Breslin, Temple University
	Chih-Chia Chen, Arizona State University
	Cheryl A. Coker,F Plymouth State University
	Philip Esposito, Texas Christian University
	Kelly Green Hall, California Polytechnic State University
	Melanie Hart,F Texas Tech University
	David A. Kinnunen, California State University
	John Liu, Springfield College
	Ting Liu, Texas State University
	Julio Morales, Lamar University
	Virginia Overdorf,F William Paterson University
	Melanie Perreault, University of South Carolina
	Maria Nida Roncesvalles, Texas Tech University
	Mary C. Schutten, Grand Valley State University
	Karen Smail, College of Charleston
	Robert E. Stadulis,F Kent State University (Emeritus)
	Kerri L. Staples, University of Regina
	Sarah J. Wall, Eastern New Mexico University
	Joonkoo Yun,F Oregon State University

Pedagogy

Kim Graber ^F (RPC), University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

	James C. HannonF (RPC), The University of Utah
	Ping XiangF (RPC), Texas A&M University
	Suzan F. Ayers,F Western Michigan University
	Dominque Banville,F George Mason University
	Bonnie Tjeerdsma Blankenship,F Purdue University
	Heidi R. Bohler, Westfield State University
	Timothy A. Brusseau, The University of Utah
	Charity Leigh Bryan, University of Louisiana–Lafayette
	Marilyn Buck, Ball State University
	Mark Byra,F University of Wyoming
	Russell L. Carson III, Louisiana State University
	Darla M. Castelli,F The University of Texas–Austin
	Senlin Chen, Iowa State University
	Weiyun Chen,F University of Michigan
	Steveda F. Chepko, Winthrop University
	Margo M. Coleman, Illinois State University
	Phoebe Constantinou, Ithaca College
	Brian Culp, Indiana University-Purdue University
	Brian D. Dauenhauer, The University of Texas–Austin
	David Daum, University of Southern Indiana
	Martin A. Donahue, Slippery Rock University
	Bridget A. Duoos, University of St. Thomas
	Heather E. Erwin,F University of Kentucky
	Nell Faucette,F University of South Florida
	Javier Fernandez-Rio, University of Oviedo
	Deborah A. Garrahy, Illinois State University
	Chris Gentry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
	Grace Goc Karp, University of Idaho
	Tan leng Goh, The University of Utah
	Kim C. Graber,F University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign
	Xiangli Gu, University of North Texas
	Jianmin Guan,F The University of Texas–San Antonio
	Rachel Gurvitch,F Georgia State University
	James C. Hannon,F The University of Utah Eddie Hebert,F Southeastern Louisiana University
	Chaoqun Huang, Wayland Baptist University
	Charlotte Humphries, Southeastern Louisiana University
	Joanne Margaret Hynes-Hunter,F Dr. Joanne Hunter LLC
	Alisa R. James, State University of New York–Brockport
	Ingrid L. Johnson, Grand Valley State University
	David M. Kahan,F San Diego State University
	Ferman Konukman, State University of New York– Brockport
	Jennifer M. Krause, The University of Texas–San Antonio
	Pamela H. Kulinna,F Arizona State University
	Okseon Lee, Seoul National University
	Yun Soo Lee, Middle Tennessee State University
	Weidong Li,F The Ohio State University
	Wenhao Liu,F Slippery Rock University
	Karen Lux Gaudreault, University of Wyoming
	Nathan A. McCaughtry,F Wayne State University
	Bryan A. McCullick,F University of Georgia
	Thomas L. McKenzie,F San Diego State University (Emeritus)
	Karen S. Meaney,F Texas State University
	John Mercer, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
	Stacia C. Miller, Midwestern State University
	Charles Morgan,F University of Hawaii–Manoa
	Nelson D. Neal, Marywood University
	Larry P. Nelson, The University of Texas–Arlington
	Jamie O'Connor, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire
	Yoonsin Oh, Cameron University
	Jenny Parker, Northern Illinois University
	Melissa Parker, University of Northern Colorado
	Melissa A. Parks, Louisiana State University
	Kevin Patton,F California State University–Chico
	David S. Phillips, The University of Utah
	Kevin A. Richards, Purdue University
	Karen Richardson, Bridgewater State University
	David Robertson, University of Wisconsin–LaCrosse
	Paul B. Rukavina,F Adelphi University
	Jared A. Russell, Auburn University
	Takahiro Sato, Kent State University
	Tammy Schilling, Louisiana Tech University
	Deborah A. Sheehy, Bridgewater State University
	Bo Shen,F Wayne State University
	Jane M. Shimon, Boise State University
	Stephen J. Silverman,F Teachers College, Columbia University
	Oleg Sinelnikov,F The University of Alabama
	Carol A. Smith, Elon University
	Deborah Smith, Clemson University
	Melinda A. Solmon,F Louisiana State University
	Michalis Stylianou, Arizona State University
	Haichun Sun,F University of South Florida
	Gay L. Timken, Western Oregon University
	Amy Tischler, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse
	Julia Valley, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
	Hans van der Mars,F Arizona State University
	Julia VanderMolen, Davenport University
	Carla Vidoni, University of Louisville
	David Walsh, San Francisco State University
	Jianyu Wang, California State University
	Phillip C. Ward,F The Ohio State University
	Collin A. Webster,F University of Wollongong
	Skip M. Williams, Illinois State University
	Amelia Mays Woods,F University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign
	Ping Xiang,F Texas A&M University
	Sami Yli-Piipari, University of North Carolina–Greensboro
	Tan Zhang, University of North Carolina–Greensboro
	Tao Zhang,F University of North Texas
	Xihe Zhu,F Old Dominion University

Physical Activity Epidemiology

Philip Scruggs ^F (RPC), University of Idaho

	Ang Chen,F University of North Carolina–Greensboro
	James C. Hannon,F The University of Utah
	Minsoo Kang,F Middle Tennessee State University
	Miyoung Lee,F Kookmin University
	Matthew T. Mahar,F East Carolina University
	Charles Morgan,F University of Hawaii–Manoa
	James R. Morrow, Jr.,F University of North Texas
	Hyun-Ju Oh, Ohio University
	Philip Scruggs,F University of Idaho
	Weimo Zhu,F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Psychology

Lori Gano-Overway ^F (RPC), Bridgewater College

	Anthony J. Amorose,F Illinois State University
	Dawn Anderson-Butcher, The Ohio State University
	Megan Babkes Stellino, University of Northern Colorado
	Timothy M. Baghurst, Oklahoma State University
	Theresa C. Brown, University of Kansas
	Jeffrey Cherubini, Manhattan College
	John M. Fitzpatrick, Idaho State University
	Stacey A. Gaines, Texas A&M University–Kingsville
	Lori Gano-Overway,F Bridgewater College
	Teri J. Hepler, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse
	Kimberly S. Hurley, Ball State University
	Dawn K. Lewis, California State University–Fresno
	Kin-Kit Li,F City University of Hong Kong
	Mary J. MacCracken,F University of Akron
	Scott Martin, University of North Texas
	Elizabeth M. Mullin, William Paterson University
	Nicholas D. Myers, University of Miami
	Thomas D. Raedeke, East Carolina University
	Ashley A. Samson, California State University
	Jennifer J. Waldron,F University of Northern Iowa

Sociocultural Aspects of Physical Activity

Louis Harrison, Jr. ^F (RPC), The University of Texas–Austin

	Birgitta Baker, Louisiana State University
	Albert Y. Bimper, Kansas State University
	Russell L. Carson, III, Louisiana State University
	Rose Chepyator-Thomson, University of Georgia
	Zan Gao,F University of Minnesota
	Louis Harrison, Jr.,F The University of Texas–Austin
	Angela Lumpkin,F University of Kansas
	Ron Morrow, North Carolina Alliance for Athletics, Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (Retired)
	Demetrius W. Pearson, University of Houston
	Jared A. Russell, Auburn University
	Alexander Vigo, Towson University

Special Populations

Samuel R. Hodge ^F (RPC), The Ohio State University

	Jihoun An, Texas State University–San Marcos
	Stephen A. Butterfield,F University of Maine
	Maria Y. Canabal-Torres, University of Puerto Rico– Mayaguez
	Carlos M. Cervantes, Texas State University
	Luis Columna, Syracuse University
	John H. Downing, Missouri State University
	Simon Driver, Oregon State University
	Philip Esposito, Texas Christian University
	Jennifer Faison Hodge, Capital University
	Iris Figueroa-Robles, Universidad Metropolitana
	Sherry Folsom-Meek,F Minnesota State University– Mankato
	Bethany Hersman, Wright State University
	Samuel R. Hodge,F The Ohio State University
	Michael Horvat,F University of Georgia
	So-Yeun Kim, Northern Illinois University
	Francis M. Kozub,F State University of New York– Brockport
	Jeffrey Martin,F Wayne State University
	Nathan Murata, University of Hawaii–Manoa
	Iva Obrusnikova,F University of Delaware
	Esther M. Ortiz-Stuhr, California State University–San Marcos
	Cindy Piletic, Western Illinois University
	David L. Porretta,F The Ohio State University
	Terry L. Rizzo,F California State University–San Bernardino
	Takahiro Sato, Kent State University
	Deborah Shapiro, Georgia State University
	Karen Smail, College of Charleston
	Dan Webb, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
	Joonkoo Yun,F Oregon State University
	Jiabei Zhang,F Western Michigan University

Sport Management and Administration

Aaron Clopton ^F (RPC), University of Kansas

	Michael S. Carroll, Troy University
	Chih-Chia Chen, Arizona State University
	Steve Chen, Morehead State University
	Keith Christy, Defiance College
	Aaron Clopton,F University of Kansas
	Daniel P. Connaughton,F University of Florida
	Anneliese E. Goslin, University of Pretoria
	E. Newton Jackson, Jr.,F University of North Florida
	Christopher M. Keshock, University of South Alabama
	J. C. Kim, University of Tennessee–Martin
	Richard LaRue, University of New England
	Eddie T. C. Lam,F Cleveland State University
	Don Lee, Ball State University
	Angela Lumpkin,F University of Kansas
	Jennifer Yuen-ming Mak,F Marshall University
	Craig Paiement, Ithaca College
	Kathy G. Sigailis,F William Patterson University
	Matthew Walker, University of Southern Mississippi
	Mei-Lin Yeh-Lane, Springfield College

2013 Research Consortium Student Awards

Effects of Menstrual Cycle on Exercise in Collegiate Female Athletes

Jennifer Bossi, Kimberly Kostelis, Sean Walsh, and Jason Sawyer, Central Connecticut State University

[email protected]

This abstract will be among those presented at the Research Consortium Poster Social scheduled for Wednesday, April 24, 2013, 4:00 p.m.–5:30 p.m.

Significance of Study

There are several different physiological differences between men and women that can affect exercise performance. Particularly, women experience the menstrual cycle when variations of estrogen and progesterone occur every 23 to 38 days (Reilly, 2000). The menstrual cycle is broken down into the follicular phase and luteal phase. The follicular phase, which occurs in the first half of the cycle, is characterized by low estrogen and progesterone concentrations. During the luteal phase, the formation of the corpus luteam triggers the production of estrogen and progesterone, causing high concentrations of both hormones (Warren & Shangold, 1997). These fluctuations of hormones during the menstrual cycle can have many physiological effects on the body. While estrogen helps decrease cholesterol levels, increase fat metabolism, and promote bone health, progesterone acts by increasing ventilatory drive (Brukner & Khan, 2001). Oral contraceptive pills regulate hormone fluctuations in the menstrual cycle and provide a more physiological stable environment for users (Ruzic, Matkovic, & Leko, 2003).

Although women play and compete at all phases of their menstrual cycle, the specific phase may impact their sports performance. During exercise, higher ventilation (Smekel et al., 2007), lower blood lactate levels (Forsyth & Reilly, 2005; Jurkowski, Jones, Toews, & Sutton, 1981), and higher fat substrate oxidation (Hackney, McCracken-Compton, & Ainsworth, 1994) have been observed during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle when both estrogen and progesterone concentrations are high. However, maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂max) values (Casazza, Suh, Miller, Navazio, & Brooks, 2002; Dean, Perrault, Mazzeo, & Horton, 2003; Smekel et al., 2007) have remained unchanged between phases. In anaerobic performance, some researchers (Masterson, 1999; Redman & Weatherby, 2004) have found differences in peak power and work between phases, while others (Giacomini, Bernard, Gavarry, Sabine, & Falgairette, 2000; Middleton & Wenger, 2006) have reported no change. As a result of these conflicting studies, more research is warranted to demonstrate how the menstrual cycle influences exercise performance in women. Specifically, changes in ventilatory drive, VO₂max, blood lactate threshold, fat substrate utilization, and anaerobic power should be tested because these factors are most commonly used as indicators of fitness.

Design/Methods

This study was designed to determine the effects of menstrual cycle phase and oral contraceptive use on aerobic and anaerobic exercise performance. After receiving approval from the institutional review board and the university's athletic department, subjects were recruited on a volunteer basis from female varsity National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I athletic teams. To participate in the study, subjects must have been currently taking a 28 day-cycle oral contraceptive pill and have no medical conditions or injuries that would affect exercise performance. Seven female athletes with this criteria agreed to participate (volleyball, n = 4; lacrosse, n = 2; cross-country, n = 1). Subjects completed a total of two VO₂peak treadmill tests and two anaerobic bike tests: one test each during the follicular phase and one test each during the luteal phase. Tests were conducted during two menstrual cycles. The follicular phase was defined as the week the subject was taking inactive oral contraceptive pills. Because these pills contained no hormones, this corresponded with the week in the cycle when estrogen and progesterone concentrations are low. The luteal phase was defined as the weeks the subject was taking active oral contraceptive pills. This corresponded with the part of the cycle when estrogen and progesterone levels are high. Aerobic capacity was defined as peak oxygen consumption (VO₂peak) value, respiratory rate ratio (RER), and heart rate during a Bruce treadmill test (1974). These measurements were recorded pre-exercise, every 3 min of the test, and postexercise. Anaerobic power was defined as peak power, work, and fatigue index during a Wingate anaerobic bike test (Bar-Or, 1981). Blood lactate accumulation was measured as millimoles per liter of concentration in blood drawn from the tip of the finger. Blood was taken pre-exercise and postexercise in both the aerobic and anaerobic tests and was analyzed using the Lactate Plus device.

Analysis/Results

All seven subjects completed the study (M _age = 20 ± 1 years; M _height = 66.14 ± 6.59 inches; M _weight = 148 ± 25.11 lbs). The data from the exercise performance tests were analyzed with a repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) test. In aerobic exercise, there were no significant differences in VO₂peak, F(1, 6) = 0.278, p > .01; final heart rate, F(1, 6) = 0.152, p > .01; RER, F(1, 6) = 0.131, p > .01; or blood lactate accumulation, F(1, 6) = 0.340, p > .01, between phases. A 2 ×  4 factorial analysis comparing the mean change in resting to final lactate levels between phases after aerobic exercise revealed a significant difference in resting to final blood lactate levels, F(1, 6) = 407.98, p <  .05. However, there was no significant difference in the change from resting to postexercise between the follicular and luteal phases, F(1, 6) = 0.369, p > .05. In the follicular phase, there was a mean change of 7.43 mmol/L after exercise, and in the luteal phase, there was a mean change of 6.61 mmol/L.

In anaerobic exercise, there were no significant differences in peak power, F(1, 6) = 0.001, p > .01; work, F(1, 6) = 1.161, p > .01; mean power, F(1, 6) =  1.161, p > .01; and fatigue index, F(1, 6) = 0.005, p > .01, between phases. However, there was a difference in final blood lactate levels, F(1, 6) = 9.063, p <  .01, with values being higher during the follicular phase. A 2 ×  4 ANOVA factorial analysis found a significant difference in blood lactate accumulations pre-exercise to postexercise, with values being higher after exercise, F(1, 6) = 121.944, p < .05. There was no significant difference in the change from pre-exercise to postexercise between phases, F(1, 6) = 0.825, p > .05. However, the change in blood lactate accumulation was higher in the follicular phase after anaerobic exercise—8.928 mmol/L compared with 7.751 mmol/L during the luteal phase.

Discussion

In contemporary society, female participation in sports at all levels is widely accepted, and the principle of menses does not play a factor in training or competing (Reilly, 2000). Nevertheless, there may be physiological effects of the menstrual cycle, which could impact how the body responds during exercise. In metabolism, elevated concentrations of estrogen and progesterone during the luteal phase are believed to cause a “glycogen-sparing effect” in which the body turns to fat to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP; Oosthuyse & Bosch, 2010). However, some researchers have seen that RER values, energy substrates, and metabolic hormones were not affected by menstrual cycle phase, even though there were increased estrogen and progesterone concentrations during the luteal phase (Beidleman et al., 2002). The current study also found no differences in final RER values after a running test to exhaustion. In anaerobic performance, ATP and phosphocreatine are the main supplies of energy. Therefore, estrogen and progesterone will only have a limited effect as glycogen and lipids are not utilized (Burrows & Peters, 2006), as supported by the results of this study.

Most research examining the effects of menstrual cycle phase on exercise performance has used inactive or moderately active women (Casazza et al., 2002; Oosthuyse & Bosch, 2010; Smekel et al., 2007), and little has been done with highly trained athletes. Because it is more important for highly trained athletes to perform well in their sport than it is for recreational exercisers, it is crucial to understand how the body responds to the fluctuations of hormones in the menstrual cycle in elite athletes and how it can affect physiological responses to exercise. Even though the differences were not significant, physiological improvement was seen in the follicular phase for both aerobic and anaerobic exercise. This is important because any small change in physiological parameters could affect overall performance. The training status and physiological adaptation of athletes could explain the lack of significant difference between phases because highly trained female athlete subjects may have overcome the negative effects associated with the menstrual cycle to a greater extent than less active women (Burrows & Peters, 2006).

In addition to physiological changes, there may also be psychological misconceptions associated with the menstrual cycle. Many women think that they cannot function normally during menstruation and some actually believe that they should restrict their physical activity during menses. Also, some women experience other symptoms associated with the menstrual cycle, including cramping, bloating, headaches, and mood swings, which could affect exercise performance (Burrows & Peters, 2006). These factors were not controlled for in the study.

There were several limitations to this study. First, due to practice, lifting, and class schedules of the subjects, it was difficult to schedule tests on days and times when the women did not have any required activity as part of their sport. Therefore, fatigue from previous activity could have affected their performance on the exercise tests. Secondly, the type of oral contraceptive pill the subjects were using was not controlled. All participants were receiving exogenous estrogen and progesterone on a 28-day cycle with seven placebo pills, but the amount of hormones and type of progesterone in each cycle may have been different. Future research should further assess the effect of the menstrual cycle and oral contraceptive pills on exercise performance, specifically in sedentary females versus highly active athletes. Also, because birth control use is becoming increasingly popular in the female athletic population, more research should be done examining the specific effects of contraceptives on exercise, particularly for the long term.

References

Bar-Or, O. (1981). Le test anaerobic de Wingate [The Wingate anaerobic test]. Symbiosis, 13, 157–172.

Beidleman, B. A., Rock, P. B., Muza, S. R., Fulco, C. S., Gibson, L. L., Kammimori, G. H., & Cymerman, A. (2002). Substrate oxidation is altered in women during exercise upon acute altitude exposure. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34, 430–437.

Bruce, R. A. (1974). Methods of exercise testing: Step test, bicycle, treadmill, isometrics. American Journal of Cardiology, 33, 715–720. doi:10.1016/00029149(74)90211-2.

Brukner, P., & Khan, K. (2001). The female athlete. In Clinical sports medicine (pp. 674–699). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Burrows, M., & Peters, C. E. (2006). The influence of oral contraceptives on athletic performance in female athletes. Sports Medicine, 37, 557–574. doi:0112-1642/07/0007-0557

Casazza, G. A., Suh, S. H., Miller, B. F., Navazio, F. M., & Brooks, G. A. (2002). Effects of oral contraceptives on peak exercise capacity. Journal of Applied Physiology, 93, 1698–1702.

Dean, T. M., Perreault, L., Mazzeo, R. S., & Horton, T. J. (2003). No effect of menstrual cycle phase on lactate threshold. Journal of Applied Physiology, 95, 2537–2543.

Forsyth, J. J., & Reilly, T. (2005). The combined effect of time of day and menstrual cycle on lactate threshold. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37, 2046–2053. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000179094.47765.d0

Giacomini, M., Bernard, T., Gavarry, O., Sabine, A., & Falgairette, G. (2000). Influence of the menstrual cycle phase and menstrual symptoms on maximal anaerobic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Medicine, 32, 486–492.

Hackney, A. C., McCracken-Compton, M. A., & Ainsworth, B. (1994). Substrate responses to submaximal exercise in the midfollicular and midluteal phases of the menstrual cycle. International Journal of Sports Nutrition, 4, 299–308.

Jurkowski, J. E., Jones, N. L., Toews, T. J., & Sutton, J. R. (1981). Effects of the menstrual cycle on blood lactate, O₂ delivery, and performance during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 51, 1493–1499.

Masterson, G. (1999). The impact of menstrual phases on anaerobic power performance in collegiate women. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 13, 325–329.

Middleton, L. E., & Wenger, H. A. (2006). Effects of menstrual phase on performance and recovery in intense intermittent activity. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 96, 53–58.

Oosthuyse, T., & Bosch, A. N. (2010). The effect of the menstrual cycle on exercise metabolism: Implications for exercise performance in eumenorrheic women. Sports Medicine, 40, 207–227.

Redman, L. M., & Weatherby, R. P. (2004). Measuring performance during the menstrual cycle: A model using oral contraceptives. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 36(1), 130–136. doi:10.1249/01.MSS.0000106181.52102.99

Reilly, T. (2000). The menstrual cycle and human performance: An overview. Biological Rhythm Research, 31(1), 29–40.

Ruzic, L., Matkovic, B. R., & Leko, G. (2003). Antiandrogens in hormonal contraception limit muscle strength gain in strength training: A comparison study. Croatian Medicine Journal, 44(1), 65–68.

Smekel, G., Von Duvillard, S. P., Frigo, P., Tegelhofer, T., Pokan, R., Hofmann, P., … Bachl, N. (2007). Menstrual cycle: No effect on exercise cardiorespiratory variables or blood lactate concentration. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, 1098–1106. doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e31805371e7

Warren, M. P., & Shangold, M. M. (1997). The female reproductive system and the normal menstrual cycle. In Sports gynecology: Problems and care of the athletic female (pp. 26–30). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Science.

Effects of Physical Education on Cognition and Total Daily Activity

Morgan H. Gralla and Brandon L. Alderman, Rutgers University

([email protected])

This abstract will be among those presented at the Research Consortium Poster Session scheduled for Thursday, April 25, 2013, 10:15 a.m.–11:45 a.m.

Significance of the Study

Today's youth are falling well short of national physical activity (PA) recommendations (Tudor-Locke, Lee, Morgan, Beighle, & Pangrazi, 2006). Given the amount of time children spend in school, schools have been called upon to take a leadership role in the promotion of PA (Pate et al., 2006; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010). Although research has shown that children accumulate meaningful amounts of PA during physical education (PE), lunchtime, and recess, these opportunities are often limited (Brusseau, Kulinna, Tudor-Locke, van der Mars, & Darst, 2011; Tudor-Locke et al., 2006). In addition, few states mandate daily PA or PE for students across all grade levels (National Association for Sport and Physical Education & American Heart Association, 2012). Therefore, despite current recommendations, the school day remains largely sedentary.

Paradoxically, a large number of studies support a positive relationship between PA and measures of cognition and academic achievement (Coe, Pivarnik, Womack, Reeves, & Malina, 2006; Shephard, 1997; Sibley & Etnier, 2003). Further, increased time spent in PE at the expense of classroom time has not been shown to impair academic achievement; on the contrary, in three out of four large-scale studies, significant improvements in academic performance were found with increased time in PE (Sallis et al., 1999; Shephard, 1997; Shephard, Lavallee, Volle, LaBarre, & Beaucage, 1994). In the fourth, no significant differences were found (Dwyer, Coonan, Leitch, Hetzel, & Baghurst, 1983). Despite the increasing evidence, little research has examined whether participation in PE affects cognition. There is also a lack of research examining the cognitive impact of active (PE) versus sedentary (non-PE) school days. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the effect of active versus sedentary school days on children's cognitive performance and accumulated PA levels throughout the segmented school day.

Design and Method

All sixth-grade students from a middle school (Grades 6–8) in the Mid-Atlantic/Northeast region of the United States were invited to participate. The school, located in a large suburban area, had a total student population of approximately 840 students, with an ethnic distribution that included 77.4% Caucasian students, 7.2% Hispanic, 4.7% African American, and 10.7% listed as Asian/Pacific Islander (U.S. Department of Education, 2010/2011). Students were informed of the study during a school assembly, were distributed assent and consent forms, and were asked to return forms signed by a parent or guardian the following day. A university institutional review board and the middle school principal approved all study procedures.

Students at this location attended school for 6 hr and 20 min, from 8:30 a.m. to 2:50 p.m. The curriculum included scheduled PE every other day. Therefore, across the 6-day data collection, all students participated in 3 days of PE. The PE period lasted for approximately 35 min, and during the course of data collection, the focus of the lessons was on volleyball. The curriculum was not changed during data collection, and all classes were held indoors. No recess period was provided during the school day.

Physical Activity Assessment. A Yamax SW-200 (Yamax Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) pedometer was used to assess PA. This pedometer has been proven to be a valid, objective measure of PA in children (Barfield, Rowe, & Michael, 2004; McKee, Boreham, Murphy, & Nevill, 2005), providing a practical means of assessing PA in large samples and school settings. All pedometers were independently tested via a walking test, and instrumental error did not exceed 5% in any of the pedometers (Vincent & Sidman, 2003).

Students wore unsealed pedometers during 6 consecutive weekdays during early March 2012. Students were instructed on proper placement and use of the pedometer, and the importance of following a natural activity pattern during the day (as opposed to increasing activity to accrue more steps) was stressed to all participants. Students were instructed to reset the pedometers each morning when putting on the pedometer, and step counts were recorded by students on a log at designated times throughout the day (beginning and end of school, PE, and lunch). Step counts were recorded during and after PE or during the alternate sedentary class. In addition, students were asked to record step counts at bedtime when they removed their pedometer and to have a parent sign to ensure completeness. Students received a new log to complete for each day of data collection. A researcher checked on students each morning to collect logs, ensure correct pedometer placement, check progress, and answer questions.

Cognitive Assessment. On the first and last days of data collection, students completed a brief cognitive assessment. The tests were scheduled such that students would complete a cognitive assessment on both an active (PE) and a sedentary (no PE) school day. Testing days were separated by 1 week to minimize potential test–retest bias and took place during the last period of the day. The Trail-Making Test (TMT) Parts A and B (Reitan, 1992) and the d2 Test of Attention (Brickenkamp & Zilmer, 1998) were used to assess executive function and attention/concentration. A researcher explained both tests in detail, and students completed a practice trial prior to administration.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics were computed for all variables. Mean total steps per day were calculated as were mean step counts attributed to before school, after school, lunchtime, and PE. Steps per day attributable to PE represent the average of the 3 days scheduled for PE. Independent-sample t tests were used to examine gender differences between study variables, and dependent t tests were used to examine differences in total steps per day and steps attributable to various segments of the day on PE days versus non-PE days, stratified by sex, for children who had complete data for both types of days. Cognitive performance scores were submitted to a 2 (gender) ×  2 (condition: PE, no PE) repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance. Post-hoc univariate follow-ups and t tests were used following a significant finding. Statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Version 19.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) for Windows.

Results

Seventy students (33 boys, 37 girls) agreed to participate and returned parental consent. Mean age of the students was 11.4 ± 0.52 years with an average body mass index (BMI; kg/m²) of 21.0 ± 4.4 and 20.3 ± 4.7 for boys and girls, respectively. The prevalence of overweight and obesity in this sample was 38% and 24% for boys and girls, respectively, based on the International Obesity Task Force thresholds.

Overall, students took 9,050 ± 2,497 steps/day, with boys (10,364 ± 2,598) averaging significantly more steps/day than girls (7,778 ± 1,596). Boys accrued significantly more steps than girls did during PE (Δ = 329, p <  .01, ES = .93) and after school (Δ = 1,861, p <  .001, ES = 1.06). Boys took significantly more total steps per day on PE (11,404 ± 2,764) versus non-PE days (9,172 ± 2,950). No significant differences were found for boys' step counts during lunch or after school on PE versus non-PE days. Similarly, girls accumulated significantly more steps on PE days (8,301 ± 1,971) than on non-PE days (7,238 ± 2,078). The difference was almost entirely due to the difference in steps taken during PE (Δ = 1,123). No significant differences were found in afterschool PA on PE versus non-PE days for girls.

Analyses revealed no main effects of gender or condition; however, a two-way interaction of Gender ×  Condition was found, F(3,48) = 4.18, p = .01, η ²  = .21. Post-hoc tests of gender within each condition revealed a significant improvement for boys on the d2 Test of Attention on PE days compared with non-PE days, t(25) = 2.20, p <  .05. Although PE had no significant influence on TMT-A and TMT-B, a nonsignificant trend favored PE days.

Discussion

These findings add to the current body of evidence highlighting importance of daily PE in helping children meet PA recommendations. Several school contextual factors in this study likely resulted in a fewer number of total daily steps for both boys and girls, such as limited opportunity for informal PA, which is an important source of school-time PA (Brusseau et al., 2011; Tudor-Locke et al., 2006). PE was found to improve d2 test scores for boys, and this is notable given that cognitive performance was assessed at the end of the school day; however, methodological limitations inherent to field research may have limited effects on the other cognitive measure and for girls. It is possible that students did not reach a minimum threshold of exercise intensity or volume to maximize cognitive benefits. The acute effects of exercise on cognition may also be relatively short-lived (Sibley & Etnier, 2003), and testing students in the last class of the day may have attenuated cognitive benefits. However, we did find that attention and concentration are improved on PE days in boys, which warrants further investigation. Recommendations for future research include examining PE intensity and curriculum on cognition, as well as methods for increasing school-time PA opportunities for girls. Future research combining recommendations from objective monitoring studies with similar methodological approaches may help to better understand PA behaviors across various segments of the day while creating environments most conducive to promoting PA.

References

Barfield, J. P., Rowe, D. A., & Michael T. (2004). Interinstrument consistency of the Yamax Digi-Walker in elementary school children. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 8, 109–116.

Brickenkamp, R., & Zilmer, E. (1998). The d2 Test of Attention (1st U.S. ed.). Seattle, WA: Hogrefe & Huber.

Brusseau, T. A., Kulinna, P. H., Tudor-Locke, C., van der Mars, H., & Darst, P. W. (2011). Children's step counts on weekend, physical education, and non-physical education days. Journal of Human Kinetics, 27, 116–134.

Coe, D. P., Pivarnik, J. M., Womack, C. J., Reeves, M. J., & Malina, R. M. (2006). Effect of physical education and activity levels on academic achievement in children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 38, 1515–1519.

Dwyer, T., Coonan, W. E, Leitch, D. R., Hetzel, B. S., & Baghurst, P. A. (1983). An investigation of the effects of daily physical activity on the health of primary school students in South Australia. International Journal of Epidemiology, 12, 308–313.

McKee, D. P., Boreham, C. A. G., Murphy, M. H., & Nevill, A. M. (2005). Validation of the Digiwalker pedometer for measuring physical activity in young children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 17, 345–352.

National Association for Sport and Physical Education & American Heart Association. (2012). 2012 Shape of the nation report: Status of physical education in the USA. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance.

Pate, R. R., Davis, M. G., Robinson, T. N., Stone, E. J., McKenzie, T. L., & Young, J. C. (2006). Promoting physical activity in children and youth: A leadership role for schools: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism (Physical Activity Committee) in collaboration with the Councils on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young and Cardiovascular Nursing. Circulation, 114, 1214–1224.

Reitan, R. M. (1992). Trail Making Test: Manual for administration and scoring. Tucson, AZ: Reitan Neuropsychological Laboratory.

Sallis, J. F., McKenzie, T. L., Kolody, B., Lewis, M., Marshall, S., & Rosengard, P. (1999). Effects of health-related physical education on academic achievement: Project SPARK. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 70, 127–134.

Shephard, R. J. (1997). Curricular physical activity and academic performance. Pediatric Exercise Science, 9, 113–126.

Shephard, R. J., Lavallee, H., Volle, M., LaBarre, R., & Beaucage, C. (1994). Academic skills and required physical education: The Trois Rivieres experience. CAHPER Research Supplement, 1(1), 1–12.

Sibley, B. A., & Etnier, J. L. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: A meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science, 15, 243–256.

Tudor-Locke, C., Lee, S. M., Morgan, C. F., Beighle, A., & Pangrazi, R. P. (2006). Children's pedometer-determined physical activity during the segmented school day. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 38, 1732–1738.

U.S. Department of Education. (2010/2011). CCD public school data 2010–2011 school year. Alexandria, VA: Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2010). The surgeon general's vision for a healthy and fit nation. Retrieved from http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/initiatives/healthy-fit-nation/

Vincent, S. D., & Sidman, C. L. (2003). Determining measurement error in digital pedometers. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 7(1), 19–24.

Peer-Reviewed and Invited Sessions

An ^F denotes Fellow status in the AAHPERD Research Consortium as of November 2012.

PEER-REVIEWED SYMPOSIA AND TUTORIALS

Tutorial: Avoiding the Pitfalls of an IRB Submission

Chris A. Ayres, East Tennessee State University

([email protected])

This tutorial will provide attendees with facts and tips to help them avoid common pitfalls that can slow the process of acquiring institutional review board (IRB) approval to conduct human subject research. The session's topics will include the role of an IRB, determining what constitutes human subject research, informed consent, child assent, parental consent, passive consent, privacy, confidentiality, minimal risk, and other related topics. The goal of this program is to aid researchers in their quest for IRB approval and ultimately to facilitate the completion of their research endeavors. The program will provide researchers with examples of IRB submissions that comply with federal guidelines and the necessary language. Attendees will be provided with step-by-step examples of completing a submission narrative and informed consent documents. Examples will include but not be limited to conducting research in public schools, in the university setting, and with the general public. Time will be set aside for questions and discussion.

Tutorial: Mediation Analysis: Why Every Researcher Should Know It

To understand the relationship between independent and dependent variables is essential to any research study. Meanwhile, many researchers have experienced the impact of other hidden variables during their studies (e.g., socioeconomic status on children's physical activity behaviors and fitness status). Without understanding the impact and taking these so-called mediation variables into the consideration of data analysis, the finding and conclusion from any study will likely be questionable. Differing from “confounder” and “covariate,” “mediation variable,” known also as “mediator,” often play a more complicated role among the variables. Fortunately, a set of statistical methods, known as the mediation analysis, has been developed to examine whether a particular data set exhibits a meditational structure, or simply whether an effect of one variable on another is direct or indirect, or both. Mediation analysis has a long and rich history: Theoretically, it can be traced back to the stimulus-organism-response model in psychology; technically, it can be connected with Wright's early path analysis. Yet, this important method has been basically ignored by the kinesiology research community making the findings of many published studies in kinesiology questionable. The purpose of this tutorial is to provide an introduction to the mediation analysis, including what are the mediation variables, the potential impact of mediation variables in research studies, statistical methods that can be used to detect these variables, advantages and disadvantages of each major method, as well as related software applications. Finally, examples of mediation analysis from various fields will be illustrated.

Mediation Variables and Mediation Analysis: What and Why?

Weimo Zhu^F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected])

Although there are various definitions for mediation variables, the one by Baron and Kenny (1986) is considered the most classic definition: “In general terms, a moderator is a qualitative (e.g., sex, race, class) or quantitative (e.g., level of reward) variable that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between an independent or predictor variable and a dependent or criterion variable” (p. 1174). Mediation variables and their impact are everywhere. Using prevention studies as an example, smoking/cholesterol/blood pressure are the mediation variables when studying death due to myocardial infarction; and self-efficacy/enjoyment/knowledge of behaviors are the mediation variables when studying weekly physical activities. Clearly, ignoring mediation variables could lead to misinterpretation of the outcome measures of a study. The mediation analysis is used to examine the relation between the predictor and the criterion variables, the relation between the predictor and the mediator variables, and the relation between the mediator and criterion variables. The relation between predictor and criterion should be reduced (to zero in the case of total mediation) after controlling the relation between the mediator and criterion variables. Once a moderator effect is founded, mediation analysis is used to explain the source of the effect. This presentation will provide a comprehensive review on mediation variables and mediation analysis, including their definitions, their historical development, their relationships with similar variables (e.g., “covariate”), their importance in a research study, related research design, and the latest developments.

Statistical Analysis of Mediation Variables: A Review

Elena Boiarskaia University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected])

Many statistical methods have been developed to detect the impact of mediation variables. The most classic means of testing for mediation is the procedures proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986), in which three regression models were employed. More recently, structural equations modeling is considered the more appropriate method. Other related methods include path analysis, latent variable models, longitudinal models, multilevel models, and the computer-intensive method. Related issues include mediation in categorical data analysis, meta-analysis and causal inference for mediation models, etc. After providing an overall view on the statistical methods that can be used for mediation analysis, a review of application software will be provided. Finally, a few examples with specific, step-by-step applications will be illustrated.

Symposium: Assessing Motor Competency and Physical Fitness Among Elementary School Students

To effectively combat the alarming prevalence of obesity in children, one critical strategy is to engage children in regular physical activity (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010). Motor skill competency and health-enhancing physical fitness are key determinants of children's participation in physical activity (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2009). Quality physical education (PE) is essential to developing motor skill competency and promoting physical fitness. However, few studies investigate elementary school students' levels of motor skill competency and physical fitness as a result of participating in a quality PE. Thus, this symposium aims to present five related studies examining the extent to which K–5 students demonstrated motor skill competency and healthy physical fitness as a result of participating in a 3-year Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant project intervention. Throughout the PEP project, nine elementary PE teachers implemented the Coordinated Approach to Child Health PE curriculum, the Exemplary Physical Education Curriculum, and Mileage Club Recess Program. Completing the training with the PE Metrics assessment tools and the FITNESSGRAM tests, the teacher used them to assess 4,000+students' selected motor skills and four health-related physical fitness components in PEP Years 2 and 3. The first study examined motor skill-competent levels of K–1 students. The second study examined motor skill competency of students in Grades 2 through 3. The third study examined motor skill-competent levels of students in Grades 4 through 5. The fourth study examined 4th-grade students' physical fitness levels. The last study examined gender differences in physical fitness among 5th-grade students.

Assessing K–1 Students' Performance in Motor Skills

Sandy Zalmout, Steve Mason, Steve Wolters, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Weiyun Chen^F, University of Michigan

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThis study examined motor performance of K–1 students as they participated in a Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant intervention.

MethodMore than 1,225 K–1 students completed four motor skill tests conducted by their physical education (PE) teacher using the PE Metrics rubrics during a regular PE lesson in PEP Years 2 and 3. Nine teachers were trained for the PE Metrics assessment rubrics during PEP Year 1.

Analysis/ResultsIn Year 2, students demonstrated competency in running (77.5%), dribbling (65.5%), weight transfer (69%), and catching (72.7%). In Year 3, students again demonstrated competency in running (83.1%), dribbling (72.1%), weight transfer (87.6%), and catching (81.9%). A t test yielded a significant difference between Cohort Years 2 and 3 in running (M _Year2 = 6.50, M _Year3 = 6.71), dribbling (M _Year2 = 6.13, M _Year3 = 6.38), weight transfer (M _Year2 = 12.37, M _Year3 = 14.00,), and catching (M _Year2 = 19.34, M _Year3 = 20.35) at p < .01. A t test indicated that boys scored statistically higher in dribbling (M _boys = 6.27, M _girls = 5.97) at p < .01, and weight transfer (M _boys = 12.53, M _girls = 12.19) at p < .05, but not for running and catching in Year 2. In Year 3, boys scored statistically higher in dribbling (M _boys = 6.85, M _girls = 6.29) at p < .01, weight transfer (M _boys = 14.66, M _girls = 14.12), and catching (M _boys = 20.59, M _girls = 20.12) at p < .05, but not in running.

ConclusionsK–1 students demonstrated competency in motor skills needed for physical activities.

Assessment of Second- and Third-Grade Students' Performance in Motor Skills

Steve Wolters, Steve Mason, Sandy Zalmout, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Weiyun Chen^F, University of Michigan

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThis study examined second- and third-grade students' motor skill competency as a result of participating in a Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant intervention.

MethodNine physical education (PE) teachers were trained to use the PE Metrics assessment rubrics during workshops in PEP Year 1. More than 1,000 students in second and third grades were assessed on four motor skills by their PE teacher using the PE Metrics rubrics during a regular PE lesson in PEP Years 2 and 3.

Analysis/ResultsTo examine group differences, a t test indicated that the Year 3 cohort statistically outperformed the Year 2 cohort on jumping and landing (M _Year2 = 6.62, M _Year3 = 7.28, t = − 14.5, p < .01), catching skill (M _Year2 = 19.96, M _Year3 = 21.03, t = − 6.9, p < .01), and dribbling and jogging (M _Year2 = 9.33, M _Year3 = 10.19, t = − 12.2, p < .01), but not on locomotor sequence. To examine gender differences, a t test indicated that boys statistically scored higher than girls on overhand catching (M _boys = 10.59, M _girls = 10.18, t = 4.4, p < .01) and dribbling and jogging. Girls statistically outperformed boys on locomotor sequence (M _boys = 7.14, M _girls = 7.30, t = − 2.5, p < .01), but not on jumping and landing.

ConclusionsThe participants reached competent level in four skills. The Year 3 cohort was more competent than the Year 2 cohort on three skills. The boys performed better than the girls on two manipulative skills, but not locomotor skills.

Assessing Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Students' Performance in Motor Skills

Austin Hammond-Bennett, Steve Wolters, Steve Mason, Sandy Zalmout, Weiyun Chen^F, University of Michigan

([email protected])

Background/PurposeMotor skills competency is critical to physical activity promotion. This study examined elementary school students' motor skill competency in Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant Years 2 and 3. Participants included more than 1,000 students in Grades 4 through 5 who were assessed on four basic specialized skills by their physical education (PE) teacher using the PE Metrics rubrics during a regular PE lesson in PEP Years 2 and 3. Nine teachers were trained for the PE Metrics assessment rubrics during workshops in PEP Year 1.

Analysis/ResultsDescriptive statistics showed that 74.2% of the students in Year 2 (M = 9.35, SD = 1.97) and 74.9% in Year 3 (M = 9.61, SD = 1.82) demonstrated competency on the soccer dribbling, passing, and receiving assessment. Among students in Year 2, 64.4% (M = 18.86, SD = 3.48) reached competency on overhand throw, and 80.3% in Year 3 (M = 20.27, SD = 3.30) reached competency on overhand throw. For the basketball dribbling, passing, and receiving, 77.1% of the students in Year 2 (M = 9.52, SD = 1.79) and 88.2% in Year 3 demonstrated competency. Among students in Year 2, 55.9% (M = 5.81, SD = 1.63) demonstrated competency on the tennis striking skill, and 63.9% in Year 3 (M = 6.10, SD = 1.50) demonstrated competency on the tennis striking skill. T tests revealed that the Year 3 cohort scored statistically higher than the Year 2 cohort on each assessment at p < .01.

ConclusionsThe students demonstrated competency on all assessments in Years 2 and 3, except for the striking skill in Year 2.

Assessing Fourth-Grade Students' Levels of Physical Fitness

Weiyun Chen, ^F, Steve Wolters, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Sandy Zalmout, Steve Mason, University of Michigan

([email protected])

Background/PurposePhysically fit children tend to be physically active. This study investigated fourth graders' physical fitness as a result of participating in a 3-year Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant intervention. Five hundred seventy-three fourth graders in PEP Year 2 and 623 fourth graders in PEP Year 3 completed five FITNESSGRAM tests administered by their physical education (PE) teacher during regular PE lessons. Nine teachers were trained for use of the FITNESSGRAM test criteria and protocols in PEP Year 1.

Analysis/ResultsProgressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run tests indicated that 70.8% of the students in Year 2 and 68.1% in Year 3 met the age and gender guidelines. Curl-up tests revealed that 78.5% of the students in Year 2 (M = 28, SD = 20.62) and 76.9% in Year 3 (M = 26, SD = 19.6) performed 10 or more curl-ups, the criteria for healthy fitness. Pushup tests indicated that 75.2% of the students in Year 2 (M = 13, SD = 9.76) and 73.3% in Year 3 (M = 13, SD = 8.67) completed 7 or more pushups, meeting the healthy fitness criteria. Regarding trunk lift tests, 87% of the students in Year 2 (M = 11, SD = 1.69) and 89.2% in Year 3 (M = 11, SD = 0.81) reached 9 inches (healthy criteria) or higher. For shoulder stretch tests, 77.9% of the students in Year 2 and 82.2% in Year 3 met the healthy fitness zone.

ConclusionsThe greatest number of the students meeting the healthy fitness zone was during trunk lift test, followed by shoulder stretch test.

Gender Differences in Physical Fitness Among Fifth-Grade Students

Steve Mason, Austin Hammond-Bennett, Steve Wolters, Sandy Zalmout, Weiyun Chen^F, University of Michigan

([email protected])

Background/PurposeGender differences in physical fitness account for different lifestyles. This study examined levels of physical fitness between boys and girls in Grade 5. Six hundred twenty-seven fifth graders took five FITNESSGRAM tests administered by their physical education (PE) teachers during regular PE lessons in Carol White Physical Education Program (PEP) Year 2. Nine teachers were trained for FITNESSGRAM tests in PEP Year 1.

Analysis/ResultsOf the boys, 57.9% met the healthy fitness zone for the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test, while 67.5% of the girls met the healthy fitness zone. For the curl-up test, 82.4% of the boys and 75.7% of the girls reached the healthy zone. For the pushup test, 78.5% of the boys and 69.5% of the girls met the healthy fitness zone. For the trunk lift test, 89% of the boys and 91% of the girls met the healthy zone. For the shoulder stretch test, 80.25% of the boys and 85% of the girls demonstrated the healthy criteria. The t tests revealed that boys statistically outperformed girls on the PACER test (M _boys = 36, M _girls = 30, t = 3.88, df = 617, p < .01) and pushup test (M _boys = 14.4 vs. M _girls = 11.8, t = 3.229, df = 624, p < .01), while the girls scored significantly higher than the boys on the shoulder stretch test (M _boys = 0.84, M _girls = 0.91, t = − 2.66, df = 616, p < .01), but not on the curl-up and trunk lift tests.

ConclusionsThere were gender differences in physical fitness levels.

Symposium: Examining Specialized Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge

In understanding the role of teaching content in physical education, it is important to draw a distinction between the knowledge needed to perform an activity such as the pick and roll in basketball, and the knowledge needed to teach the pick and roll. You do need to know the technique and how to perform the pick and roll to teach it, but you must also know tasks to teach it and the ways to explain it to students so that they (a) can perform the pick and roll, and (b) understand when to use the pick and roll. Ball, Thames, and Phelps (2008) have called the knowledge needed to perform “common content knowledge” (CCK) and the knowledge, other than CCK, needed to teach content “specialized content knowledge” (SCK). CCK is acquired in the process of learning the activity and playing. SCK is typically not acquired by playing (i.e., performing). In this symposium, we examine three dimensions of SCK. First, we look at the extent to which SCK occurs in physical activity content classes. Second, we examine the CCK and SCK knowledge acquired in a physical education major's class. Finally, we use SCK as an independent variable and examine its effects on teaching behaviors and student learning. Collectively these three studies represent the most recent research on content knowledge in physical education. The findings can be situated within and also extend the teacher effectiveness literature, drawing attention to the role of content in the professional development of effective teachers.

Badminton Content Knowledge Study

Bomna Ko, Insook Kim, Phillip Ward^F, Weidong Li^F, The Ohio State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeWard's (2010) functional definition of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) raises several questions such as, “What is the relationship (a) between content knowledge (CK) and PCK; and (b) between PCK and student achievement?” The literature to date has not shown demonstrable associations to either question. We report the effects of a specialized CK workshop on teachers' PCK and the resultant effects on student learning in a badminton instructional unit.

MethodFour middle school physical educators participated in this quasi-experimental study. Each teacher taught two classes of a 6-day badminton unit using their typical instruction. The teachers then participated in a CK workshop. Following the workshop, the teachers taught two different classes. Ninety-six students (6 per class) in 96 lessons were observed to collect both student performance data and teacher PCK data (i.e., task maturity, task appropriateness, and task adaptations).

Analysis/ResultsStudent data were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U nonparametric test. There were statistically significant differences between the comparison classes and the experimental classes in terms of the percentage of students' correct trials (U = 84, p < .001) and incorrect trials (U = 84, p < .001). Descriptive analysis was used to analyze the teacher data. Data showed that teacher tasks were more mature, developmentally appropriate, and precise after the workshop.

ConclusionsThe study showed that teacher behaviors following the workshop were qualitatively different from the behaviors they exhibited before the workshop on all variables. The teachers' PCK following the workshop was associated with significant positive changes in student learning.

International Physical Education Teacher Education Physical Activity Content Knowledge Study

Phillip Ward,^F, The Ohio State University; M. Levent Ince, Middle East Technical University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven; Insook Kim, Western Illinois University; Yun Soo Lee, Middle Tennessee State University; Weidong Li,^F The Ohio State University; Weidong Liu, Soochow University; and Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeBall et al. (2008) categorized knowledge for teaching into two domains: common content knowledge (CCK) and specialized content knowledge (SCK). As a general rule, CCK can be viewed as knowing how to perform an activity and SCK can be viewed as knowing how to teach CCK (e.g., teaching progressions). Recent research has shown that many teachers do not acquire SCK sufficiently well enough to teach (Kim, 2011; Lee, 2010).

MethodWe examined the extent to which content knowledge classes include CCK and SCK in 77 physical education teacher education (PETE) programs in Belgium, Germany, China, England, Turkey, and the United States. Given the significant differences in the number of higher-education institutions in PETE in each country, we used purposeful and maximum variation sampling across a range of program sizes. We examined teacher education programs course of study and sample syllabi, and used short questionnaires to answer our research questions. Our data are reported descriptively.

Analysis/ResultsOur data show that within and across the countries we studied, PETE programs use their major's activity classes to emphasize performing the activity, and the knowledge that has been developed has been CCK, rather than SCK.

ConclusionsOur findings support a widespread assumption in PETE that: “To teach an activity, you must be able to perform the activity.” Our data suggest that SCK is underdeveloped in the curricula we examined and that activity classes should focus on the twin goals of CCK and SCK development.

Basketball Content Knowledge: Playing, Coaching, and Teaching Experience

Weidong Li,^F Phillip Ward,^F and Harry Lehwald, The Ohio State University; Paul T. Stuhr, California State University – San Marcos; James Ressler, Northern Illinois University; Elena Boiarskaia, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeContent knowledge (CK) is a foundation for effective teaching. Ward (2009) has conceptualized CK into four domains: knowledge of (a) rules and etiquette, (b) techniques and tactics, (c) student errors, and (d) instructional tasks and representations. There are few instruments to measure CK, and how CK varies as a function of playing, coaching, and teaching experience is unknown. This study validated a Basketball Content Knowledge Test (BCKT) and examined how CK varies as a function of playing, coaching, and teaching experience.

MethodParticipants were 277 in-service physical education (PE) teachers and college students majoring in PE and other areas, who completed a demographic survey and the BCKT online.

Analysis/ResultsContent validity of BCKT was established by a panel of experts. Psychometric quality of BCKT items was examined using two-facet Rasch analysis. Results showed good model–data fit according to infit and outfit statistics, well-spread difficulty ( − 2.07 to 2.74 logits), and students' basketball knowledge (2.68 to − 2.58 logits). Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine how four CK domains varied as a function of gender, playing, coaching, and teaching experience in basketball. Overall MANOVA showed that basketball CK significantly varied by gender and league-playing experience. Men and those with more league-playing experience scored better on Domains a, b, and c, thus further supporting validity of BCKT.

ConclusionsFindings from this study can be used to identify strengths and weaknesses of preservice and in-service teachers' basketball CK, thus facilitating the development and refinement of effective interventions to increase their teaching effectiveness.

Symposium: Relationships Among Motor Skills, Perceived Competence, Physical Activity, and Fitness

The reciprocal effects between physical activity and health-related physical fitness (body composition, cardiovascular endurance, flexibility, and muscle strength and endurance) have been well documented over the years. For example, regular participation in different types of physical activities has been identified as an important contributor to health-related physical fitness. Also, the development of motor skills has been proposed to be a casual determinant in promoting physical fitness, physical activity participation, and perceived competence in middle-to-late childhood, as learning to move is a skill critical to future physical activity. According to Harter's competence motivation theory, mastery of motor skills will bolster perceived competence, which in turn boosts motivated behaviors (e.g., physical activity participation) and actual performance (e.g., fitness tests and future motor skills). By contrast, children who have low perceived competence in motor skills opt out of physical activity. Empirical evidence shows that perceived competence mediates the relationships between children's motor skills and physical activity and fitness. However, the mediating effect of perceived competence has not been extensively examined, particularly in exergaming settings among underserved children. Additionally, regular physical activity participation and high physical fitness have been shown to facilitate the development and maintenance of motor skills. The purpose of this symposium is to investigate the dynamic relationships between children's motor skills, perceived competence, physical activity participation, and fitness in different settings among diverse samples. The symposium would lead to more research and practice to improve children's motor skills that will positively influence lifespan trajectories of physical activity and fitness.

Examining the Mediating Role of Perceived Competence in Exergaming Activities

Zan Gao^F, David Stodden^F, Tao Zhang^F, University of North Texas

(([email protected]))

Background/PurposeThe relationships among children's motor skills, perceived competence, physical activity participation and fitness in exergaming settings remain unanswered. This study was designed to test a model of the mediating role of perceived competence on motor skills to physical activity and fitness relationships.

Methods

Participants were 236 third through fifth graders enrolled in a suburban elementary school. They participated in a 50-min exergaming class (e.g., Wii Just Dance, Dance Dance Revolution) each week. Participants responded to a battery of standardized questionnaires measuring their perceived competence and motor skills toward playing exergaming. Children's physical activity levels were assessed by NL-1000 pedometers in three consecutive exergaming classes. Then they had their fitness assessed via FITNESSGRAM 1 week later.

Analysis/ResultsThe results from structural equation modeling demonstrated an acceptable model fit to the data, χ²/df = 1.22, comparative fit index = .99, root mean square error of approximation = .04. The overall variance in perceived competence and physical activity explained by the model was 8% and 11%, respectively. Perceived competence had a significant direct effect on physical activity after controlling for the effect of motor skills (β = .29). Physical activity also had a direct effect on fitness (β = .17). Motor skills failed to exert direct effect on physical activity. However, the indirect effect of motor skills on physical activity via perceived competence was small yet significant.

ConclusionsOverall, the results supported the mediating role of perceived competence on the relationship between motor skills and physical activity levels in exergaming. Study implications are provided for educators and practitioners.

Fitness Mediates Motor Skills and Physical Activity in Hispanic Children

Tao Zhang^F and Katherine T. Thomas,^F University of North Texas; and Zan Gao,F University of Minnesota

(([email protected]))

Background/PurposeDespite public health efforts promoting physical activity (PA), the majority of Hispanic children do not meet national PA recommendations. Hispanic childhood obesity has dramatically increased in the past decades and has been a significant health concern. Given that childhood motor skills are critical to fitness and lifetime PA, this study attempted to examine the mediating role of fitness on relationships between motor skills and PA.

MethodOne hundred forty-three Hispanic children (77 boys; M _age = 11.1 years) from an elementary school completed motor skills in basketball, overhand throwing, and striking assessed by PE Metrics (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2010). Their fitness was assessed by FITNESSGRAM. The total number of six fitness tests in which students achieved the healthy fitness zone was calculated and used as an overall measure of fitness. Students completed validated surveys assessing their PA 1 week later.

Analysis/ResultsThree motor skills were associated with one another. Fitness was related to motor skills and PA. Path analyses indicated the hypothesized model fit to the data: χ²/df = .73; comparative fit index = 1.0; root mean square error of approximation = .01. The model accounted for 13.0% and 2.9% of the variances in fitness and PA, respectively. Striking (β = .32) directly predicted fitness, which in turn significantly predicted PA (β = .17). The effect of striking on PA was fully mediated via fitness. No direct effect was found between basketball, overhand throwing, and PA.

ConclusionsThe results suggested fitness was a mediator between motor skills and PA. The findings have promising implications for practitioners to promote Hispanic children's PA.

Children's Physical Activity Levels in Interactive Dance Across Skill Levels

Zan Gao,^F University of Minnesota; and Ping Xiang,^F Texas A&M University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeInteractive dance games have been considered an innovative and effective solution to promote children's physical activity (PA) participation. However, no known studies have investigated PA levels in interactive dance between high- and low-skilled children. This study aimed to examine children's PA levels in Dance Dance Revolution (DDR) across different motor skill levels in DDR.

Methods

Participants were 123 first- through sixth-grade urban children who participated in a DDR-based afterschool program. Participants' motor skill levels (novice, beginner, intermediate, advanced) were assessed by the DDR system for their first DDR dance. Their PA levels for three DDR sessions were measured via NL-1000 piezoelectric pedometer and were reported as steps per minute (SPM).

Analysis/ResultsMore than 73% of children were identified at the intermediate (n = 38) and advanced (n = 52) motor skill levels, and their PA levels in DDR (SPM_intermediate = 54.76; SPM_advanced = 62.64) were higher than those of novice children (SPM = 51.81) and beginner children (SPM = 47.48). One-way analysis of covariance with age and gender as covariates revealed a significant main effect for skill level, F(3, 197) = 2.91, p = .04, η² = .07. Follow-up tests indicated advanced children displayed significantly higher SPM than did novice children (p < .05) and beginner children (p < .01). No other significant differences were found.

ConclusionsChildren with advanced motor skills in DDR demonstrated significantly higher PA levels than did novice and beginner children when playing DDR. This finding suggests that higher motor skill levels would result in higher levels of PA while participating in interactive dance games. Strategies to improve children's DDR skills will be discussed.

Body Fat Influences Children's Perceived Competence, Physical Activity, and Fitness

Chaoqun Huang, The University of Utah; Zan Gao,^F University of Minnesota; and Weihong Ning, Texas Tech University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAlthough body fatness plays a critical role in health, there are limited data available on the relations among children's percent body fat (%BF), perceived competence, physical activity (PA), and health-related physical fitness. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of %BF on children's perceived competence, PA, and fitness.

Methods

A total of 325 elementary school children (140 girls; M _age = 10.12 years) participated in 50-min weekly exergaming classes beyond 75-min weekly physical education. Participants' %BF was determined by skinfolds, and 25% of boys and 30% of girls were identified as being in the risk group (Williams et al., 1992). Participants responded to a questionnaire measuring their perceived competence toward exergaming and had their PA levels assessed by NL-1000 pedometers for three exergaming classes. Their fitness was assessed through FITNESSGRAM (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run [PACER], curl-up, pushup, and trunk lift).

Analysis/ResultsApproximately 8.3% of children fell into the risk group. Our data indicated that the healthy group and risk group did not differ on their perceived competence, F = 0.86, p < .35. However, the healthy group displayed significantly higher PA levels than those of the risk group, F = 6.66, p = .01. The healthy group also demonstrated higher PACER, curl-up, and push-up scores than the risk group did, Fs = 7.59–19.51, ps < .01. The two groups did not differ on trunk lift, F = 2.72, p = .10.

ConclusionsSkinfold-derived %BF had a significant impact on children's PA in exergaming and the majority of their fitness components, but it failed to influence perceived competence. Interventions should be implemented at the population level to decrease risk to children's %BF.

INVITED SESSION

Tutorial: Yes, You Can: Empowering Students to Conduct and Publish Research

Jennifer M. Beller, Washington State University; and Sharon Kay Stoll,^F University of Idaho

([email protected])

Students approach required research courses with several views: (a) that they cannot DO research, (b) research is not related to their real-world experiences/professional goals, or (c) research is boring. Few master's students choose a thesis option; few undergraduate courses engage students in real-world research studies where questions are asked, data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted, and findings are published. This program will help participants understand the structure of a successful research program and the necessary pedagogical components that lead to student national presentations and publications. This model uses a team-oriented approach where students learn to take initiative but are supported by a faculty-research team. Students become empowered and realize that research is a friend rather than foe to overcome. The model is a highly mentored yearlong program in which the first semester involves a faculty team helping students in proposal development and institutional review board approval. During the second semester, students collect, analyze, interpret the data, and then write for presentations, publication, or thesis. Students gain much confidence that they can DO research and are enthusiastic about completing the study. The result has been a high number of student abstracts and manuscripts published, as well as national presentations. Participants will learn: (a) how to structure a research course and daily classes to meaningful research in their respective disciplines, (b) the necessary pedagogical components, by using a highly mentored model, which enhances student self-efficacy and empowers students toward published/presented research, and (c) a hands-on approach of pedagogical methods that demonstrate the successful course.

DISTINGUISHED LECTURES

C. H. McCloy Research Lecture and Breakfast: Symbols, Conventions, Games, Eleanor Metheny, and the Evolution of Human Intelligence

R. Scott Kretchmar,^F The Pennsylvania State University – University Park

Eleanor Metheny was one of the first kinesiology philosophers interested in the functions of human intelligence in such nonverbal and putatively nonintellectual activities as sport, dance, and exercise. She was also among the first to examine the role these endeavors might have played in human evolution. Not surprisingly, she relied heavily on the work of Ernst Cassirer, who also focused on the mysteries of intelligence—in particular, differences between human cognition and the thinking of nonhuman animals. Both Cassirer and Metheny concluded that symbolic processes do much to explain the emergence of human levels of thinking and the onset of culture. In this 33rd Annual C. H. McCloy Research Lecture, Kretchmar suggests that Metheny was ahead of her time. He briefly analyzes her theory of movement as a symbolic process and indicates that she was on the right course. However, he argues that conventions, rather than symbols, provide the better window through which to view cognitive evolution. He relies principally on the writings of John Searle in discussing the logic required to negotiate conventions. Kretchmar then describes sport and games as one type of convention and speculates on the role these nonverbal, nonartistic, and supposedly nonintellectual activities may have played in human evolution. Kretchmar concludes that Metheny got the overall story right even if she had some of the details wrong.

R. Tait McKenzie Memorial Lecture: Key Strategies for Promoting Physical Activity in Underserved Communities

Deborah M. Parra-Medina, University of Texas Health Science Center – San Antonio

If achieving recommended physical activity levels were a class in school, American youth would be failing miserably. Only half of all youth meet current physical activity guidelines, and it is worse for some groups than for others. For a variety of reasons, youth of low socioeconomic status and racial/ethnic minorities are the least likely to meet physical activity recommendations, and the problem is even worse for girls and women than it is for boys and men. There is a great need for programs that promote physical activity among such underserved communities and that bring together all stakeholders—community leaders, researchers, advocates, policymakers, and members of the underserved communities themselves—to help individuals and their families overcome healthy lifestyle barriers rooted in culture, language, economic disparities, and life experience. Several programs have emerged to promote culturally relevant healthy lifestyles for families in low-income Latino communities. In her lecture, Parra-Medina describes examples of such programs and offers key strategies that account for culture and gain community-wide buy-in for effective and sustainable physical activity intervention programs.

Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Lecture: Science and Art of Setting Standards (Cutoff Scores) in Kinesiology

Weimo Zhu,^F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Setting standards, known also as cutoff scores, is essential to any measurement and evaluation practice. This presentation will provide a comprehensive review of the science and art of setting standards in kinesiology. After a brief introduction to norm- and criterion-referenced frameworks and related methods and statistics, the presentation will focus on the latest developments and remaining challenges in setting standards. Practical examples in kinesiology will be illustrated, and future research directions will be outlined.

Raymond A. Weiss Lecture: An Examination of Female Athletes' Interpretations of Media Representations—A Window Into the Construction of Dual Identity and ‘Selling Sex’ in Women's Sports

Mary Jo Kane, University of Minnesota

Scholars have produced a significant body of evidence demonstrating that sportswomen are portrayed in ways that emphasize their femininity/heterosexuality versus their athletic competence and argue that such coverage trivializes women's sports (Daniels, 2012). Much less research attention has been paid to how such coverage is interpreted by different audiences, including female athletes (Kane & Maxwell, 2011). This study explores how elite female athletes respond to the various ways they are portrayed in sport media outlets. Audience reception research—where viewers deconstruct the meaning of a media text and how that meaning impacts feelings toward a particular subject—was used to examine dual identities of female athletes, meaning their on-court athletic identity versus their off-court feminine identity. Would these two identities impact how they wished to be represented—as highly skilled athletes, “classy ladies,” or both? Thirty-six team and individual sport athletes were interviewed; each was randomly shown photos representing categories of portrayal ranging from on-court competence to off-court sexually provocative images, and they were asked to choose which best represented themselves and their sport, as well as increased interest in and respect for their sport. Findings indicated that in-action competence was the overwhelming choice for “best represents self/sport” and “best increases respect.” However, almost 50% of all respondents picked sexualized images as the way to “best increase interest.” This latter finding reflected participants' belief that “sex sells” women's sports, particularly for male audiences. Results were analyzed using critical feminist theory to unpack the role of sports media and its relationship to gender, privilege, and power.

STUDENT-FOCUSED SESSIONS ON THE RESEARCH CONSORTIUM PROGRAM INCLUDE:AAHPERD/Research Consortium Graduate Student Forum

Thursday, April 25, 2013, 2:15 p.m.–4:15 p.m.

This forum is oriented to the needs and interests of graduate students who are either considering or currently preparing for careers in research and higher education. The session will include round table discussions with peer-to-peer, faculty-led, and student-led formats. The session is co-hosted by the AAHPERD Student Services Committee and the Research Consortium and will feature refreshments and an opportunity to network. All graduate student members are invited and encouraged to attend.

Student Research Works-in-Progress Poster Session

Friday, April 26, 2013, 10:45 a.m.–12:15 p.m.

Co-sponsored by the National Associations of AAHPERD, this session features college students at all levels presenting work on their ongoing studies in a poster presentation format. Conference attendees are encouraged to stop by and learn more about the topics being investigated by our “next generation” of researchers.

Peer-Reviewed Abstracts

Dance

Rasch Calibration of a Partnership Scale for Ballroom Dance Participants

Hyun-Soon Baek, Eun Sim Yang, Jin-A Kim, and Sang-Jo Kang, Korea National Sport University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Partnership is an important characteristic in ballroom dance competitions. A partnership scale was developed as a self-evaluation tool of ballroom dance sport participants' togetherness (Kim, 2011). The purpose of this study was to calibrate a partnership scale for dance sport participants using the Rasch Rating Scale model, an advanced measurement model.

Method

The 18-item scale was administered to 301 participants who were actively involved in dance sport in Seoul, Korea. The parameters of item difficulty and participants' partnership level and differential item functioning (DIF) between men and women were examined. Model–data fit was determined by infit and outfit statistics (>.7 and ≤ .3).

Analysis/Results: Overall, the model fit the data well, except for one item (“Our couples receive judges' smiles during the competition”). The most negative response items were, “Our couples receive judges' attention during the competition” (logits = .58) and “Our couples become the center of judges' interest” (.47). The most positive response items were, “Our couples respect each other” ( − 1.19) and “Our couples behave courteously to each other” ( − 1.01). The overall mean of partnership level was 0.00 (SD = 0.57) in logits, which showed reasonable spread along the scale. Three items (“Our couples receive cheers from spectators”; “Our couples receive judges' attention during the competition”; and “Our couples respect each other”) were identified as having significant DIF between male and female partners.

Conclusions: Although the model fit the data well, additional efforts should be made to improve the measurement equivalence of a partnership scale between male and female partners.

Preservice Teacher Perception of Dance in P–12 Physical Education

Benjamin Heatherly, Brookhill Elementary School; and Yvette M. Bolen and Bruce R. Thomas, Athens State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe Alabama State Department of Education (2009) recommends specific dances be taught in every grade, yet untrained teachers omit this integral component of physical education from the curriculum. The purpose of the study was to determine preservice teachers' appreciation of the importance of dance in P–12 physical education.

MethodUndergraduate preservice physical educators (n = 13) were grouped by limited art education exposure, specifically limited general education courses and no dance courses taken. Subjects were asked by pre–post survey to rate on a Likert scale their degree of agreement or disagreement regarding dance being included in grades P through 6th and 7th through 12th. Posttest ratings occurred following 19 h of exposure to dance through a comprehensive community-based art education field experience.

Analysis/ResultsAppreciation for dance activities was assessed through the use of paired-samples t tests. The paired-samples t test for the first factor (P–6) revealed a significant difference among preresponse and postresponse means (7.407, p = .000); and for the second factor (7–12), the paired-samples t test revealed a similar significanth mean difference (7.146, p = .000). Upon completion of an extensive art education/dance field experience, including participation in a community on-the-square dance performance, preservice physical educators showed significant changes in appreciation toward dance and strengthened agreement in the importance of dance being taught in all grades.

ConclusionsResults confirm the importance of undergraduate training in the area of dance and the necessity for current physical educators to receive in-service opportunities that will equip them with appropriate instructional strategies and the confidence needed to teach dance.

Mediation Effect of Empathy Between Self-Esteem and Partnership in Dance

Eun Sim Yang, Hyun-Soon Baek, and Sang-Jo Kang, Korea National Sport University; and Woo-Kyung Kim, Yongin University

([email protected])

Background/PurposePartnership is widely understood as an important characteristic in dance sport competitions. It is important that dance sport couples understand partners' emotions and thoughts and that they establish empathy with them. The purpose of the study was to verify the mediation effect of empathy in the relationship between self-esteem and partnership in dance sport.

MethodParticipants were 150 dancers (58 men, 92 women) who were actively involved in dance sport in the Seoul metropolitan area in Korea. Their ages ranged from 17 to 60 years old (M = 31.3 years, SD = 8.7). Participants were asked to complete three questionnaires: the Self-Esteem Questionnaire (Rosenberg, 1965), Empathy Scale (Jeon, 2003), and Partnership Scale (Kim, 2011). The statistical method used to test the mediation effect was a bootstrapping analysis, a nonparametric method for assessing indirect effects. Structural equation modeling was conducted using the Amos software.

Analysis/ResultsThe model appears to be a good fit to the data (comparative fit index = .952, Tucker Lewis Index = .927, root mean square error of approximation = .079). The empathy was predicted by self-esteem (b = .45, p = .001), and partnership was predicted by empathy (b = .49, p = .001) and self-esteem (b = .09, p = .407). Results from bootstrapping yielded an indirect effect of b = .217 (SE = 0.077; 95% CI [0.73, 0.38]). The empathy was a significant mediator between self-esteem and partnership in dance sport.

ConclusionsThe results showed dancers' empathy level influences the relationship between self-esteem and partnership.

Exercise Physiology and Fitness

Effect of Core Conditioning on Youths' Trunk Strength and Endurance

Brett M. Allen, J. E. Cosgriff, James C. Hannon,^F and Ryan D. Burns, The University of Utah

([email protected])

Background/PurposePoor core strength/endurance in youth has been associated with low back pain (LBP). LBP tracks to adulthood with $90 billion in associated health care spending. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a dynamic core-conditioning routine on tests of trunk strength/endurance in youth.

MethodOne hundred sixty-three students (85 girls; 78 boys) enrolled in the fourth through eighth grades (M _age = 11.5 ± 2.5 years) performed one moderate- to high-intensity dynamic core-conditioning warm-up routine once a week in a physical education class for a period of 6 weeks. The warm-up protocol consisted of 10 different dynamic core-conditioning exercises lasting 30 s each for a warm-up routine totaling 5 min. Preassessements and postassessments were conducted and consisted of six different trunk strength/endurance tests.

Analysis/ResultsAnalysis of the data revealed a significant increase in core strength/endurance in each of the six measured outcomes: Lateral Muscle Test (preassessment = 57.40 s; postassessment = 66.90 s; p < .001), Plank Test (preassessment = 93.81 s; postassessment = 124.40 s; p < .001), Static Curl-Up Test (preassessment = 111.84 s; postassessment = 150.72 s; p < .001), Dynamic Curl-Up Test (preassessment = 31.66 reps.; postassessment = 45.83 reps.; p < .001), Parallel Roman Chair Static Trunk Extension (preassessment = 99.51 s; postassessment = 142.87 s; p < .001), and Parallel Roman Chair Dynamic Back Extension (preassessment = 24.14 reps.; postassessment = 31.96 reps.; p < .001).

ConclusionsThe results suggest that children and adolescents can improve trunk strength/endurance by performing moderate- to high-intensity dynamic core exercises as little as once per week.

Effects of Menstrual Cycle on Exercise in Collegiate Female Athletes

Jennifer Bossi, Kimberly Kostelis, Sean Walsh, and Jason Sawyer, Central Connecticut State University

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Background/PurposeAlthough women play and compete at all phases of their menstrual cycle, the specific phase may impact sports performance. The current study was designed to determine the effects of menstrual cycle phase and oral contraceptive use on exercise performance.

MethodSubjects were seven female varsity student-athletes at a Division I university who were currently taking a 28-day cycle oral contraceptive pill. Participants completed a maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂ max) Bruce treadmill test and Wingate anaerobic bike test during both the follicular phase and luteal phase of one menstrual cycle.

Analysis/ResultsData were analyzed using repeated-measures analysis of variance. In aerobic exercise, there was no difference in VO₂max, F(1, 6) = 0.278, p>.01; final heart rate, F(1, 6) = 0.152, p>.01; respiratory exchange ratio, F(1, 6) = 0.131, p>.01; or blood lactate accumulation, F(1, 6) = 0.340, p>.01, between phases. In anaerobic exercise, there was no difference in peak power, F(1, 6) = 0.001, p>.01; work, F(1, 6) = 1.161, p>.01; mean power, F(1, 6) = 1.161, p>.01; or fatigue index, F(1, 6) = 0.005, p>.01, between phases. However, there was a difference in final blood lactate accumulations in anaerobic exercise, F(1, 6) = 9.063, p < .01, with values being higher during the follicular phase.

ConclusionsIt is suggested that there was no change in exercise performance because highly trained athletes have already adapted to the physiological changes of the menstrual cycle. Any perceived differences could be due to psychological factors of performing when menstruating. Further research is warranted to explain the effects of the menstrual cycle and oral contraceptives on exercise performance, specifically with highly trained athletes.

FMS Profiles of Law-Enforcement Trainees Before and After Physical Conditioning

William E. Buckley, Lauren C. Kramer, Daria M. Oller, Ryan P. Rosendale, Alicia M. Montalvo, and Michele L. Duffey, The Pennsylvania State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeLittle information exists regarding the fitness profiles of law-enforcement trainees prior to and following a required physical conditioning program at a state-funded academy. The Functional Movement Screen (FMS) has been purported to predict performance by assessing an individual's ability to complete seven functional movement patterns that challenge mobility and stability. This study sought to describe the FMS profiles of deputy sheriff trainees prior to and following a prescribed physical conditioning program.

MethodDemographic and anthropometric data, as well as basic baseline fitness measures, were obtained from 20 deputy sheriff trainees (17 men, 3 women; average age = 28.9 years; average body mass index [BMI] = 28.4). Trainees completed the FMS protocol prior to and following a 10-week physical conditioning program that included aerobic (running), anaerobic (resistance training), and self-defense components.

Analysis/Results T test analysis revealed no significant increase in total FMS score following the physical conditioning period (p = .33). Linear regression indicated a significant inverse association between BMI and FMS scoring both prior to and following physical conditioning training (p = .001 and p = .005, respectively). One-way analysis of variance was used to investigate potential associations between change in BMI secondary to training and individual FMS scores prior to and following physical conditioning training. FMS score changes were not associated with BMI change due to training (p = .24).

ConclusionsA conventional physical conditioning program is ineffective at increasing FMS scoring in law-enforcement trainees. Consequently, the predictive value of FMS scoring is suspect. Further investigation is needed to evaluate the efficacy of physical conditioning programs at changing fitness levels.

Intensity Levels in Children Ages 7–10 While Traverse Climbing

Cyrus Darling, Central Washington University; Harry Papadopoulos, Pacific Lutheran University; and Kirk E. Mathias and James DePaepe,^F Central Washington University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeMany authors have touted the physiological benefits of traverse climbing; however, very little research exists documenting the actual benefits and no research exists documenting the energy demands of traverse climbing on children. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the amount of energy children use to climb on a horizontal (traverse) climbing wall.

MethodForty-nine participants (aged 7 to 10 years old) were recruited from a rural public school. Subjects climbed 4 min on a horizontal climbing wall while wearing an Actigraph GT3-X accelerometer on the midaxial line of the right hip.

Analysis/ResultsIt was determined that traverse climbing in children when measured along the horizontal axis of movement for 4 min was a moderate activity demanding 4 Metabolic Equivalents of Task (METs) and boys had slightly higher expenditure levels compared with girls, even though this difference was not statistically significant. Accelerometer data also showed that vigorous efforts (up to 7 METs) were required for short intervals within the 4-min time period. Furthermore, one-way analysis of variance revealed a significant difference among ages in total distance traveled (p < .01), and Bonferroni post-hoc analysis indicated that the 10-year-old group covered significantly more distance on the horizontal climbing wall compared with the 7-year-old (p < .01) and 8-year-old (p < .01) groups.

ConclusionsThese results provide evidence supporting the use of climbing walls as an activity that promotes significant energy expenditure in children. Furthermore, traverse climbing is a positive alternative replacing similarly intense activities that are less appealing in the public school physical education setting.

Association of Body Composition and Resting Blood Pressure Changes Following Aerobic Exercise

Guoyuan Huang,^F University of Southern Indiana

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Background/PurposeAerobic exercise training can have an attenuated effect on increases in resting blood pressure (RBP) and may affect body composition. The association of body composition and RBP changes following chronic aerobic exercise among older adults is still not clear.

MethodA systematic review approach was used to synthesize the relevant published studies. Twenty-three studies, including a total of 1,226 subjects, were qualified for the final analysis. Net changes in resting systolic blood pressure/diastolic blood pressure (SBP/DBP), body weight, body mass index (BMI), and percent body fat (%BF) were calculated as the difference of the changes in the relevant mean values of the studies. Correlation coefficient techniques were applied to analyze data.

Analysis/ResultsThe overall weighted net change showed a reduction of 5.4 ± 5.5 mmHg (mean ± SD) in resting SBP and of 3.7 ± 3.8 mmHg in resting DBP. The body weight net change was decreased by 0.82 ± 0.90 kg in the exercise groups but increased by 0.15 ± 0.81 kg in the control groups. The BMI net change presented a decrease of 0.27 ± 0.30 in the exercise groups but an increase of 0.08 ± 0.31 in the control groups. For the %BF net changes, the exercise groups decreased by 1.06 ± 0.86% and the control groups decreased by 0.09 ± 0.48%. There was a statistically significant correlation between %BF net change and resting DBP change in the control groups (r = .59, p = .03). No other statistically significant correlations were found.

ConclusionsOur results indicated that an increase in the percentage of body fat may result in a corresponding increase in resting DBP in older adults.

Polygenic Association of ACE and ACTN3 Polymorphism With Power

Chul-Hyun Kim, Korea National Sport University; Hyeoijin Kim, Korea National University of Education; Jae-Hyeon Park, Korea National Sport University; and Chong-Ryeol Park, Sung-Jun Cho, and Ho-Hyun Song, Korea National University of Education

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThis study aimed to examine whether the polygenic profile of ACE ID and ACTN3 R577X polymorphisms is associated with muscle power performance in Korea.

MethodFor this study, 106 top-class power athletes (top-class group), 158 elite-power athletes (elite-class group), and 676 healthy adults (controls) aged 18 to 39 years old were recruited and their genotypes were analyzed.

Analysis/ResultsThe top-class group showed higher frequencies of II genotype and I allele in ACE and also higher frequencies of RR genotype and R allele in ACTN3 (top-class vs. control, 41.4% vs. 32.1% for II genotype, 67.1% vs. 57.7% for I allele, p < .05; 42.3% vs. 29.0% for RR genotype, 65.3% vs. 54.8% for I allele, p < .05). In the polygenic profile, the top-class group had significantly higher frequencies of the combined II/ID+RR/RX genotype compared with controls (top-class vs. controls, 82.9% vs. 66.7% for II/ID+RR/RX, p < .05) and had a sharp increase on total genotype score compared with the elite-class group and controls (66 ± 0.9 vs. 58 ± 1.9 vs. 56 ± 2.3, p < .05). The combined II/ID+RR/RX genotype showed the possibility of success in the top-class muscle power performance with an odds ratio of 2.3 (CI [1.4, 4.1], p < .05).

ConclusionsThe results suggested that ACE and ACTN3 should be in interaction with each other to affect muscle power performance in an additive form. Also, the polygenic profile of ACE and ACTN3 can predict muscle performance, with homogeneous dominant combined genotype (II/ID+RR/RX) having high success. In future studies, it could be necessary to identify and combine other genes with ACE and ACTN3 for muscle strength.

Effects of Afterschool Strength Training on Adolescents' Muscular Strength

Wenhao Liu,^F Slippery Rock University; Shawn L.S. Bean, Cranberry Junior Senior High School; and Traci D. Zillifro and Jeffrey Smith, Slippery Rock University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeDue to the limited physical education (PE) class time, afterschool physical activity programs have become an important supplement to PE classes in increasing students' physical activity and fitness levels. This study investigated the effect of an afterschool strength-training program on improving muscular strength and endurance among high school adolescents.

MethodSixteen high school students constituting an intervention group participated in an 8-week afterschool strength-training program containing three 45-min sessions per week. In each session, the participants went through 10 muscle-strengthening exercises/stations to perform three sets of 10 repetitions at each station with 50% to 60% of the individual's one-repetition maximum in the first 3 weeks of the intervention, 60% to 70% in the next 3 weeks, and 70% to 80% in the last 2 weeks. Another 16 high school students from the same school district made up a control group that did not receive any intervention. The two groups had similar ages (15.63 ± 1.03 years vs. 15.70 ± 1.13 years), contained the same number of boys (11 boys), were all enrolled in PE classes meeting twice per week, and received a pretest (before intervention) and posttest (after intervention) of pushups and curl-ups.

Analysis/ResultsResults of a one-way analysis of covariance indicated significant differences in adjusted means in the posttest scores in favor of the intervention group while controlling for the pretest scores. Specifically, the posttest scores (adjusted means) of pushups were 22.09 ± 8.08 for the intervention group versus 18.16 ± 6.66 for the control group (p < .05), and posttest scores for the curl-ups were 68.14 ± 11.57 versus 54.55 ± 21.04 (p < .05).

ConclusionsThe afterschool strength-training program is effective in increasing high school students' muscular strength and endurance.

Key Predictors of Aerobic Capacity in Youth Ages 9–19 Years

Sarah Livingstone, Stephen A. Butterfield,^F Craig A. Mason, and Robert A. Lehnhard, University of Maine

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Background/PurposeAerobic capacity and its association with obesity remains a concern to physical educators. Aerobic capacity is important because it represents functional limits of the O₂-delivery chain and is an indicator of cardiovascular health. Obesity is associated with reduced cardiovascular performance and is a precursor of serious diseases. Given the importance of children's cardiovascular health and in light of secular trends related to height (leveled off) and weight (accelerating), current data are needed on aerobic capacity in children and youth. The purpose of this study was to examine key predictors of aerobic capacity in children and youth.

MethodThe design was cross-sectional and correlational. Children ages 9 to 19 years old, enrolled in 19 public schools (N = 2,480) were tested on the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) by state-certified physical educators trained in fitness assessment. Procedures outlined in the FITNESSGRAM test manual were followed.

Analysis/ResultsBody mass index (BMI) and maturation offset were calculated for each child. Maturation offset was determined by separate regression equations for boys and girls. Performance on the PACER and controls (age, sex, BMI, and maturation) were analyzed by hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). HLM is a type of regression that permits analysis of variables nested within categories. Controlling for age, sex, BMI, and maturation, each unit increase in BMI was associated with a 1.5 (lap) decline in PACER score (p < .001). Applying similar controls, boys achieved PACER scores 4 laps higher than girls (p < .001).

ConclusionsIncluding selected controls, children's PACER performance was explained to a considerable extent by BMI and sex.

Effect of Mirrors on Intrinsic Motivation Toward Aerobic Dance

Ariana Mason and Jack Rutherford,^F Eastern Kentucky University

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Background/PurposeAmerican College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) guidelines call for exercise facilities to have mirrors on at least two of four walls during group exercise classes to promote greater self-awareness and evaluation among patrons (ACSM, 1997). Earlier research has found, however, that mirrors produced negative effects on self-efficacy and feeling states of sedentary women who performed group exercise (Ginis, Jung, & Gauvin, 2003). Moreover, mirrored exercise environments seem to be more threatening to novice exercisers, especially women with social physic anxiety (Katula & McAuley, 2001). Heretofore, differences in motivation of exercisers have not been examined. The purpose of this research was to compare the effects of mirrored and nonmirrored exercise environments on the intrinsic motivation of exercisers in an aerobic dance class.

MethodNineteen college students (15 women, 4 men), aged 21.4 ± 1.9 years participated in two aerobic dance classes under different mirror conditions 1 week apart. Participants completed the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) after each class. Data were analyzed using a repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Analysis/ResultsThe ANOVA yielded a significant main effect for mirrors on the Perceived Competence subscale of the IMI (p < .05). Examination of the means suggested that women showed higher levels of perceived competence compared with men when exercising with mirrors. No other IMI subscales showed significant main effects for gender or experience. A significant Mirror × Gender interaction was found on the Interest–Enjoyment subscale (p < .05). A plot of the means revealed that the interaction was caused by the fact that women were more interested in the exercise than men when mirrors were present.

ConclusionsThese results show that mirrors have some effect on the intrinsic motivation levels of group exercisers and that they may be mediated by gender but not experience.

Aquatic- and Land-Based Plyometric Ground Contact Time Does Not Differ

Christopher Matich and Ryan Fowler, Weber State University; and David Berry, Saginaw Valley State University

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Background/PurposeThe effectiveness of aquatic- and land-based plyometrics is measured in the amount of time spent transitioning from eccentric to concentric movements (amortization) and ground-contact time. Land-based training programs have been extensively investigated, but limited information examining aquatic-based plyometrics exists. The purpose of this study was to determine differences between aquatic- and land-based plyometric training with respect to ground-contact time.

MethodTwelve (5 men; 7 women) healthy adults (27.4 ± 3.0 years; 79.1 ± 17.3 kg; 179.5 ± 8.2 cm) not engaged in any formal exercise or any type of plyometric training program were randomly assigned into two groups (aquatic and land). Both groups received identical plyometric training sessions for 3 weeks, with increasing foot contacts each session, in each environment. Following Sessions 2, 4, and 6, ground-contact time was measured using a 17-inch × 23-inch CVP switch mat on the land and in the water.

Analysis/ResultsA between-within subjects-groups repeated-measures analysis of variance determined Group × Trial effects and interactions. Significance was set a priori at p < .05. A significant main effect was found for trials, F(2, 20) = 18.25, p < .001. Trial 1 (0.97 ms ± 0.33 ms) was significantly different from Trial 2 (0.71 ms ± 0.15 ms) and Trial 3 (0.61 ms ± 0.12 ms), and Trial 2 was significantly different from Trial 3.

ConclusionsBoth groups decreased their contact time during the trial periods similarly. There were no significant differences in ground-contact time between the groups, suggesting that buoyancy may not adversely affect ground-contact times, or the length of time spent in the amortization phase in the water during plyometric jumping as theorized.

Senior Fitness Testing Experience and Students' Attitudes Toward Older Adults

Melissa Powers, Kayla Garver, Jill Robinson, and Antonio Ross, University of Central Oklahoma

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe purpose of this project was to examine the impact of a senior fitness testing experience on students' attitudes toward older adults.

MethodThe participants were undergraduate exercise science students enrolled in a senior-level exercise programming for special populations course (n = 32). Two sections of the same class were randomly selected to serve as a treatment or control class. The treatment class completed an educational unit on exercise programming for older adults, which included senior fitness testing at a local YMCA. The control class completed the same unit without the fitness testing experience. However, the control class did participate in senior fitness testing 8 weeks after the study was completed. Attitudes toward older adults were assessed using two scales: Polizzi's Aging Semantic Differential Scale (ASD) and the attitudes scale developed by the Student-Assisted Independent Living (SAIL) Project. Attitudes were assessed at baseline, after the initial intervention, and following the fitness testing experience of the control class.

Analysis/ResultsFor the SAIL scale, a significant Group × Time interaction effect was observed (p < .05). Both groups significantly improved attitudes following the initial intervention; however, the effect in the treatment class was twice as large as the control class. At follow-up, attitudes continued to improve in the control class. For the ASD, no significant effects were observed.

ConclusionsThese results provide preliminary evidence that interacting with older adults may be better at improving attitudes among college students compared with education alone. Further study is recommend in other disciplines and courses and utilizing true random assignment if possible.

Changes in Sleep Following Diet and Exercise Protocols in Women

R. Theresa Prodoehl, Elizabeth S. Edwards, Layne E. Eidemiller, and Judith A. Flohr, James Madison University

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Background/PurposeThe purpose of this study was to examine the impact of diet-induced weight loss (DWL), circuit training (CT), and DWL combined with CT (DWLCT) on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) in healthy, sedentary postmenopausal women.

MethodForty-three women were randomly assigned to either a DWL (n = 16) or CT (n = 18) 9-week intervention. DWL participants met with an investigator once per week to be weighed and were given a total weight loss goal of 8% to 10% of baseline body weight (BW). CT subjects completed a supervised circuit of resistance and aerobic exercise 3 days per week for 40 min to 45 min at a moderate intensity and were asked to remain weight-stable ( ± 3 lbs). Nine participants completed an additional 9-week intervention of DWLCT. All participants had BW, waist circumference, ESS and PSQI measured prior to and at the end of the intervention and had BW measured weekly.

Analysis/ResultsPaired t test results indicated a significant (p = .46) increase in the ESS (5.7 ± 3.6–7.3 ± 4.1) in the DWL group. There were no changes demonstrated in the CT or DWLCT groups for ESS. PSQI was not changed for all groups. BW and body mass index decreased significantly (p < .05) in the DWL and DWLCT groups, and there was no change in the CT group.

ConclusionsThe results indicate that an increase in daytime sleepiness that accompanied caloric restriction may be offset by a regimen of CT in healthy postmenopausal women.

A 10-Week University Program Improves Health-Related Variables

Jennifer Summers, University of Oregon; and Lynda RansdellF and Yong Gao,F Boise State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeTo assess the effects of a 10-week Project PHIT (Personal Health Intervention Team) intervention on university employees.

MethodGrounded in social support theory, Project PHIT was designed to help employees improve health behaviors, such as physical activity and nutritional intake, and increase fitness. Participants (N = 26, 81% women, M_age = 41 ± 12.28 years) met twice a week for 60 min/session to participate in educational and exercise activities. Health-related fitness variables measured before and after the intervention included blood pressure, body weight, regular activity participation, and aerobic fitness. Participants completed four questionnaires to gather demographic data, assess level of social support, detect physical activity changes, and estimate fruit/vegetable/fiber intake.

Analysis/ResultsThe majority of participants (24 of 26) attended 86% of the sessions. Repeated-measures multivariate analyses of variance indicated: (a) significant positive physiological changes (e.g., weight loss, reduced blood pressure, and increased maximal oxygen consumption, p = .016), (b) improved fruit, vegetable, and fiber intake (p = .001), and (c) increased participation in aerobic, muscular strength, and flexibility activities and increased average number of steps (p = .001). Positive changes were also observed in exercise- and nutrition-related social support (p < .001). Perceived nutrition-based social support was positively correlated with participants' positive changes in vegetable and fiber intake (r = .48, p = .02; and r = .40, p = .05, respectively).

ConclusionsUniversity employees responded positively to the Project PHIT program. The use of social support as a behavioral change strategy in conjunction with a variety of physical activities may be useful for modifying health behaviors.

Underestimation of Perceived Exertion During VO₂max Testing in Trained Runners

Maridy Troy and Justin Menickelli, Western Carolina University

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Background/PurposeRatings of perceived exertion (RPE) reported during maximal graded exercise testing (GXT) may predict maximal heart rate (HR) and maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂max) at higher grades of RPE intensity. In theory, Borg's RPE unit can be multiplied by 10 to create an adjusted RPE and can be used to approximate HR. This study compared adjusted RPE values of trained runners to their actual HR during GXT.

MethodA modified incremental Bruce protocol was employed to measure VO₂max using a TrueOne 2400 Metabolic Measurement System during GXT on a Quinton MedTrack CR 60 motor-driven treadmill. Twelve men (mean VO₂max = 58.58 ml/kg/min, SD = 11.48) and 7 women (mean VO₂max = 49.8 ml/kg/min, SD = 7.12) run-trained university students (M _age = 23.78 years, SD = 4.75) reported RPE at the end of each workload during GXT. RPE and HR were compared at 50%, 60%, 75%, 85%, and 100% of VO₂max.

Analysis/ResultsSubjects underestimated their exercise intensity by 49.1%, 16.8%, 31.1%, 17.7%, and 1.7% at 50%, 60%, 75%, 85%, and 100% of VO₂max, respectively. Repeated-measures analysis of variance indicated a significant difference (p < .001) between adjusted RPE and actual HR. Pairwise comparisons indicated that adjusted RPE and actual HR differed significantly at 50%, 60%, 75%, and 85% (p < .001 for each), but not at 100% of VO₂max (p = .097).

ConclusionsUse of the Borg RPE scale to predict intensity during submaximal exercise may not be appropriate for trained runners because they may have a blunted perception of their physical exertion.

Health-Related Fitness Tracking in Extreme Quartiles Among Adolescents

Traci D. Zillifro, Wenhao Liu,^F and Randall A. Nichols, Slippery Rock University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeFew fitness-tracking studies have covered all health-related fitness components. This study investigated a 3-year tracking of all health-related fitness components for adolescents in extreme quartiles (EQ).

MethodThe FITNESSGRAM battery (percent body fat [%BF], body mass index [BMI], Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run [PACER], curl-up, pushup, and sit and reach) was administered to 194 students (87 boys) at the beginning of sixth grade (baseline) and at the end of eighth grade (follow-up). The data at each test point were ranked into quartiles, respectively, and percentages of participants remaining in the same EQ across the 3 years were determined using crosstabs.

Analysis/ResultsThe results indicated that BMI had highest tracking within EQ with 75.5% to 85.0% of boys and 76.6% to 80.8% of girls remaining in the same EQs, followed by PACER with 61.6% to 72.2% of boys and 57.1% to 66.7% of girls remaining in the same EQs. All remaining fitness measures also had significantly (p < .001) high tracking stability within EQ as examined with Kendall's tau-b. In addition, %BF demonstrated higher tracking in fattest/upper quartiles (UQ) than in the least fat/lower quartiles (LQ), with 64.7% remaining in UQ versus 38.9% in LQ for boys and 77.3% in UQ versus 63.6% in LQ for girls. Also, the poorest measures (LQ) in curl-up had higher tracking compared with the best ones (UQ) with 36.4% in LQ versus 23.8% in UQ for boys and 48.0% in LQ versus 37.5% in UQ for girls.

ConclusionsAll the health-related fitness measures in EQs have high-level stability among middle school adolescents, and those in the least-fit quartiles in %BF or curl-up have higher tracking stability compared with those in the other EQs, suggesting early intervention for the least-fit adolescents.

Health

Connections Between Sex Education and High-Risk Behaviors Among University Students

Emily K. Beasley and Birgitta L. Baker, Louisiana State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposePrevious research has documented that college-aged students often engage in high-risk sexual behaviors that expose them to HIV/AIDS infection, such as having multiple sex partners and engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse. Although educational programs have been deemed necessary for this age group and are often beneficial, many college students still engage in potentially harmful sexual behaviors. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the sexual health-risk behaviors of college students and information regarding HIV/AIDS prevention received on a university campus.

MethodStudents (N = 364) enrolled in a large university in the Southeastern United States completed online surveys regarding sexual behaviors, engagement in high-risk sexual activities, prevention of pregnancy/sexually transmitted infections, and education received on campus.

Analysis/ResultsResults indicated that despite access to education on campus, students still engaged in high-risk sexual behaviors. For example, the majority of respondents (81.8%) reported receiving instruction in their college classes regarding HIV/AIDS prevention, yet more than half (59.1%) reported having never been tested. Students reported engaging in high-risk behaviors such as not using a condom (35.5%) or using alcohol or drugs (55%) the last time they engaged in sexual intercourse.

ConclusionsResults of this study indicate that although students have access to education on HIV/AIDS prevention, many still engage in high-risk sexual behaviors. This information can be used to aid universities in developing new sex education objectives addressing students' continued engagement in high-risk sexual behaviors.

School Demographic Factors That Predict Healthy Body Mass Index

Brian D. Dauenhauer, Xiaofen Keating,^F and Dolly Lambdin, The University of Texas - Austin

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe purpose of this study was to determine which sociodemographic factors predict the prevalence of healthy body mass index (BMI) in elementary and middle school students in a large urban school district.

MethodA cross-sectional research design was utilized with schools as the unit of analysis. BMI data and sociodemographic factors from 96 schools were gathered from state education agency databases. The selected school-level sociodemographic factors were socioeconomic status (SES), limited English proficiency, and student turnover rate. The percentage of students in the healthy zone for BMI in schools was used as the dependent variable.

Analysis/ResultsMultiple regression analysis was performed to examine the relationship between the percentage of healthy student BMI and the selected school sociodemographic variables. The results of multiple linear regression analyses indicated an acceptable model fit that accounted for 72% of the variance in healthy BMI. SES and limited English proficiency contributed significantly to the prediction of healthy BMI. The finding of a negative relationship between SES and healthy BMI corroborates previous research findings on the role that SES plays in obesity prevalence. Limited English proficiency was negatively associated with healthy BMI.

ConclusionsSES remains one of the critical determinants for student BMI. The association between limited English proficiency and healthy BMI was not previously reported in the literature. It is unclear if language itself is contributing negatively to healthy BMI or if this association is a result of other cultural/ethnic factors. Further research on this topic is warranted.

Time in Field Experience Predicts Efficacy to Teach Health

Mariane M. Fahlman,^F Wayne State University; and Heather L. Hall, Elmhurst College

([email protected])

Background/PurposeDisease-related behaviors begin early in life; thus, elementary school teachers can play a large role in their prevention. The level of teacher preparation impacts teachers' efficacy to deliver quality health education, and efficacy is related to teacher effectiveness.

Purpose: To determine which of several variables tested, either alone or together, serves best to predict efficacy among preservice elementary teachers.

MethodUniversity students (n = 1,014) completed a valid and reliable instrument designed to determine efficacy and outcome expectancy. Demographic questions addressed the number of health and methods courses taken, hours completed in a school intern experience and student teaching, and grade point average.

Analysis/ResultsStepwise multiple regression analysis was conducted. Self-efficacy was entered as the dependent variable, and all other variables were entered as independent variables. Three variables made a significant contribution to the variance: number of methods courses taken (r ² = .44, p = .012); hours completed in a school intern experience (r ² = .40, p = .001); and hours of student teaching completed (r ² = .60, p = .000). These three variables combined to account for 61% of the variance in teaching self-efficacy in preservice teachers.

ConclusionsThe significance of the school experience for preservice teachers, whether as a methods class, internship, or student teaching experience, coupled with the importance of health education in the fight against chronic disease, implies that teacher preparation curricula must include practical experience. For those colleges and universities not currently providing that experience, curricular revision is imperative.

Teaching Health Online for HBCU College Freshmen

Linda M. Gagen, Norfolk State University

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Background/PurposeOnline coursework, taught by certified online instructors, is a significant issue in education. The purpose of the study was to examine whether sections taught online were equally effective as those taught in a classroom format.

MethodThis study examined eight sections of a required general education class in personal health for first- and second-semester freshmen at historically Black colleges and universities in the Southeastern United States. Four sections were held live on campus and four were offered online, all taught by the same instructor. In both delivery methods, class notes were placed on Blackboard for student reference. The sample consisted of 256 freshmen, including 166 women and 90 men, with on-campus classes accounting for 61% of the participants due to slightly larger class sizes.

Analysis/ResultsThere were no significant differences in final exam grades (p = .538) or in the final course grades (p = .269) due to method of delivery, and there was no Method ×  Gender interaction (p = .699). There was no significant interaction of Completion Rate ×  Method (p = .062). Students in the online sections reported significantly higher levels of satisfaction with the course (p = .02). Qualitative comments from students in online courses reported higher satisfaction with the ability to arrange their study time more effectively around their schedule, saving commuting time and expense to come to campus, and the ability to read and digest the information at their own pace.

ConclusionsOnline courses can provide students with an equal opportunity for academic success with significantly higher satisfaction.

Breast Cancer and College Women: The Health Belief Model Applied

Kendra Guilford, University of Buraimi; Lori W. Turner and Brad E. Lian, The University of Alabama; and Kaduabu S. Ajongbah, Bethune-Cookman University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAside from skin cancer, breast cancer is currently considered the most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death among women in the United States. Lifestyle factors are known contributors to rates of breast cancer, and knowledge is essential to its prevention. “Emerging-adult” college women offer a vital window of opportunity for intervention, as lifestyle patterns are often established during this time.

MethodUtilizing constructs of the health-belief model, this cross-sectional, descriptive study examined breast cancer knowledge, beliefs, and screening behaviors of a sample of emerging-adult college women (n = 342) in the Southeastern United States. Participants responded to a written, self-report 86-item questionnaire. All analyses were conducted using SAS Version 9.0.

Analysis/ResultsResults of the study showed participants had a low level of perceived susceptibility toward breast cancer and relatively low overall breast cancer knowledge. Findings also revealed a significant association between ethnicity, year in school, and family history of breast cancer and participants' general degree of breast cancer-related worry. Of the health-belief model constructs, confidence and perceived barriers were found to significantly predict breast self-examination.

ConclusionsHealth program planners should aim to develop interventions adapted to address the unique needs of emerging-adult college women. These interventions should center on enhancing self-efficacy of breast cancer screening and reducing barriers. Education-based programs are needed to increase women's overall knowledge and awareness of breast cancer-related issues. Such strategies have great potential to enhance these women's quality of life and positively influence those with whom they closely interact.

Evaluating Preschool Children's Fruit and Vegetable Preference, Knowledge, and Consumption

Andrew Hansen, Moya Alfonso, Robert Vogel, and Amy Hackney, Georgia Southern University

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Background/PurposeAlthough fruit and vegetable (F & V) consumption reduces the risk for obesity and related diseases, less than a third of the U.S. child population consumes the U.S. Department of Agriculture recommended servings of fruits and vegetables. Accurately determining F & V preference and consumption in children is a necessary step to a successful intervention.

MethodPreschool children (age 4; n = 192) were individually interviewed about knowledge, preference, and perceptions of fruits and vegetables. F & V consumption at school was also measured by coding each child's tray waste during a 1-week time period. Parents (n = 172) were surveyed on parenting practices and parent and child consumption, knowledge, and preference.

Analysis/ResultsChi square with McNemar test for matching and odds ratios was performed to determine parent–child response concordance for F & V preference. Most F & V items had good concordance between parent and child; however, children frequently reported liking a fruit or vegetable even when a parent reported the child disliked it. In addition, discrepancies existed between child-reported preference and their F & V consumption at school. Discrepancies also existed between parent-reported practices and child perceptions of parenting practices.

ConclusionsObtaining input from both parent and child framed in a behavioral theory provides a more accurate understanding of the food environment necessary for interventions. The coding of F & V tray waste provides an objective measure of F & V consumption.

Pre/Post-Comparison of Nine Constructs Within a Multidimensional Wellness Course

Mindy Hartman Mayol, Brianna Scott, Lisa Hicks, and Heidi Hancher-Rauch, University of Indianapolis

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Background/PurposeA multidimensional wellness curriculum should provide results that demonstrate an increased understanding and application of each wellness dimension in students. Outcomes from previous research at this institution demonstrated statistically significant student growth during one college semester in nine wellness dimensions. The purpose of the current study was to compare the nine constructs to each other within a similar college multidimensional wellness course to distinguish which construct demonstrated the strongest or weakest growth overall.

MethodStudents (n = 276) enrolled in a 15-week university wellness and fitness course completed an online survey, pre and post, measuring nine dimensions of wellness. Each dimension consisted of five items that were summed to create one wellness construct. Each item was scored on a 1–4 scale; thus, construct scores could range between 5 and 20.

Analysis/ResultsPhysical (nutritional) wellness showed the greatest increase during the semester (M = 2.20, SD = 3.24) with physical (exercise) wellness having the second greatest increase (M = 1.83, SD = 3.07). The two dimensions showing the least amount of growth across the semester were social and spiritual wellness (M = 0.44, SD = 2.53; M = 0.40, SD = 2.19, respectively). The remaining five constructs are listed in rank order: mental (M = 1.02, SD = 2.63), financial (M = 0.99, SD = 2.83), environmental (M = 0.94, SD = 2.68), occupational (M = 0.79, SD = 2.54), and intellectual (M = 0.75, SD = 2.57).

ConclusionsResults demonstrate that a multidimensional approach to wellness significantly improves student understanding and application in each construct. However, changes to the curriculum will be made to bolster students' knowledge and experiences in the wellness constructs showing less growth. Additionally, validation and reliability studies of the existing survey instrument are currently in progress to aid in future studies.

Women and Running: Changes Beyond the Physical Dimension of Health

Dina M. Hayduk, Kutztown University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeExercise is advocated for women as a direct route to empowerment. A stronger body contributes to a sense of independence, well-being, and self-efficacy both in the exercise world as well as in one's personal world. There is a dearth of concrete examples of what empowerment created as the result of exercising actually means to women and how empowerment translates to the actions of everyday life. This study followed this meaning-making process associated with beginning and adhering to a running program.

MethodThis qualitative study utilized narrative inquiry. In-depth interviews of 11 adult women who had been running between 1 to 4 years were conducted. The interviews were analyzed individually to see if the subject had a deep paradigm shift in self-perception resulting in empowerment and how that empowerment translated into her everyday life.

Analysis/ResultsFindings indicated that all subjects did have a change in self-perspective that they contributed to running. Seven of the women articulated a newfound confidence in themselves, which translated into empowerment in their nonrunning lives. Examples included confidence to try new nonrunning activities, new approaches at work, going back to school, or finding their voices.

ConclusionsThe women who attributed changes in their nonrunning lives to the participation in running identified the key ingredient as self-reflection. Running provided time for self-reflection. Implications for physical educators include infusing opportunities for self-reflection with the goal being not only a more physically healthy person but a healthier person in all dimensions of health.

The Impact of Infant Feeding Choices on Childhood Obesity/Overweight

Barbara Hernandez^F and Ismatara Reena, Lamar University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe purpose of the investigation was to determine the impact of three infant feeding choices (at 0–6 months of age) on childhood obesity/overweight levels based on body mass index (BMI) percentile rankings and categories of 45 children at ages 2, 3, and 4 years old. The dependent variable was the BMI category (obesity, overweight, normal weight, and underweight rankings) recorded for each child based on height and weight scores for BMI. The independent variables were one of three feeding choices at ages 0 to 6 months (exclusive breast-feeding, exclusive formula feeding, and mixed feeding) recorded for each child.

MethodHeight (inches) and weight (pounds) scores were measured and previously recorded by medical personnel with Detecto 439 Mechanical Eye-Level Dual Reading Scale with a height rod. Ages 2, 3, and 4 years old for each child were determined by birthdates recorded by the pediatrician's office and self-report scores of children from parent volunteers. BMI scores of participants were calculated and categorized according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention formula (2011).

Analysis/ResultsA Kruskal-Wallis test was used to determine the relationship between the three infant feeding choices and the BMI percentile and categories at ages 2, 3, and 4 years at the .05 level of significance. A statistically insignificant difference (p > .05) was found between the three feeding choices and the three different ages (p = .709 at 2 years; p = .339 at 3 years; p = .775 at 4 years).

ConclusionsMore research is needed because descriptive statistics indicated that formula-fed infants had a greater BMI percentile in the overweight/obese category (2.2%–8.95%; n = 4) compared with mixed-fed (2.2%–6.7%; n = 3), and breast-fed infants (0%–2.2%; n = 1).

Using Motivational and Volitional Interventions to Promote Adolescents' Physical Activity

Chaoqun Huang, Wayland Baptist University; and Zan Gao,^F University of Minnesota

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThis study examined the impacts of the protection motivation theory (PMT)-based motivational intervention and implementation intentions-based volitional intervention on physical activity (PA) intention and behaviors between normal-weight adolescents and overweight/obese adolescents.

MethodA total of 335 junior high school adolescents were assigned to three groups: control group, motivational intervention group, and motivational and volitional intervention group. Motivational intervention (employed to both intervention groups at baseline) included reading a leaflet containing factual information about overweight/obesity and the effects of PA on preventing the health threat. Volitional intervention (added to the motivational and volitional intervention group at the 3rd week) involved asking participants when and where they planned to exercise in the next 2 weeks. Adolescents' PMT constructs, PA intention, and behaviors were measured at three time points during a 4-week period.

Analysis/ResultsA two-way (Intervention ×  Weight) multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measure yielded a nonsignificant main effect for intervention on PMT variables, F(12, 648) = 1.68, p > .05, and PA behaviors, F(2, 329) = 1.75, p > .05. However, there was a significant main effect for weight on PMT variables, F(6, 324) = 15.84, p <  .01, η² = .23, and PA behaviors, F(1, 329) = 14.58, p <  .01, η² = .04. Follow-up tests indicated overweight/obese adolescents reported significantly higher perceived vulnerability and response costs than normal-weight adolescents did (p <  .05). They also reported significantly lower self-efficacy, intention, and PA behavior (p <  .05).

ConclusionsThe findings indicate that the interventions seemed to be not effective to promote PA intention and behaviors among adolescents. PA interventions for overweight/obese adolescents should focus on enhancing their self-efficacy and reducing their perceptions of PA costs.

Protection Motivation Theory-Based Beliefs Predict Adolescents' Physical Activity and Intention

Chaoqun Huang, Wayland Baptist University; and Zan Gao,^F University of Minnesota

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAccording to protection motivation theory (PMT), PMT constructs are significantly associated with physical activity (PA) intention and behaviors. This study examined PMT constructs' predictive strengths on PA intention and behavior among adolescents.

MethodA total of 226 seventh- to ninth-grade adolescents (109 boys, M _age = 13.4 years) completed a 2-week PMT-based motivational intervention by reading a leaflet containing factual information about overweight/obesity and the effects of PA on preventing the health threat. Adolescents' PMT constructs and PA intention were measured shortly after the intervention. Their self-reported PA behaviors were measured 2 weeks later.

Analysis/ResultsHierarchical regression revealed the entire PMT model accounted for 19% of variance in PA behavior: intention, F(1, 224) = 10.93, R ²  = .05, p <  .01; PMT constructs, F(5, 219) = 4.82, R ²  = .14, p <  .01. Specifically, intention was a significant predictor of PA in Block 1 (β = .30, p <  .01). Assessment of PMT constructs in Block 2 revealed perceived vulnerability (β = − .25, p <  .01) and response costs (β = − .29, p <  .05) were significant predictors of PA behaviors. Additionally, PMT variables explained 39% of variance in intention, F(5, 220) = 27.85, p <  .01. Self-efficacy (β = .40, p <  .01), response efficacy (β = .17, p <  .05), and response costs (β = − .47, p <  .01) emerged as significant predictors of PA intention.

ConclusionsThe findings provide evidence for the utility of using PMT as a PA promotion approach among adolescents. PA interventions should concentrate on providing positive coping information to raise children's PA self-efficacy and their beliefs about PA benefits, as well as reducing cost perception of PA.

Preservice Elementary School Educators' Healthy Body Mass Index and Physical Activity

Jungyun Hwang, University of Texas–Austin; and Jason M. Schafer, Darla M. Castelli,F and Xiaofen Keating,F The University of Texas–Austin

([email protected])

Background/PurposeElementary teachers in the state where this study was conducted are required by law to provide 135 min of physical activity for their K–6 students. It has been suggested that teachers who model physical activity are more likely to have physically active students (Morgan, Beighle, & Pangrazi, 2007). Body mass index (BMI) has moderate, negative associations with physical activity participation. Thus, the purpose of this study was to identify the personal characteristics that were correlates of BMI in preservice elementary education teachers.

MethodAs part of required coursework, 233 preservice teachers (9.4% men; 51% White, 34% Hispanic, 9% Asian, 6% Other) wore a FITstep pedometer or Actigraph GT3X accelerometer for 14 days during the semester and completed a valid survey regarding their attitudes toward physical activity.

Analysis/ResultsLogistic regression equation was run using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Version 19.0. Controlling for age and gender, preservice teachers with higher daily step counts (p <  .05), higher caloric expenditure (p <  .04) and positive attitudes (p <  .001) toward physical activity had a greater likelihood of having a healthy BMI (R ² = .18). Race (p = .08) and year in school (p = .082) were not significant contributors.

ConclusionsCoursework for preservice elementary school teachers should provide instruction on the health benefits of physical activity, introduce the energy balance equation, and foster positive attitudes related to physical activity. These findings are consistent with previous research (Webster, Monsma, & Erwin, 2010).

Overweight or Obese Weight Perception on Weight-Control Behaviors in Adolescents

Saori Ishikawa, Amanda R. Cole, Joel D. Reece, and Norman L. Weatherby, Middle Tennessee State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAdolescents having a weight perception of overweight/obese may utilize various weight-control behaviors (WCBs) in an effort to lose or maintain weight. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between weight perception and WCBs.

MethodThis study analyzed data from the 2010 National Youth Physical Activity and Nutrition Study of high school students. WCBs were classified as normal (i.e., exercise, eating less) and extreme (i.e., fasting, diet pills, purging, and smoking). Multinomial logistic regression was employed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences with a sample of 9,133 adolescents (50.4% boys) to determine if those with a weight perception of overweight/obese were more likely to engage in extreme WCBs than were normal weight-perception adolescents. Control variables included age, sex, race, body mass index, physical activity, and sedentary behaviors.

Analysis/ResultsAnalysis showed that 31.6% of adolescents had overweight/obese weight perception (CI [29.6, 33.6]). These students were more likely to report using normal WCBs (OR = 1.23, CI [0.96, 1.73], p <  .001) or extreme WCBs (OR = 1.06, CI [0.87, 1.36], p <  .001) than were students with normal weight perception. Girls were more likely to use normal WCBs (OR = 1.35, p <  .001) and extreme WCBs (OR = 1.40, p <  .001) than were boys. The model explained 19.1% of the variance in WCBs and correctly classified 58.3% of adolescents' behaviors.

ConclusionsFurther research is needed to identify additional factors of WCBs. Although the model did not meet the 70% standard for classification, overweight/obese weight perception certainly has an effect on WCBs. Interventions addressing adolescents should take weight perception into account, especially for girls.

The Choking Game: Knowledge and Awareness Among College Students

Rosanne S. Keathley, Sam Houston State University; and Judy R. Sandlin, Texas A&M University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe object of the choking game is to stop blood flow to the brain in an attempt to get a “high” or “floaty” sensation. Since 2005, more than 591 individuals have died in the United States from playing this game. However, one recent study found that only 33% of American doctors had heard of the choking game and 2% had discussed it with patients. The purpose of this study was to examine the awareness and knowledge about the choking game among college students.

MethodParticipants (n = 627) responded to the 32-item Knowledge of Risks Associated With the Choking Game Survey. The survey contains 23 true/false questions, 4 questions related to awareness of the game, and 5 demographic questions. Content questions were graded to render an overall knowledge score.

Analysis/ResultsInterestingly, 60% of the participants had heard of the choking game. Of those, 26% indicated that they had been asked or pressured to participate in the game. Only 4% had discussed the game with their health care provider and 11% had received education materials about the game. “School” was the most commonly cited source of education material (16%). A significant difference was found in knowledge between those who had heard of the game (M = 17.04, SD = 2.78) and those who had not (M = 15.88, SD = 3.28), F(1, 622) = 22.36, p = .000. Additionally, females scored significantly higher (M = 17.00, SD = 2.62) when compared with males (M = 16.22, SD = 3.36), F(1, 620) = 10.33, p = .001.

ConclusionsEfforts should be directed toward educating not only high school and college students, but also health care providers about the dangers of the choking game.

Co-Occurring Health-Related Behaviors in a College Student Sample

Cathy A. Kennedy and Deb Morris, Colorado State University

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Background/PurposeThere is limited research on strategies for changing multiple health behaviors. The identification of the co-occurrence of risk and protective health behaviors provides insight into covariation. The purpose of this study was to identify students who practice risk and protective behaviors for fruit and vegetable consumption, tobacco use (SC), marijuana use (SM), physical activity, and alcohol consumption (AC).

MethodThe National College Health Assessment was administered to 1,025 students enrolled in a university-wide required wellness class, yielding 928 usable surveys.

Analysis/ResultsMultiple 2 × 2 and 4 × 2 chi-squared tests were used for each combination of health risk behaviors and sociodemographic characteristics. Phi statistical test was the criteria used for determining each of the pairs of risk and protective co-occurring behaviors. Cluster analysis, ordinal regression, and multinomial regression were also utilized. Results showed that gender, year in school, and race can predict the students who practice protective paired behaviors for tobacco use and alcohol consumption (SC & AC /2 = 11.81, df = 3, N = 842, p <  .01). When examining each predictor variable independently, gender helped estimate the odds of students practicing pairs of protective behaviors for smoking and alcohol use (p = .00) by 37% and helped estimate the odds of students practicing pairs of risk behaviors: 58% for risk SC & AC (p = .01), 58% for AC & SM (p = .01), and 74% for SC & SM (p = .02).

ConclusionsThis study helps improve the understanding of how health behaviors co-occur in college students and provide alternative approaches to traditional intervention designs.

Health and Diet Behavior of Korean Girls in Secondary Schools

Dae-Kyung Kim, Korea National Sport University; Soojin Yoo, University of Texas - Pan American; and Jin-Sung Jung, Daejeon University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThis study aimed to find out the relationship between health behaviors and body mass index (BMI) among middle and high school girls.

MethodThe Fifth Korean Youth Risk Behavior Web-Based Survey was completed by 75,066 boys and girls from middle and high school in 2009. Of those, 34,247 girls' surveys were used in this study.

Analysis/ResultsAnalysis of frequency and cross tabs, using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Version 16.0), indicated that there was a statistically significant difference in the cases of sociodemographic variables (socioeconomic status, father's educational level, mother's educational level, and students' academic achievement) and dietary habit variables (p <  .05). Although there was a statistically significant difference in physical activity (PA) behavior variables (moderate PA, vigorous PA, muscle-strengthening activities, and 60 min of daily PA; p <  .05), there was no significant difference in muscle-strengthening activities in high school girl students. Also, there was a statistically significant difference in the crosstabs between the degree and cause of stress and BMI (p <  .05). In the cases of body-type perception and the degree of weight-control effort, there was a significant difference (p <  .05).

ConclusionsIn conclusion, it should be considered necessary to show continued interest and put efforts into training specialists in schools and parental education to help overweight and obese students to form good dietary habits and understand obesity prevention for themselves.

Social Support, Diet, and Exercise in Afterschool Physical Activity Clubs

Noel Kulik, Agata Zalewska, and Nathan A. McCaughtry,^F Wayne State University; Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University; and Kimberly Maljak, Laurel L. Whalen, Michele Kaseta, Jeffrey Martin,^F and Bo Shen,^F Wayne State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAfterschool physical activity clubs (PACs) can create physical activity (PA) opportunities for at-risk urban, low socioeconomic-status girls and nonathletes vulnerable to physical inactivity and weight gain. Social support (SS) has been associated with diet/PA; however, little is known about the associations in this population. This study used social learning theory to understand the role of supportive behaviors.

MethodPACs targeted inactive youth with 1-hr sessions of healthy-eating “chalk talks” and noncompetitive exercise. During 7 months, PACs in six inner-city high schools averaged 44 sessions per club. Participants (N = 222; 76% girls) were 15.4 years old and 87% African American. The Sallis SS Scales for Healthy Eating/Exercise assessed SS; the Eating Behavior Scale measured diet, and the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents measured PA. Data were collected presession and postsession (Time 1 [T1]/Time 2 [T2]).

Analysis/ResultsFifty-eight percent of students were underweight/normal weight, while 42% were overweight/obese at T1. From T1 to T2, participants decreased in weight percentile (t = 2.71, df = 135, p = .008), while PA, diet, and perceptions of SS did not significantly change. SS was associated with T2 fruit intake and higher PA. Session attendance was associated with absolute weight loss (r = − .198, p = .021) and T2 fruit intake (r = .160, p = .048), but not with PA (r = .040, p = .620).

ConclusionsPACs did not increase SS, but existing SS impacted diet and PA. Students who attended more sessions lost weight and increased fruit intake, suggesting PACs may be successful in excessive weight prevention in high-risk populations. Future studies should focus interventions on SS and explore the optimal type/amount of SS and its effect on PA.

Weight Status and Diet/Physical Activity Self-Perception in Afterschool Physical Activity Clubs

Noel Kulik, Agata Zalewska, and Nathan A. McCaughtry,^F Wayne State University; Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University; and Kimberly Maljak, Laurel L. Whalen, Michele Kaseta, Jeffrey Martin,^F and Bo Shen,^F Wayne State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAfterschool physical activity clubs (PACs) can create opportunities for students at risk for being physically inactive, especially urban, low socioeconomic-status girls and nonathletes vulnerable to weight gain. Understanding weight perceptions and diet/physical activity (PA) self-efficacy may provide an avenue in which to intervene. This study used social learning theory to understand the role of self-efficacy in diet/PA behaviors.

MethodPACs targeted inactive youth with 1-hr sessions of healthy-eating “chalk talks” and noncompetitive exercise. During 7 months, PACs in six inner-city high schools averaged 44 sessions per club. Participants (N = 222; 76% girls) were 15.4 years old and 87% African American. Preprogram questionnaires included: the Self-Efficacy for PA Scale, the Eating Self-Efficacy Scale, and questions on school, family, and media emphasis on diet/PA.

Analysis/ResultsFifty-eight percent of students were underweight/normal weight, while 42% were overweight/obese at Time 1. Weight groups did not differ by perception of family, school, and media emphasis on PA and obesity/overweight, nor did groups differ if they were trying to lose/stay the same weight. Surprisingly, normal-weight students reported more difficulty eating healthy after arguments (p = .013) or when frustrated (p = .005) and had higher levels of self-dissatisfaction. There were no differences in PA self-efficacy between groups.

ConclusionsFindings could suggest normal-weight students may be more self-aware of emotional responses and subsequent food intake, even though they report having difficulty making healthy choices in challenging situations. Future studies should examine these relationships more closely to understand how best to support all students in improving diet and exercise behaviors.

Increasing Nutrition-Related Knowledge: Intervention Effect on High School Female Athletes

Wenhao Liu,^F Slippery Rock University; Susan M. Pilarski, Beaver Falls Area High School; and Joanne M. Leight and Marybeth Miller, Slippery Rock University

([email protected])

Background/PurposePublic school female athletes need more nutrition-related knowledge in relation to nonathlete female students to achieve desirable athletic performance. This study investigated the effect of an educational intervention on increasing nutrition-related knowledge among a group of high school female athletes.

MethodAn 8-week educational intervention was implemented for 16 high school female athletes (intervention group). The intervention session, lasting 25 min, was held three times a week immediately before afterschool training sessions and covered topics of nutrition, body image, and eating disorders. In addition to attending lectures and discussions, the intervention athletes also completed quizzes, “What I Learned” sheets, and task sheets in the intervention session. Another 16 female athletes from the same school district constituted a control group that did not receive any intervention. Both groups received a pretest (60 points possible) covering nutrition-related knowledge before the intervention began and received the same test again as a posttest after the intervention period.

Analysis/ResultsOne-way analysis of covariance was used to compare the posttest scores between the two groups. The results indicated significant differences in adjusted means in the posttest scores in favor of the intervention group while controlling for the pretest scores. Specifically, the intervention group obtained 50.98 ± 6.52 points (adjusted means) in the posttest, whereas the control group scored 33.90 ± 2.03 points, with F(1, 29) = 118.10, p <  .001, and η² = .80.

ConclusionsThe extra educational program is effective in increasing nutrition-related knowledge among high school female athletes.

Avenues to Curb Hookah Tobacco Smoking Among College Students

Mary Martinasek, Allison Calvanese, Emily Bauman, and Cassandra Parks, University of Tampa

([email protected])

Background/PurposeHookah smoking is a communal form of social smoking that has grown in popularity among college students. Hookah smoking as compared with cigarette smoking has 40 times more tar, 2 times more nicotine, and 10 times more carbon monoxide.

MethodMixed-method research was conducted to assess attitudes, beliefs, and behavioral practices of University of Tampa (UT) students regarding hookah smoking. A survey was then completed by 746 students to understand influencers of hookah smoking and attitudes, as well as to identify descriptive characteristics of hookah smokers on campus.

Analysis/ResultsAn online survey was completed by 746 students. Of these, 63% have tried hookah smoking and 36% of those who have tried hookah smoking are current (past 30 days) hookah smokers. Twenty-two percent of the students identified as current cigarette smokers. The majority of reported ever-smokers were female, Caucasian, and 18 to 20 years of age. The majority of students first smoked with a friend and had a positive attitude toward hookah smoking due to the social connectedness, fun, and “buzz” they receive from smoking. Friends and parents are greater influencers as compared with siblings, Greek life participation, and hookah bar owners.

ConclusionsThe prevalence of hookah smoking among UT students is higher than any previous estimate in a college population. There is a need to develop an audience-centric behavior change campaign focusing on student influencers and factors positioned appropriately through social marketing strategies.

Attitudes of Thai and Mexican High School Students Toward Obese Individuals

Larry K. Olsen^F, A. T. Still University; Gabriela Pena De La Cruz, National Autonomous University of Mexico; Adriana Pena De La Cruz, N/A; Anchalee Duvall and Nattaya Phiromsid, Western University; and Mark J. Kittleson,^F New Mexico State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeObesity is a major worldwide problem. The purpose was to compare attitudes of high school students toward obese individuals in two different countries, Thailand and Mexico.

MethodA 20-item, 6-point Likert instrument (Allison, Basile, & Uker, 1991) was translated into Spanish and Thai and was pilot-tested to ensure cultural compatibility. The anonymous survey was distributed to 775 high school students in Mexico City and Karnchanaburi, Thailand. All data were collected by the research team so questions about any of the items could be explained. Students responded to all items directly on the instrument. Data were manually entered into an Excel spreadsheet for analysis. The calculated body mass index, sex, and self-reported perception of personal weight status were used as dependent variables. Total attitude scores and individual attitude items were used as independent variables.

Analysis/ResultsCronbach's alpha was .67 for Mexican students and .71 for Thai students. Thai students as a group and by sex attained significantly higher total attitude scores (more positive toward obese individuals) than did the Mexican students. No significant differences in total attitude scores between male and female Mexican participants were detected. Thai girls had significantly more favorable attitude scores than Thai men, results that were not present in the Mexican student sample.

ConclusionsThis study represents a seminal effort to compare the attitudes of high school students toward obese individuals. The results of the study can be used to create greater social awareness programs and respect for all individuals. Similar studies should be conducted in other nations as well.

Effects of Health Promotion Program on Older Women's Healthy Lifestyles

Eun-Ju Park, Beakseok University; Soojin Yoo, University of Texas – Pan American; Dae-Kyung Kim, Korea National Sport University; and Jung-il Oh, University of Texas – Pan American

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe purpose of this study was to improve daily activities, increase participation rate, and help to provide related organizations with useful information on creation of a specific program for elderly women.

MethodA 12-week health promotion program was conducted for 28 volunteers (average age = 70.1 years) in Cheon-An, South Korea. Pretests and posttests were conducted using questionnaires and fitness tests. The manual books of the Health Promotion Institute of the U.S. National Council on Aging were modified and applied for a health promotion program.

Analysis/ResultsAnalysis of frequency and crosstabs, using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Version 11.0), investigated the sociodemographic, health, and health-type characteristics of study subjects. Also, a paired t test was conducted to evaluate the differences in the subvariables of their health and lifestyles after a 12-week program. The results showed significant changes in physical strength (grip strength, p <  .001; flexibility, p <  .01; and balance, p <  .05) and waist-to-hip ratio (p <  .001). There were significant improvements in overall daily activities including wearing clothes (p <  .05), eating meals (p <  .05), and using public transportation (p <  .01) in the items of daily life. In motor ability, there were significant improvements in a variety of physical activities (carrying heavy things, dodging, standing on one foot, staying in rhythm, and going up/down the stairs). Also, there were statistically significant changes in participants' viewpoints on the meaning of life, recognition of eating habits, and sociopsychological relationships, as well as medical claims.

ConclusionsIn conclusion, health professionals should be assigned to the health centers for the elderly to provide efficient exercise methods. Also, it is necessary to provide legal and institutional alternatives in public for easy access.

College Physical Activity Class Participation and Modifiable Health Risk Factors

Kimberly Reich, High Point University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeSome colleges and universities require participation in physical activity (PA) classes. The rationale, in part, is to encourage development of healthy lifestyle behaviors; however, determinants of the degree of related lifestyle modification are not well understood. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to study the effects of course activity intensity level and degree progress on changes in obesity risk and leisure-time physical activity (LTPA).

MethodOne hundred thirty-eight female first-time PA course participants (aged 18–22 years old) volunteered during 1 academic year. Collegiate athletes were excluded. At the beginning and end of each course, height, weight, and degree progress were collected; and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to record intensity and duration of LTPA. Body mass index (BMI) and Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET)-minutes per week were calculated, and standardized MET levels for each course activity were determined. Analyses of covariance were used to measure differences between groups, covarying for semester.

Analysis/ResultsThere was no effect of course activity intensity level or degree progress on changes in BMI following course participation. There was also no effect of course activity intensity level on changes in LTPA. However, there was a trend toward a significant interaction between LTPA and degree progress (p = .08) such that 2nd-year students increased mean vigorous PA compared with 3rd- and 4th-year students (by 884.08 MET-min/week, p = .03, and 872.22 MET-min/week, p = .02, respectively).

ConclusionsThe impact of PA course participation on increases in LTPA may be influenced by timing during the college career.

The Impact of an Educational Tobacco Intervention on College Students

Kelley E. Rhoads and Tina M. Penhollow, Florida Atlantic University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeCollege students comprise the youngest legal target for the tobacco industry (18 to 25 years old). The purpose of this study was to determine whether an educational tobacco intervention impacted college students' perceptions relative to tobacco and their general self-efficacy.

MethodThe control and intervention groups consisted of a convenience sample of students from 2000-level health courses. The pretest and posttest questionnaires were administered to both groups and included questions regarding demographics, previous tobacco education, tobacco use (cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, and hookah smoking), variables measuring the Health Belief Model (HBM; perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, cues to action, and self-efficacy), and general self-efficacy. Data analysis was performed using SAS programs and included confirmatory factor analysis, Cronbach's alpha, frequency counts, and two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Analysis/ResultsThree hundred and ten students completed both the pretest and posttest questionnaires for the control (N = 136) and intervention (N = 174) groups. To determine whether an educational tobacco intervention impacted students, two-way ANOVAs were conducted by group and time. The results for the HBM, as a set, were statistically significant for time, F(1, 641) = 9.0, p <  .01. Individual HBM constructs also indicated significant differences: perceived susceptibility, F(1, 645) = 4.24, p <  .05; perceived severity, F(1, 645) = 22.45, p <  .001; perceived benefits, F(1, 644) = 4.06, p <  .05; and cues to action, F(1, 645) = 7.60, p <  .01. The results for general self-efficacy were significant between groups, F(1, 632) = 4.41, p <  .05.

ConclusionsResults suggest college students' perceptions, as measured by HBM variables, may be influenced by continued tobacco education. Individuals working in tobacco prevention should take these results into consideration when designing prevention or cessation programs.

Self-Reports of Dietary Behaviors, Physical Activity, and Screen Time

Jenifer E. Thorn, Nailya DeLellis, Judy Chandler, and Korey Boyd, Central Michigan University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeTo determine what children and their parents' perceptions are regarding dietary behaviors, physical activity, and screen time relating to childhood obesity.

MethodThis quantitative study sampled 8- to 10-year-olds and their parents/guardians to better understand dietary behaviors, amount of physical activity, and screen time as major contributors to childhood obesity. The parent/guardian–child pairs completed a modified version of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), which specifically asked parents about their child's health behaviors. A similar version of the YRBS was also given to their children to answer questions regarding their personal health behaviors. A dependent t test was performed to assess the difference in parent–child responses. An independent t test was performed to assess the gender and age difference in nutritional habits, as well as in amount of screen time and physical activity among children.

Analysis/ResultsOut of 88 parent–child dyads, there was no single dyad that provided the same answers to all the questions. There is a difference between children's and parents' perception of average food consumption, amount of screen time, and physical activity. Fourth graders reported higher number of physical activity days, and girls have slightly different food and screen time responses compared with boys.

ConclusionsFindings indicate a continued need for information about parent and child perceptions of diet behaviors and physical activity. The discrepancies found between parents and their children concerning food choices, juice and soft drinks, screen time, and physical activity are all troubling, particularly in a community where obesity risk is high.

Competency-Based Professional Development Training Impact on Physical Activity Promotion

R. Glenn Weaver, Falon Tilley, Rahma Ajja, Rohan Shah, Daria Winnicka, and Morgan Hughey, University of South Carolina; Collin A. Webster,^F University of Wollongong; Aaron Beighle, University of Kentucky; and Russell R. Pate,^F Ruth Saunders, and Michael W. Beets,^F University of South Carolina

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAfterschool program (ASP) policies call upon staff to exhibit behaviors/management strategies linked to children's physical activity (PA). Research indicates staff members do not display these behaviors/management strategies. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of a competency-based professional development training utilizing the 5 Ms (mission, motivate, manage, monitor, maximize) and LET-US-Play (lines; elimination; team size; uninvolved staff/children and space, equipment, rules) conceptual frameworks.

MethodFour large-scale ASPs serving about 500 children participated in a pilot intervention using a quasi-experimental pre–post design. Observation of staff behaviors/management strategies was collected at baseline (Fall 2011) and postintervention (Spring 2012) via the System for Observing Staff Promotion of Activity and Nutrition (SOSPAN), a newly established reliable and valid direct-observation instrument. Four trainings were delivered at each site during January 2012 through April 2012. Changes in staff promotion behaviors/management strategies over time were examined using random-intercept regression models.

Analysis/ResultsA total of 4,525 SOSPAN scans were completed across baseline postintervention. At baseline, staff promotion behaviors/management strategies were observed 2.8% to 27.8& of the time. Postintervention, 9 of the 10 staff promotion behaviors/management strategies showed statistically significant changes ranging from − 7.8% to 19.8%. All changes were in the desired direction (i.e., decreased PA discouragement, increased staff engagement in PA with children).

ConclusionsThe 5 Ms and LET-US-Play training are an effective approach for increasing staff behaviors/management strategies linked to child PA. This training can serve as a foundation for interventions to assist ASPs' achievement of PA policies.

Leisure and Recreation

Relationships Between Recreational Pursuits and Motor Skills in Young Children

Jeff R. Crane, Amy Brown, Buffy-Lynne Williams, Rick I. Bell, Patti-Jean Naylor, and Viviene A. Temple, University of Victoria

([email protected])

Background/PurposeDevelopmental theorists suggest that physical activity during early childhood promotes fundamental motor skill (FMS) proficiency and that differences in FMS proficiency are largely related to children's experiences. This study examined associations between participation in different types of recreation/leisure and FMS proficiency of young children. We hypothesized that there would be positive associations between FMS proficiency and participation in organized sport and active physical recreation, but not for other types of recreation/leisure.

MethodParticipants (n = 74) were kindergarten children (M _age = 5 years, 11 months; 57% boys). Parents completed the Diversity dimension of the Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment Survey and recorded frequency of participation in recreation/leisure in nine domains. Locomotor and object-control skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 during scheduled school physical education.

Analysis/ResultsMean domain-specific participation scores/maximum possible scores were: hobbies and crafts, 4.5/5; social activities, 5.1/6; quiet recreation, 2.9/4; organized sports, 2.2/6; other skill-based activities, 1.1/6; clubs and organizations, 0.6/3; entertainment and education, 5.6/7; active physical recreation, 6.6/11; and jobs and chores, 3.9/7. Mean raw locomotor and object skill scores were 26.9 (SD = 6.7) and 23.2 (SD = 7.2), respectively. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients revealed one significant relationship: Locomotor skills were correlated with participation in active physical recreation (r = .44, p <  .001).

ConclusionsLocomotor skill proficiency was positively associated with participation in active physical recreation, but not in organized sport, for which participation was relatively low. The lack of association between object-control skills and any type of recreation/leisure may reflect limited opportunities to develop and utilize these skills at this young age.

Apply Value Theory to Examine Values Associated With Spectator Sports

Li-Shiue Gau, Asia University; and Jong-Chae Kim, Fairleigh Dickinson University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeValue theory defines personal values as conceived desirable goals in accordance with the requirements of societal demands. Although values are inhered in the perception of a cognizing subject, values can be delivered in relation to an object such as spectator sports. This study applied value theories to develop a scale of spectator sport values.

MethodAccording to value theories and prior research, a nine-dimensional scale of spectator sport values were developed and included conformity, power, enjoyment, achievement, sociability, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, and benevolence, each with three or four items. Participants were asked to rate the extent of each value respondents can acquire through watching the National Basketball Association, Major League Baseball, or Chinese Professional Baseball League (using a 5-point scale ranging from 1 [disagree] to 5 [strongly agree]). The questionnaire was distributed to full-time students from middle schools, senior-high schools, and a college in Taiwan, and also to nonstudents. In total, 884 respondents were recruited with 669 students and 580 men.

Analysis/ResultsThe reliabilities of the nine dimensions were between .73 and .88, exceeding the recommended level of .70. The values with the highest means were power (3.92), enjoyment (3.87), and conformity (3.83), whereas the value with the lowest mean was self-direction (3.61). The correlation coefficients among the nine dimensions were between .42 and .70. Confirmatory factor analyses showed root mean square error of approximation of .057, less than .07, comparative fit index of .924, greater than .90, and Parsimony Normed Fit Index of .723, greater than .60, indicating an acceptable model fit.

ConclusionsBased on value theories, the nine-dimensional scale of spectator sport values was developed and valid.

Formative Reflections of Recreation Science Students on Academic Service Learning

Anneliese E. Goslin, University of Pretoria; Darlene A. Kluka,^F Barry University; and Johannes G. U. Van Wyk and Engela Van der Klashorst, University of Pretoria

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAcademic service learning (ASL) can be used to meet societal challenges and social responsibility. South African higher education institutions have begun to include this strategy in coursework to address social imbalances. ASL provides the use of critical-thinking skills in building awareness of social issues through reflection. Reflection involves perceptions and represents connections between ASL and personal thoughts, feelings, self-discovery, and affinity for recreation science. This longitudinal study determined students' perceptions of credit-bearing ASL as documented by reflective journaling.

MethodParticipants were students enrolled in a 2nd-year undergraduate recreation science course required for a major in Human Movement Sciences in South Africa. Data were collected during a 3-year period from written reflection journals of 410 students and were analyzed using the constant comparative method appropriate for qualitative research to identify key themes. Reflective journals were kept during 40 h of contact with the community.

Analysis/ResultsFive themes emerged: congruence with academic classroom learning; attitudes toward recreation science; personal development; cultural sensitivity; and appreciation for social and civic responsibility. A majority perceived that classroom learning developed a deeper understanding and application of core concepts. Observable attitude changes toward recreation science along with cross-cultural attitudes were noted. An increased sense of civic responsibility through recreation-related volunteering was initiated and driven by students outside their academic requirements.

ConclusionsASL added value to classroom learning and changed attitudes toward recreation science. Through reflective journaling, an increased sense of civic responsibility through recreation-related volunteering, critical-thinking strategies, and skills relating to social issues and responsibilities were also observed.

The Relationship Between Unsupervised Leisure and Substance Use Among Skateboarders

Judith A. Johns, State University of New York – Cortland

([email protected])

Background/PurposeTo date, little research has examined the developmental outcomes associated with youth participation in alternative sports. The individual-level routine activity theory (Osgood et al., 1996) posits that activities that combine (a) socializing with peers, (b) freedom from adult supervision, and (c) a lack of structure provide an environment uniquely conducive for problem behavior including substance use. The unstructured, participant-initiated sport of skateboarding typifies such an activity context. The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between skateboarding and substance use among a cohort of adolescent male skateboarders residing in two metropolitan regions in the Eastern United States.

MethodFollowing a location-based intercept protocol, a purposive sample of 124 male skateboarders in Grades 9 through 12 was recruited from 14 skate parks. Data were collected using a self-administered, 45-item instrument. Objective measures of skateboarding involvement included time spent skating, primary skating location, and skating with peers. Subjective measures assessed leisure identity and enduring involvement in skateboarding. Current alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use data were collected and analyzed as dichotomous variables (used/has not used).

Analysis/ResultsUsing chi-square tests, no significant relationship was found to exist between any of the five measures of skateboarding involvement and current alcohol, tobacco, or marijuana use. Furthermore, generalized linear modeling revealed that spending more or less time skating did not interact with the relationship between skateboarding involvement and substance use.

ConclusionsThese findings do not support the supposition that involvement in skateboarding was associated with substance use, as the theoretical and evidentiary literature suggests.

Sport Event Volunteerism: What Student Volunteers Learn

Chen Ni, Jinmoo Heo, and Carina King, Indiana University – Indianapolis; and Youngshin Won, Yonsei University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe U.S. Department of Labor (2012) reported that 62.7 million people participated in volunteerism at least once a week. This spirit of civic engagement is also prevalent in higher education. Among the myriad of sporting events for older adults, the Senior Games have been recognized as one event that promotes a healthy lifestyle (National Senior Games Association, 2012). If intergenerational contact takes place between the senior athletes and younger-generation volunteers who facilitate the event, it is expected that senior athletes may demonstrate the benefits of keeping active and healthy. This study explored the learning outcomes of undergraduate students who volunteered at the Senior Games.

MethodContent analysis was conducted from reflective essays from 142 students who enrolled in a sporting event management class during the summers of 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011. Upon completion of the volunteering experience at the Senior Games, students submitted a brief reflective essay. In framing the essays, students were encouraged to reflect on what they learned and what they thought about the Senior Games.

Analysis/ResultsTwo major themes that identified the learning outcomes of participating in intergenerational service learning were: (a) developing intergenerational relationships, and (b) role-modeling and personal development.

ConclusionsThis study highlighted that service-learning opportunities with older adults in the sport setting are a promising practice for students. Students collaborated with a local professional agency, and played an important role in facilitating the Senior Olympic Games. Students had a deeper understanding of the subject matter, enhanced their problem analysis abilities, and applied class materials to real problems.

Self-Efficacy as a Predictor of Ultramarathon Running Performance

Katherine M. Polasek and John T. Foley,^F State University of New York - Cortland

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe purpose of this study was to determine if self-efficacy measures predicted race completion for 246 ultramarathoners competing in a 100-mile trail run. A second purpose was to identify if the results were differentially affected by gender.

MethodTwo hundred and forty-six ultramarathoners (196 men and 50 women) competing in the Western States 100-mile trail run completed a questionnaire designed by the investigators to assess outcome self-efficacy, performance self-efficacy, and barrier self-efficacy.

Analysis/ResultsSeparate 2 × 2 analyses of variance were computed for each of the three self-efficacy measures. The results revealed that all three self-efficacy measures differentiated finishers from nonfinishers. There were no differences found between men and women, and there were no interaction effects between race completion and gender. A 0–1 logistical regression determined three variables predicted race completion: performance self-efficacy, barrier self-efficacy, and the number of ultramarathon races completed.

ConclusionsOverall, these results demonstrate the utility of self-efficacy measures in predicting ultramarathon race completion. While both outcome and performance self-efficacy measures have been found to be effective in predicting sport competition behavior, no previous studies were found that utilized a barrier self-efficacy measure. The results indicate that barrier self-efficacy has utility in predicting race completion in ultramarathon races.

Getting the Most Physical Activity From an Afterschool Program

Joel D. Reece, Saori Ishikawa, and Ryan T. Conners, Middle Tennessee State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeHigh-risk sedentary time for youth on school days occurs between 3 p.m. and 6 p.m. Approximately 92% of this time is spent in sedentary behavior or light activity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of a 12-week government afterschool program, Body and Mind (BAM), on physical activity (PA) and to determine what location and type of PA provided the greatest means for PA.

MethodThe BAM program included third- through sixth-grade students (N = 35) and occurred once a week (3 p.m.–5 p.m.). Pedometers were used to measure PA. The location of PA was categorized as indoor or outdoor, while type of PA was categorized as individual (e.g., tag-like or free-play) or team (e.g., soccer) activities. Average step counts for indoor, outdoor, individual, and team activities were calculated for each participant. Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate the average amount of PA for each BAM session and paired-samples t tests were employed to compare step counts during indoor versus outdoor and individual versus team activities.

Analysis/ResultsThe average step count for each BAM session was 2,108 (SD = 520). Analysis revealed outdoor activities (2,101 ± 881) had greater step counts than did indoor activities (1,607 ± 505), t(31) = 2.66, p = .012, and individual activities (2,175 ± 496) had greater step counts than did team activities (1,995 ± 485), t(31) = 2.55, p = .016.

ConclusionsThe BAM afterschool program led to more than 2,100 steps per session, during which time youth may not otherwise have been engaged in PA. When trying to maximize PA, outdoor areas should be considered and students should be encouraged to engage in individual activities.

Use of Adventure-Based Programs to Aid in Retention

Carol A. Smith, Elon University; and Nestor W. Sherman,^F Texas A&M University – Kingsville

([email protected])

Background/PurposeRetention of students is a crucial issue for institutions of higher education that cuts across all campuses. The purpose of this study was to investigate if an adventure-based transition program would enhance the retention rate from the 1st year to the 2nd year for undergraduate students.

MethodThe program consists of a 5-day adventure-based experience (camping, low ropes course, hiking, rock climbing, and a white water rafting trip). Students from 6 years of the summer program were tracked to determine their persistence rate into their sophomore year. There were a total of 336 students in the adventure program, and 7,280 students served as controls. Data were run via chi-square analysis. The following were calculated and assessed to find a comparison between retention rates in the adventure program participants and all other 1st-year to 2nd-year students at the targeted institution.

Analysis/ResultsThe Pearson chi-square analysis revealed a significant, X ²(1) = 5.951, p = .015, difference between observed and expected frequencies for sophomore retention for the adventure-based learning group. Of the 336 students in that program, there was an expected sophomore retention frequency of 300 students, whereas actually 314 were retained. Within the control group, 6,499 students were retained; however, it was expected through the analysis that 6,512 would be retained.

ConclusionsThe participation in the adventure education program significantly influenced the retention rate from the 1st to the 2nd year. It is recommended that continued investigation into this program be conducted and a more longitudinal comparison be considered.

Adventuring Together: Exploring Lived-Positive Emotionality in the Wilderness

Paul T. Stuhr and Esther M. Ortiz-Stuhr, California State University – San Marcos; and Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeOutdoor education allows students to engage in physical activities and process learning tasks within a novel, open environment unlike any classroom (Lippin, 2000). Past outdoor education/wilderness research has indicated two primary participant outcomes: the development of self-concept and of social skills (Moore & Russell, 2002). The purpose of this study was to explore college students' perceptions regarding lived-positive emotionality (LPE) and interpersonal relationships after taking part in an adventure-based learning (ABL) experience in a wilderness setting.

MethodFifteen 1st-year college students took part in a 3-day wilderness trip to Sequoia National Park. On the trip, the students were exposed to ABL (e.g., teambuilding, hiking, camping, and reflection). The institutional review board-approved qualitative study used the Sunday Afternoon Drive debrief model (Sutherland, 2011) to frame the adventure process and an ABL outcomes model (Stuhr et al., 2012) to theoretically frame the findings. Data from the participants were collected through observations, interviews, and journals. Open and axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) and the constant comparison method (Strauss & Corbin 1984) guided data analysis. Trustworthiness was established through prolonged engagement, member checking, peer debriefing, and negative case analysis.

Analysis/ResultsThe data aligned with the categories of the ABL outcomes model (Stuhr et al., 2012). LPE was expressed as an outcome, and the wilderness experience was seen as an important way to promote interpersonal connections among the students.

ConclusionsThe Sunday Afternoon Drive debrief model can guide adventure activities within a wilderness setting, and LPE can be experienced and expressed within a short duration of time.

Measurement

Mobile Computer App and Waist-Mounted Pedometer Accuracy

Theresa Beezley, Tyler Beck, Seth Jones, Kirstin Jensen, Ryan Barbieri, and Philip W. Scruggs,^F University of Idaho

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAdvances in technology have produced many potential physical activity assessment improvements. The purpose of the research was to assess step-count measurement accuracy of mobile-computer pedometer applications compared to waist-mounted pedometers under controlled and pseudo-controlled conditions.

MethodThirty-three participants walked on a treadmill under controlled conditions at six different speeds (40–107 m/min), and they walked a 250-m outdoor path (pseudo-controlled). Participants wore Yamax SW200 and NL1000 waist-mounted pedometers, as well as Apple (iPod, Pedometer-Free) and Android (Razr, Pedometer by Levente Bagi) pedometers.

Analysis/ResultsAbsolute-value percent error (APE, clinically acceptable ≤  10%) scores were computed for each pedometer, with observed steps as the criterion. APE scores were analyzed using repeated-measures analyses of variance (Bonferroni post-hoc analysis) for controlled (Speed × Pedometer) and pseudo-controlled (pedometer) conditions. Android pedometer APE scores were significantly (p ≤ .023) different from all pedometers at each speed. At speeds from 67 m/min to 107 m/min, the SW200, NL1000, and Apple pedometers did not statistically differ (p ≥ .115). APE ≤ 10% was found for the SW200, NL1000, and Apple pedometers at the speeds of 67 m/min to 107 m/min, 67 m/min to 107 m/min, and 54 m/min to 107 m/min, respectively. The Android pedometer APE scores were ≥  10% for all speeds. In the pseudo-controlled condition, Apple, SW200, and NL1000 pedometer APE scores did not significantly differ (p ≥ .136) and APE scores were ≤ 10%.

ConclusionsThe Apple pedometer application was comparable to waist-mounted pedometer accuracy in controlled and pseudo-controlled conditions.

Skinfold Thickness and Handheld Bioelectric Impedance Analysis Agreement in Body Fat Estimates

Ryan D. Burns and James C. Hannon,^F Brett M. Allen, J. E. Cosgriff, and Timothy A. Brusseau, The University of Utah

([email protected])

Background/PurposeGiven the inherent limitations of body mass index (BMI), low-cost alternatives for assessing body composition are needed to accurately and efficiently estimate adiposity in school-aged children. The purpose of this study was to compare the agreement in percent body fat (%BF) estimates between the handheld Omron HBF-301 BIA device (BIA) and the two-site skinfold thickness assessment (SKF) in middle school students.

MethodBody composition was assessed on 134 students (69 girls, 65 boys) enrolled in the sixth through eighth grades utilizing SKF and BIA on the same testing day. SKF consisted of averaging three skinfold measurements at two sites (tricep, calf) with use of the Slaughter et al. (1988) formula to estimate %BF. BIA required entering physical characteristics into the analyzer and, with shoes off, having the students hold the device with arms extended until a %BF reading was displayed.

Analysis/ResultsBland-Altman plots yielded 95% limits of agreement of − 11.93 to 13.26 for Grade 6, − 10.03 to 7.89 for Grade 7, and − 10.82 to 6.08 for Grade 8. A correlation coefficient between %BF differences (BIA – SKF) and mean %BF was r = − .3381 (p < .05) for Grade 8. Classifying the students into obese/nonobese categories using critical %BF gender-specific obesity cutoffs, a kappa coefficient of .39 (p < .001) and proportion of agreement of .88 was found between methods.

ConclusionsThe results suggest that although BIA and SKF classified youth into obese/nonobese categories similarly, there were large differences in %BF estimation between the two methods with the BIA method tending to have more pronounced underestimation of %BF compared with SKF in older children with higher %BF.

Rasch Analysis to Assess Appropriateness of the NHANES Depression Screener

Yong Gao,^F Boise State University; Haichun Sun,^F University of South Florida; and Lynda Ransdell,^F Boise State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) Depression Screener (i.e., the Patient Health Questionnaire–9 [PHQ–9]) is widely used. Although measurement properties of the PHQ–9 are well established among patient populations, its performance has not been evaluated in general populations. In addition, items on the PHQ–9 have not been investigated using differential item functioning (DIF). This study used Rasch analysis to evaluate the PHQ–9 for (a) dimensionality and item fit, and (b) DIF attributes relative to gender and race/ethnicity in a large U.S. sample.

MethodDemographic information and PHQ–9 responses were obtained from the 2009–2010 NHANES. An unweighted sample of 3,175 male and 3,352 female adult respondents (28.9% Latino [LAT], 47.2% Non-Hispanic White [NHW], and 18.3% Non-Hispanic Black [NHB]) was included. Rasch analysis assessed the dimensionality, model fit, and DIF due to respondent's gender and race/ethnicity. DIF was also evaluated using a generalized Mantel-Haenszel approach.

Analysis/ResultsAll items on the PHQ–9 demonstrated good item fit and measured a single construct, with high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = .84). Item difficulty ranged from − 1.07 logits to 1.36 logits. Both Rasch analysis and the generalized Mantel-Haenszel approach identified three DIF items based on gender, five DIF items when comparing LAT and NHW, and three DIF items when comparing NHW and NHB. However, the magnitudes of DIF were negligible (DIF size < 0.42 logits).

ConclusionsRasch and the generalized Mantel-Haenszel methods provide powerful tools for DIF detection. The PHQ–9 is an effective tool for assessing intensity and symptoms of depression among diverse U.S. populations.

Examining Measurement Properties of a Novel Fall-Risk Assessment Tool

Dan Gragert, Terry-Ann Gibson, Yong Gao,^F and Lynda Ransdell,^F Boise State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeOlder-adult fall-risk assessments often fail to address environmental factors associated with falls during activities of daily living. A functional obstacle course, composed of common fall-risk obstacles, has the potential to address these factors. The purpose of this study was to determine the construct validity and reliability of the Modified Functional Obstacle Course (MFOC) and to examine the instrument's intraobstacle correlation and factor loading.

MethodParticipants (n = 63; M _age = 73.3 years, SD = 5.02) performed a single series of three randomized fall-risk assessments, including the Activity-Specific Balance Confidence Scale (ABC), Dynamic Gait Index (DGI), and the Tinetti Balance Test (TBT), as well as the new MFOC. Construct validity was determined by correlating MFOC performance to the ABC, DGI, and TBT scores. Cronbach's alpha was calculated as a measure of internal consistency for the MFOC. Thirty participants from the original sample were retested on the MFOC to determine test–retest reliability. A principal component analysis was conducted to examine intraobstacle factors.

Analysis/ResultsThe MFOC demonstrated moderate to high Pearson correlations of .76, .76, and .75, p < .05, with the ABC, DGI, and TBT, respectively. The MFOC also demonstrated high test–retest reliability, r(30) = .99, p < .05, with Cronbach's alpha = .99. Principal component analysis demonstrated five distinct intraobstacle factors within the MFOC (oculovestibular, self-efficacy, dynamic movement, surface tasks, and object manipulation), accounting for 78% of the variance.

ConclusionsThe MFOC is a valid fall-risk measure with high internal consistency and test–retest reliability.

How Many Missing Days Can Be Recovered? Children's Step-Count Data

Minsoo Kang^F and Youngdeok Kim, Middle Tennessee State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe effectiveness of an individual information-centered (IIC) approach for recovering missing step-count data has been well established. However, the question still remains as to how many days of replacement can be made. The purpose of this study was to examine the threshold of the number of missing days replaced for valid estimates of step-count data for children.

MethodA total of 333 developing children, aged 2 to 15 years old, had 7 consecutive days of complete step-count data using a StepWatch Activity Monitor. Missing data sets (1 day through 5 days missing) were created 10,000 times in which all missing values were replaced using the IIC approach. A 7-day average was calculated for each data set, including the complete data set. One-way repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to determine the differences between 1-day through 5-day missing data sets and the complete data set. Mean absolute percent error (MAPE) and 95% CI were also computed.

Analysis/ResultsMean daily step counts for the complete 7-day data set were 7,754 (SD = 2,735). Mean values for the 1-day through 5-day missing data sets were 7,723 (SD = 2,750), 7,774 (SD = 2,752), 7,836 (SD = 2,901), 7,754 (SD = 2,930), and 7,616 (SD = 2,953), respectively (p>.05). The lower MAPEs were estimated for the 1-day missing data set (5.2%, 95% CI [4.4, 6.0]), 2-day missing data set (8.4%, 95% CI [7.0, 9.8]), and 3-day missing data set (7.8%, 95% CI [7.2, 8.5]), while all others were greater than 10%.

ConclusionsBased on the MAPE results, the IIC approach can be effectively utilized for recovering children's pedometer missing data up to maximum of 3 missing days out of 7 days (MAPE < 10%).

Predictors of Winning Korean Pro-Basketball Games Using Four Statistical Techniques

Sae-Hyung Kim and Sang-Jo Kang, Korea National Sport University; and Miyoung Lee,^F Kookmin University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe purpose of this study was to determine the best predictors of winning Korean pro-basketball games for men employing four statistical analyses.

MethodThe Korea Basketball League (KBL) informs the records of 12 variables: rate of 2-point shots (2P%), rate of 3-point shots (3P%), rate of free-throw shots, offensive rebounds, assists, turnovers (TO), defensive rebounds (DR), steals (ST), good defenses, block shots, fouls with free throw, fouls without free throw. These 12 variables from a total of 2,970 game records from 2001 to 2012 were employed to estimate winning and losing games. Discriminant analysis, logistic regression, decision tree analysis, and artificial neural network analysis utilizing statistical software (Predictive Analytics SoftWare Version 18.0) were applied to determine the best winning estimation of the games.

Analysis/ResultsThe better predictors of winning the game from both discriminant analysis and logistic regression were DR, 3P%, 2P%, ST, and TO. On the other hand, the predictors from the decision tree analysis were DR, 2P%, 3P%, ST, and TO. The good estimators from the artificial neural network analysis were DR, 2P%, 3P%, TO, and ST, respectively.

ConclusionsAll estimating methods showed that the five different predictors were significantly affected by the defeat of men's pro-basketball games in Korea. Although the impact of these five factors to estimate the probability of winning games was similar, the most frequently selected predictor among four statistical methods was DR.

Authorship and Sampling in Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport

Duane Knudson,^F Texas State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeRecent research has shown increasing levels of collaboration and associated problems with multiple authorship. Hyperauthorship (papers with six or more coauthors) complicates the assignment of credit and responsibility for research publications. Previous studies have reported low rates (0%–28%) of hyperauthorship in biomechanics and similar subdisciplines of kinesiology (Knudson, 2011). The purpose of this study was to document the authorship and sampling practice for research reports (N = 276) published in Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (RQES).

MethodFull articles from the 2007 through 2011 volumes were reviewed using the methodology reported by Knudson (2011, Percept Mot Skills 112, 838). Editorials, reviews, and technical notes were excluded from the analysis. Data collected included the number of authors, sample size, single authorship rate (SAR), and hyperauthorship rate (HAR). Descriptive statistics and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for all articles and were compared to means of each subdisciplinary section of the journal.

Analysis/ResultsThirteen statistically significant differences were observed between subdisciplinary values and mean values for the journal. Epidemiology and physiology articles had significantly higher numbers of authors and HAR. Biomechanics has a significantly lower HAR at 0%. Overall SAR was 9%, with biomechanics and physiology having significantly lower SAR and sociology/cultural history having significantly higher SAR. Sample sizes varied widely, with biomechanics, motor behavior, and physiology articles having significantly lower samples sizes and epidemiology having significantly higher sample sizes than the journal average.

ConclusionsThe multidisciplinary nature of RQES results in a variety of authorship and sampling practices but low HAR in published articles.

Comparison of Men's and Women's Partnership Model: Multiple-Group Path Analysis

Jun-Woo Lee, Hoseo University; Cho-Young Yook and Sae-Hyung Kim, Korea National Sport University; Youn-Sun Choi, Seoul Christian University; and Kyu-Ja Hwang, Hanyang University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeVarious psychological variables such as empathy, self-esteem, and conflict-coping style have an influence on partnership of dance sport participants. The purpose of this study was to examine the difference in paths between men and women in a partnership model for dancers. The partnership model was constructed by four paths: (a) empathy affects conflict-coping style; (b) self-esteem affects conflict-coping style; (c) conflict-coping style affects partnership; and (d) empathy affects partnership directly.

MethodThe participants were 150 dancers (58 men; age 17–60 years) who were actively involved in dance sport in Seoul, Korea. Participants completed the following questionnaires: Self-Esteem Questionnaire (Rosenberg, 1965), Empathy Scale (Jeon, 2003), Conflict-Coping Style Scale (Choi, 1994), and Partnership Scale (Kim, 2011). The AMOS program was used to analyze the data. To examine whether the factor loadings are equal across both groups, each path was constrained to be equal.

Analysis/ResultsThe partnership model fit the data well, X ²(2) = 2.6, p>.05, comparative fit index = .956, Tucker Lewis Index = .994, root mean square error of approximation = .045. The first and second paths were not significantly different between groups (men, b = .36 vs. women, b = .22; and men, b = − .19 vs. women, b =  − .35, respectively). The third path of conflict-coping style affecting partnership was significantly different between groups (men, b = .36 vs. women, b = − .09), and the fourth path was not significantly different between groups (men, b = .44 vs. women, b = .41).

ConclusionsThese findings indicate that the effect of role conflict-coping style on partnership was different between men and women. Role conflict has more influence on partnership among men than among women.

Estimation of Aerobic Fitness From PACER Performance in Older Adolescents

Matthew T. Mahar,^F Matthew S. Hanna, C. David Kemble, Katrina D. DuBose, and Nelson Cooper, East Carolina University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe purpose of this study was to develop a regression model to estimate maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂max) from Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) performance in adolescents. A secondary purpose was to examine the criterion-referenced validity of the models.

MethodParticipants included 22 women and 26 men aged 17 to 18 years old. The PACER was completed and percent fat was measured with air displacement plethesmography. VO₂max was directly assessed during a maximal treadmill test.

Analysis/ResultsRegression analysis was used to predict VO₂max from number of laps completed on the PACER, age, gender, body mass, and body mass index or percent fat. VO₂max averaged 41.9 ± 9.9 ml/kg^–1/min^–1 for men and 33.1 ± 6.7 ml/kg^–1/min^–1 for women. The only variable that significantly contributed to estimation of VO₂max was PACER laps completed. The model developed on the current sample was: VO₂max = 20.41012+ (PACER laps × 0.41304) (R = .89; SEE = 4.36 ml/kg^–1/min^–1). Classification accuracy of the models was examined for three FITNESSGRAM categories (Healthy Fitness Zone [HFZ], Needs Improvement–Some Risk, and Needs Improvement–High Risk) and for two categories (HFZ and Needs Improvement). Proportion of agreement was moderate for the three-category analysis (Pa = .73) and high for the two-category analysis (Pa = .88).

ConclusionsThe prediction model developed in the current study provides an accurate estimate of VO₂max. The variable of laps completed on the PACER was the only significant contributor to the equation. Previously published equations were evaluated and were notably less accurate than this new model. The current prediction model also produced accurate classification of fitness levels into the HFZ or Needs Improvement Zone.

Convergent Validity of an Activity Monitor With a Research-Grade Accelerometer

Justin Menickelli, Western Carolina University; Cara Sidman, University of North Carolina–Wilmington; David Claxton, Dan Grube, and Erin Leonard, Western Carolina University; and Sarah Lowell, Cartoogechaye Elementary School

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe cost of accelerometers used to monitor physical activity has been substantially reduced during the past few years; however, the validity of inexpensive units such as the $20 Movband has yet to be investigated. This study examined the convergent validity of the Movband activity monitor with the NL-2000 accelerometer. The NL-2000 was chosen as the criterion unit because it is unaffected by body mass index, pedometer tilt, or waist circumference and has been recommended for use in research (Crouter, Schneider, Karabulut, & Bassett, 2003).

MethodOne hundred and eleven elementary school-aged children (53 boys, 58 girls; 9.2 ± 0.7 years old) from three physical education classes wore an NL-2000 on their right hip and a Movband on each wrist during a 30-min physical education class in which participants walked or ran on a hiking trail.

Analysis/ResultsWhen compared with the NL-2000, the Movband tended to underestimate steps (left = 8.57% ± 3.23%; right = 8.79% ± 2.94%). A repeated-measures analysis of variance of mean steps indicated a significant difference (p < .001) between the NL-2000 (2,411.74 ± 514.87) and the Movband worn on either wrist (left = 1,554.33 ± 340.81; right = 1,532.26 ±  329.76). Pearson product-moment correlations indicated that NL-2000 steps and Movsteps were significantly and positively correlated (p < .001; left = .79, right = .85). The correlation coefficient between left and right wrists was .87.

ConclusionsIn general, the Movband can provide reasonable estimates of physical activity for practitioners. Future research should examine the validity of low-cost accelerometers to estimate miles and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity time.

Accuracy of Step Detection Using a Customized Mobile Phone App

David A. Rowe,^F Allan Hewitt, Campbell Reid, and Arlene M. McGarty, University of Strathclyde

([email protected])

Background/PurposeMobile phones offer unique opportunities to promote physical activity inexpensively. Phone apps with pedometer functions are widely available but usually are not tested for accuracy. We developed an iPhone app that uses walking cadence to determine walking intensity and provides feedback on progress toward government guidelines for moderate and vigorous physical activity. In this study, we tested the accuracy of the app's step-counting algorithm under conditions of varying speed, gradient, and placement.

MethodThirty-two adults (53% women; 29 ± 13 years old) performed six treadmill walking trials at 53 m/min, 67 m/min, and 80 m/min, at 0% and 5% gradient. iPhones were worn in pouches at the hip and back and were also carried in the pocket. Criterion step counts were subsequently determined by hand-counter using a time-stamped video recording. iPhone step counts were compared to the criterion using repeated-measures t tests (p < .05) and Cohen's d.

Analysis/ResultsIn the pocket position, steps were significantly and meaningfully overcounted (d = 0.5–0.9) in all trials. In the hip and back positions, steps were significantly and meaningfully undercounted at 53 m/min (d = 0.3–0.6) but were accurately counted at 67 m/min and 80 m/min, at level and 5% gradient (d = 0.0–0.1).

ConclusionsSimilar to traditional pedometers, steps are undercounted by a mobile phone app at slow speeds but are accurately counted at moderate speeds and higher, when worn securely. When carried in the pocket, steps are overcounted regardless of speed and gradient. Further analysis of the raw acceleration signal and the time-stamped video recording will help identify reasons for inaccuracy and inform future signal-processing decisions in mobile phone accelerometer uses.

Validating Middle School Fitness Knowledge Assessments

Courtney Teatro and Pamela Hodges Kulinna,^F Arizona State University; Weimo Zhu,F and Elena Boiarskaia, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Bridget Wilde, Arizona State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe Fitness for Life (FFL) middle school curriculum, grounded in social-cognitive theories (Bandura, 2004), was developed in 2007 with many teachers using the test bank of items online to assess students' conceptual knowledge; however, no validation study has been done on the items. The purpose of this study, also informed by the public health literature, was to validate the test bank items (N = 289) to have items that provide psychometrically sound information on student healthy behavior knowledge.

MethodFirst, experts (N = 14, both genders, mostly Caucasian) participated in two rounds of assessments, classifying items into content areas and evaluating appropriateness. Second, students from the Southwestern United States (N = 663, Grades 7–12 [mostly 9th, 86%], both genders and various ethnic backgrounds) completed four versions (with 21 common items and 52 unique items each) of the student knowledge assessment.

Analysis/ResultsResponses were analyzed using the two-facet Rasch model for students and items. The model data fit well with all infit and outfit statistics between 2 and − 2. The items showed a good range of difficulty (3.09 to − 1.74 logits) and precision (0.18–0.00 SE).

ConclusionsA test bank with 229 items and four forms has been created and can be used by teachers and researchers to assess student knowledge outcomes from the FFL middle school curricular model. Results showed items are now on the same measurement scale, thus creating four equivalent tests. With Rasch calibration, measurement problems in conventional testing assessments were eliminated, and a valid and reliable assessment system was developed.

Motor Behavior

Relationship of Throwing Pattern Changes and Distance in Boys' Baseball

David D. Barrett, Augsburg College

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThis study examined the relationship between overarm throwing patterns and distance ranges in the natural sport context of boys' baseball games.

MethodSeven different teams with 98 total participants, ages ranging from 9 to 11 years old, were videotaped. All throws (n = 5,663) of 12 six-inning scheduled games were recorded with a Sony DCR-TRV camcorder. Coding was completed for the following items: position, throwing distance range, general throwing form, component levels of overarm throws, and active (runners can advance) or inactive (runners cannot advance) throws. Forearm, backswing, and foot/knee position levels for overarm throwing were coded using a previously used chart (Barrett & Burton, 2002). Distances were estimated in various distance ranges.

Analysis/ResultsCoding reliability between raters was determined by calculating percent of perfect agreement. Agreement for distance across all nonpitched throws was 82.4%, and all other coded categories were greater than 94.8%. The three most common active throwing patterns and associated distance ranges were F2-B3-F/K3 at 46 ft to 60 ft, F2-B2-F/K3 at 31 ft to 60 ft, and F2-B2-F/K2 at 16 ft to 45 ft. The three most common inactive throwing patterns and distance ranges were F2-B2-F/K3 at 46 ft to 60 ft, F2-B3-F/K3 at 46 ft to 60 ft, and F1-B2-F/K3 at 6 ft to 15 ft.

ConclusionsIn a natural sport context, boys use a variety of throwing patterns based on the urgency of the situation and distance of the throw. Some practitioners encourage participants to use the most “mature” throwing pattern. Practitioners can use these distance ranges as a guided discovery to attract different throwing patterns during game play and practice.

Motor Proficiency Predicts Cognitive Performance in 4-Year-Olds

Priscila Caçola, Amanda Martinez, and Jean Ann Helm, The University of Texas – Arlington

([email protected])

Background/PurposePrevious research has shown a distinct relationship between motor proficiency and cognition in children aged 5 to 15 years old; however, little has been done to explore this association at an earlier age. The aim of this study was to determine the association between motor proficiency and cognitive ability in 4-year-olds.

MethodThirty-two (15 boys, 17 girls) 4-year-olds (age ± 5.59 months) were examined for motor proficiency using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (Fine Manual Control, Manual Coordination, Body Coordination, and Strength & Agility) and for cognitive ability using Verbal, Nonverbal, and IQ scores as determined by the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test. The order of assessments was counterbalanced.

Analysis/ResultsCorrelation analysis indicated significant positive relationships between Body Coordination and Verbal (.45) and IQ scores (.51), Manual Coordination and IQ (.55), as well as Total Motor Proficiency and Verbal (.49), Nonverbal (.40), and IQ scores (.58). Additional regression analysis revealed similar results, with Manual Coordination predicting Verbal ability (32%) and IQ (31%) and Total Motor Proficiency predicting Verbal (24%), Nonverbal (16%), and IQ scores (34%).

ConclusionsA 4-year-old's motor skills appear to have a significant relationship with their cognitive abilities, thus emphasizing the importance of developing a child's motor skills very early in life. Motor and cognitive assessments at this age can also allow children time to practice in weaker areas to better prepare them for the school system.

Will Chronic Aerobic Exercise Benefit Cognitive Functioning in Young Adults?

Hui-Jung Fu, Springfield College; and Feng-Ru Sheu, Indiana University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe ability of people to remember can often decline with age. Studies in cognition, using both human and animal subjects, have found that routine exercise can improve and prolong cognition. Most studies in human cognition, however, have focused on children or the elderly, but not college-aged students. This study investigates the impact of chronic aerobic exercise on executive functioning in college students.

MethodExecutive functioning was assessed using the Stroop Color–Word Test (Golden, 1978) before and after the exercise program. The participants were full-time, inactive college students (N = 32) randomly assigned to either the experimental group (EG) or control group (CG) with equal numbers (n = 8) of male and female students in each group. The EG was required to participate in an aerobic exercise program for 45 min at an intensity of 75% to 85% of maximum heart rate, three times/week for 6 weeks. The EG could not engage in any other exercise during the experiment. The CG was required not to participate in any exercise during the same interval and to maintain the inactive lifestyle.

Analysis/ResultsA 2 × 2 (Group × Time) analysis of variance with repeated measures was utilized to analyze the difference in selective attention between the two groups. A significant interaction existed between group and time, F(1, 30) = 20.07, p < .05. Means of two factors were directly compared due to the levels of variables.

ConclusionsThe investigation shows that the EG had lower interference scores after the exercise program. Findings suggest that chronic aerobic exercise may facilitate cognitive performance in college students.

Acquisition of Motor Skills by the Novice Through Varied Feedback

Hui-Jung Fu, Springfield College; and Feng-Ru Sheu, Indiana University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThis study investigates the learning efficiency of tasks with increasing complexity (easy, intermediate, and advanced) based on motor movement divided into three groups: coach-controlled feedback (coach provides performance feedback), self-controlled feedback (feedback given only when asked of the coach), and a control group. An expert badminton coach provided knowledge of performance feedback.

MethodThe testing instruments included a standard badminton court, 120 standard feather shuttlecocks approved by the Badminton World Federation, and standard badminton racquets. Participants were 45 college students who were badminton beginners and who were randomly assigned evenly into one of the three groups. All participants received video instruction for each of the three tasks before entering the practice phase (30 trials) for each task. The tasks consisted of service or return of shuttlecocks into designated areas. The experiment had two phases: retention and transfer. The participants performed 12 trials for each task in the retention phase and another 12 trials for one task in the transfer phase.

Analysis/ResultsA 3 × 3 × 2 (Group × Task × Block) factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a significant main effect of group (p < .05) in the retention test. A 3 × 2 (Group × Block) factorial ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of block (p < .05) in the transfer test.

ConclusionsThe study showed that the acquisition of motor skills is more efficient when expert feedback is provided. Moreover, performance in an innovative skill improved gradually with practice.

Association Between Visual-Object and Visual-Spatial Ability and Reach Planning Tasks

Carl P. Gabbard,^F Texas A&M University; Barbara Spessato, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul; and Priscila Caçola, The University of Texas – Arlington

([email protected])

Background/PurposeSuccessful reaching requires identifying characteristics of the object and its surroundings, then creating a mental representation mapping the effector (hand) to the reach object. With the present study, we determined the relationship between two tasks associated with reaching and measures of visual-object and visual-spatial ability.

MethodAdult participants (N = 36) were administered the object and spatial scales of the Object-Spatial Imagery Questionnaire (OSIQ) and two objective reach-related tasks; one required use of motor imagery in estimating reach target distance (RT) and the other a perceptual task (PT) using visual imagery to estimate distance between targets. Previous reports using the OSIQ found positive correlations between scales and “objective” tasks of the same general category (object or spatial). We expected the closest relationship for both reach tasks would be with the spatial ability scale.

Analysis/ResultsResults indicated that none of the correlations were significantly positive. The only correlation that was moderately significant was between the RT and visual-spatial ability and that was in a negative direction (–.37). Additional analysis, including stepwise linear regression with groups divided into low and high RT and PT scores, revealed similar results.

ConclusionsPossible explanations for the somewhat surprising results focused on the idea that the OSIQ scales do not correlate well with objective tasks involving a “metric” (distance) component, and questions from the OSIQ and our tasks tap different perceptual–cognitive processes.

Developmental Trajectory of Physical Activity for Infants Ages 0–6 Months

Janet L. Hauck and Dale A. Ulrich,^F University of Michigan

([email protected])

Background/PurposeChildhood obesity is now a global epidemic and it is unlikely that medical intervention alone can resolve this issue. A logical step in the reduction of childhood obesity prevalence is to prevent it in the first place. Once an infant becomes obese, there is a 40% risk for remaining obese throughout early childhood. One behavior consistently overlooked is infant physical activity (PA). To date, there is a paucity of PA research during infancy including whether the behavior is modifiable. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the developmental trajectory of PA during the first 6 months of life.

MethodTwenty-seven infants aged 1 month to 6 months participated in this longitudinal study. Infant PA was measured once monthly during a 24-hr period using an accelerometer worn on the ankle. A comprehensive log was completed by the mother to assist with data reduction.

Analysis/ResultsA linear mixed-effects modeling approach was used to examine the developmental trajectory of PA during infancy. There is a significant accelerating linear trend of PA from 1 month to 6 months (R ²  = .845). With every 1-month increase in time, the expected increase in PA is 23.4 counts per min (p = .020).

ConclusionsThe developmental trajectory of PA during infancy increased steadily each month from 1 month to 6 months of age. Future research should focus on determining if PA in infancy is modifiable. If so, this knowledge can be used to develop effective interventions for infants at risk for childhood obesity as well as to generate healthy PA recommendations for infants.

Fundamental Motor Skills Profiles of Fourth-Grade Children in Iraq

Fadya Jerojeis and Crystal F. Branta, Michigan State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeLearning fundamental motor skills (FMS) at an early age is the “building block” or the foundation for more complex movement and specialized skills required by children throughout their lives. This study examined the FMS developmental level of fourth-grade children in Iraq.

MethodParticipants were from two elementary schools in the Talkeef suburb of Mosul, Iraq. There were 64 school children, including 23 girls (M _age = 9.9 years, SD = 0.3) and 41 boys (M _age = 10 years, SD = 0.3). Motor skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development–2 (TGMD–2). Participants were tested on locomotor skills and object-control skills.

Analysis/ResultsData were analyzed using the TGMD–2 norms. Results from the study showed that participants performed significantly below age-level norms of TGMD–2 in both locomotor and object-control skills. Based on the gross-motor quotient, girls scored very poor ( <  70) and boys scored below average (80–89). The age-equivalent scores compared with the actual age showed that girls were between 5 and 6 years behind their actual age (M = 9.9) and boys were between 6 and 7 years behind their actual age (M = 10).

ConclusionsThese results suggest that there is a need for increased focus on teaching FMS in physical education in Talkeef schools at an early age. The significant differences between age equivalents and actual ages may be due to the typical design of Iraqi schools and a deficiency in the designated times for physical education in schools.

Movement Skills and Calibrated Severity Scores in Children With Autism

Leah Ketcheson and Dale Ulrich,^F University of Michigan

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAutism spectrum disorder (ASD) now has the highest incidence among developmental disabilities in the United States. The majority of research to date has focused on core deficits in the social and communication domain as well as on identifying and intervening on problem behaviors. This is despite recent evidence to suggest that the motor domain may be among the first area of development in children with ASD to demonstrate delays. Past research has demonstrated that more refined motor skills have been shown to be related to a decrease in ASD severity later on in development. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between movement skills and a calibrated severity metric based on the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule raw totals.

MethodThirty-eight young children with ASD (aged 28–68 months old) participated in this study. One-way analyses of variance were conducted to examine the relationship between the total, gross-, and fine-motor quotients on the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-2 and their calibrated severity scores.

Analysis/ResultsFindings reveal a significant relationship between calibrated severity scores and total motor quotient, F(1, 35) = 5.694, p = .023, gross-motor quotient, F(1, 35) =  4.762, p = .036, and fine-motor quotient, F(1, 35) = 4.754, p = .036, revealing that higher severity scores are related to poorer movement skills.

ConclusionsThis study should add to the limited but growing literature examining movement behavior. Future interventions should focus on addressing movement skills in young children with ASD, as this may have the potential to reduce severity later on in development.

Retrospective Practice Histories of Female Basketball Players in the Carolinas

Anthony S. Smith, Mars Hill College

([email protected])

Background/PurposeResearch involving the development of expertise has established two patterns: early specialization (Ericsson et al., 1993) and early diversification (Côté, 1999). Research has not established the developmental patterns for American female athletes. The purpose of this study is to examine the developmental histories of female collegiate basketball players to determine which pattern is most appropriate.

MethodCurrent female collegiate basketball players (N = 72) completed a retrospective questionnaire that examined their sports history, including game participation, practice activities, and hours of practice in five basketball venues (recreational leagues, Amateur Athletic Union participation, scholastic participation, private training, and participation in pickup games). Players also rated 32 practice activities on relevance, effort, concentration, and enjoyment.

Analysis/ResultsThe mean total amount of practice at each age was descriptively analyzed to determine specific patterns of practice for each venue and during each stage of development. Estimates of accumulated hours of practice (M = 3, 865) were lower than the 10,000 h suggested as necessary to reach expertise. The most relevant and enjoyable practice activities included team scrimmages and shooting alone.

ConclusionsFindings support Ericsson's predictions of early specialization with increasing hours of practice across age. Player development appeared to be facilitated by both focused practice and playful activities, as predicted by Côté. Findings more closely resemble the early engagement hypothesis (Ford et al., 2009), which suggests early entry into the primary sport and participation in both deliberate practice and deliberate play activities.

Relative Age Effects in Minor League Professional Baseball

Benjamin Wellborn, Rob Doan, and Karen E. French,^F University of South Carolina

([email protected])

Background/PurposeRelative age effects have been found in many sports. Individuals who are born in the early months of age-grouped sport competition are more likely to reach professional sport levels. Grondin and Koren (2000) reported significant relative age effects for right-handed major league pitchers born after 1960, but no relative age effects for left-handed pitchers or nonpitchers. The purpose of this study was to determine if relative age effects are present in minor league players at the AAA and Rookie league levels. Methods data for AAA and Rookie league players on the 2012 rosters (player position, handedness, birth date) were obtained from http://www.BaseballAmerica.com. Players' birthdates were classified into four quadrants based upon the initiation date, August 1, for age-grouped competition in baseball (August, September, October, Quadrant 1, etc.).

Analysis/ResultsChi-square analyses were conducted to determine the probability of a higher proportion of players being born in the early quadrants. A significant relative age effect was found for left-handed pitchers in the AAA leagues and for right-handed pitchers in the Rookie league. Sixty-three percent of AAA left-handed pitchers and 57% of right-handed Rookie league pitchers were born in the first and second quadrants. No relative age effects were found for other players.

ConclusionsComparisons with other studies suggest relative age effects are smaller for professional baseball players in comparison with other sports (soccer, ice hockey) and may be limited to pitchers. Further research is needed to determine the underlying causes of relative age effects.

Motor Skill Performance Profiles of Urban and Suburban School Children

Virginia Witte, Michigan State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeMotor skill acquisition and competency is an important developmental facet of childhood, enabling children to participate in physical activity and maintain health. Physically fit children also perform better academically compared with their peers. A large academic discrepancy is evident between children attending suburban and urban schools. The purpose of this study was to determine if a motor skill and body mass index (BMI) discrepancy is evident between the same population groups.

MethodThree hundred and eight (152 boys, 158 girls) 7- to 9-year-old children from four mid-Michigan schools participated in this study. Surveys were used to collect demographic data and anthropometry measures were collected with standardized procedures. Motor skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development–2.

Analysis/ResultsMean raw fundamental motor scores, locomotor scores, object-control scores, and BMIs for suburban/urban schools were 68 ± 9/63 ± 10, 35 ± 5/33 ± 5, 33 ± 6/30 ± 6, and 17 ± 3/19 ± 5, respectively, showing students in the suburban school performed significantly better than students in the urban schools. Students in the suburban school also had significantly lower mean BMIs than did students in the urban schools. Significant differences in motor skills were also seen by age between suburban and urban children. T tests indicated a significant difference between children's raw fundamental motor skill scores, locomotor scores, object-control scores, and BMI (p < .001). Analysis of variance indicated significant age differences between same-population groups (p < .001).

ConclusionsThe results show significantly lower motor skill competence and higher BMIs in young children in urban schools, suggesting there may be an important need to focus on motor skill interventions in this population.

Pedagogy

Futsal in Higher Education: A Novel Sport Education Experience

Mauro H. Andre, Auburn University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAlthough participation in physical education (PE) classes is available to a significant number of students in higher education, little research has been conducted that examines pedagogical practices in these courses. The purpose of this study was to examine how a cohort of college students experienced a 16-week class of futsal (official name of indoor soccer), organized around the principles of sport education. In addition, the students contributed to a wiki that was designed to optimize their learning.

MethodTwenty-six college students (19 men, 7 women) completed a 5-point Likert-type scale that sought their perceptions with regards to their skill level before/after the season, their rules understanding before/after the season, and their preference regarding traditional or sport education-based PE. Nine of these students also participated in postcourse interviews.

Analysis/ResultsA paired t test analysis was conducted, and results reported that all three analyses reached statistical significance. That is, after the season, students felt more skilled (t = –5.329, p = .000), more knowledgeable about the game's rules (t = –6.496, p = .000), and preferred the sport education approach (t = –5.434, p = .000). Five themes were generated from the interviews: Students perceived sport education as more serious than traditional PE; team affiliation played an important role; students enjoyed learning by observing peers during officiating roles; students enjoyed making/using the wiki; and students felt it is important to have a knowledgeable instructor.

ConclusionsThese findings reinforce the utility of including sport education as an appropriate pedagogy for higher-education PE. In particular, sport education was considered highly motivating and able to optimize students' understanding.

What's New in PETE? Programmatic Changes Based on NASPE/NCATE Standards

Suzan F. Ayers,^F Western Michigan University; and Andrea Taliaferro, Christine Griffith, and Lynn Housner, West Virginia University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe focus on accreditation in physical education teacher education (PETE) programs has influenced programmatic offerings. As such, the primary purpose of this study was to provide a current analysis of how undergraduate PETE programs address the revised 2008 National Association for Sport and Physical Education/National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NASPE/NCATE) Beginning Teacher standards.

MethodData were collected online via a comprehensive survey. Approximately 600 institutions were contacted via e-mail, and 157 PETE programs responded with complete and useable surveys (26% response rate).

Analysis/ResultsAlthough the responding programs do not represent a random sample of PETE programs, the programs vary in size, type, and programmatic emphases. Predominant examples of assessment strategies employed by responding programs as evidence for achieving the standards include: Standard 1 (PRAXIS scores = 36.9%); Standard 2 (skill application in games = 31.2% and FITNESSGRAM = 29.9%); Standard 3 (plan content progression = 91.8%); Standard 4 (use management rules, routines, and transitions = 93.8%); Standard 5 (select and conduct assessments = 91%); Standard 6 (membership in professional organization = 81%). Another area influenced by the NASPE/NCATE standards is diverse/inclusive pedagogy. Nearly all (96.6%) of responding PETE programs require adapted PE coursework, 88.7% of which include hands-on practical experiences in a variety of settings. The third recent curricular emphasis is technology; more than 90% of programs in this study teach PE-specific technology and require at least one technology course in the PETE curriculum. The final topic addressed is the type of PETE faculty professional engagement. Roughly one third (37.9%) of programs report that half or more of their faculty offer continuing education to P–12 teachers, with the majority (54.8%) providing one to three workshops annually.

ConclusionsSuggestions for improving PETE programming will be provided.

An Emotionally Safe Environment That Promotes Student Interactions

Mihae Bae, Lamar University; and Catherine D. Ennis,^F University of North Carolina – Greensboro

([email protected])

Background/PurposeEmotionally safe environments enabled students to engage in interpersonal interactions because they felt safe, connected, and encouraged. This ethnographic research, based on Noddings' Ethic of Care, examined characteristics of an emotionally safe environment created by three middle school physical education teachers.

MethodThe study examined the students' emotional safety. It was based on classroom observations, written questionnaires (N = 162), and interviews with three physical education teachers and their students (N = 28). Data were analyzed using open and axial coding that resulted in the identification of themes and categories.

Analysis/ResultsEach school and teacher provided a unique educational environment, and encouragement of interactions among students varied. Students' perceptions of emotional safety appeared to be determined in part by each teacher's efforts to maintain discipline and classroom control, the nature and quality of teacher–student interactions, and the extent to which the teachers modeled and encouraged student support for each other. One teacher used his loud voice to prevent student interaction. Another teacher was overwhelmed by the distraction of groups. However, the third teacher focused on each student individually and encouraged them to interact. Her students reported that they encouraged each other to improve their performance in physical education.

ConclusionsThe students who had minimal opportunity to relate to others in class felt safe physically but expressed some fear of the teacher. On the other hand, encouragement for various positive interactions among students and with their teacher facilitated relationship development and feelings of self-respect necessary for growth and learning.

A Study of Male and Female High School Coaching Personalities

Brian S. Berger, Jeff White, and Paul G. Schempp, University of Georgia

([email protected])

Background/PurposeResearch indicates that personality plays a significant role in business, education, and the military (Gardner & Martinko, 1996; McCormack & Mellor, 2002; Rushton, Morgan, & Richard, 2007). In addition, studies have found gender differences in several areas of personality (Feingold, 1994; Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008). However, little research has investigated the role of personality in coaching. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if personality differences exist between female and male varsity head coaches.

MethodAfter obtaining institutional review board approval, a convenience sample of 30 male and 30 female high school and college varsity head coaches were recruited for this study. The NEO Five Factor Inventory–3 (Costa, 2010) was administered to the participants in a time and place convenient to the coach. This instrument measured five personality domains of openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Analysis/ResultsMultivariate analysis of variance (Wilks's λ = .696, p ≤ .001) indicated significant gender differences on the personality domains of extraversion, F(1, 58) = 7.36, p = .009, and agreeableness, F(1, 58) = 5.49, p = .023, at α = .05 significance level. The results of this study revealed that the female coaches were more extraverted (M _fem = 36.9, SD _fem = 3.91; M _male = 32.9, SD _male = 6.99) and agreeable (M _fem = 35.8, SD _fem = 4.47; M _male = 32.7, SD _male = 5.61) compared with the male coaches.

ConclusionsThe findings of this study suggest gender differences in coaching. Further research appears needed to understand the implications of these differences and to determine if other coaching personalities differ based on sport, level, and other pertinent environmental factors.

Characteristics of PETE Doctoral Institutions: Programs, Faculty, and Doctoral Students

B. Ann Boyce,^F University of Virginia; Jacalyn Lund,^F Georgia State University; and Kason O'Neil, University of Virginia

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe present study of doctoral physical education teacher education (D-PETE) programs constituted the third round of data collection (2009–2010 through 2011–2012). The purpose was to provide extensive information on: (a) program characteristics, (b) faculty, and (c) doctoral graduates/ABDs.

MethodThe Doctoral Program Questionnaire (DPQ) was electronically transmitted to D-PETE coordinators in September 2011, and data collection was completed in February 2012. All 27 D-PETE coordinators responded. Descriptive information on the DPQ was gathered on: (a) program characteristics, (b) faculty, and (c) doctoral graduates/ABDs. Characteristics on doctoral programs included items such as existence/status of doctoral programs and perception on funding of current doctoral students. Data on faculty included academic rank, gender, ethnicity, part/full-time status, and instructional load responsibilities. Graduate student information was gathered on ethnicity, graduation rate, and types of positions assumed by graduates/ABDs. Data were analyzed descriptively.

Analysis/ResultsThe number of current doctoral programs (N = 22) continues to decrease slightly compared with programs in 2005–2006 and 2008–2009. Information on faculty and doctoral student ethnicity revealed that doctoral graduates (19% minority) were slightly more diverse compared with D-PETE faculty (15% minority). Eight-five percent of doctoral graduates entered positions in higher education. Funding of doctoral students is either comparable or above funding means 85% of the time.

ConclusionsThe number of D-PETE programs is experiencing a slow, steady decline with this trend translating into fewer doctoral graduates entering positions in higher education. This decline matched with the increased demand for doctoral graduates (Boyce & Rikard, 2008, 2011) may cause shortages in PETE programs.

The Prevalence, Beliefs, and Instruction of Using Physical Education Homework

Daniel J. Burt, Texas A&M University-Kingsville; and Dean R. Gorman, George S. Denny, Steve Dittmore, Jack C. Kern, and Paul Calleja, University of Arkansas

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe purpose of the study was to find out the prevalence of physical educators assigning homework to their classes (17.4%) and to identify factors that are related to whether physical educators assign homework.

MethodThe questionnaire was completed by 144 employed physical educators from the state of Arkansas.

Analysis/ResultsLogistic regression, an independent-samples t test, and a chi-square test were used to analyze if specific predictors, school demographics, and the personal beliefs of physical educators affected using homework in physical education. No statistical significance was found in the demographics or predictors, but nine of the beliefs selected indicated that a physical educator's beliefs toward homework may be a major factor in assigning homework.

ConclusionsPrimarily, the physical educators who assigned homework believed more strongly than others that homework could increase physical activity, make grading easier, and increase content knowledge. Physical educators who did not assign homework believed more strongly that grading homework would take too much time; as teachers, they had too many time constraints; activity homework would be difficult to prove completion; if other in-class assignments exist, then it was unnecessary; and homework assignments would be hated by parents and students.

Impact of Student Choice in High School Physical Education

Amanda L. Campbell, Bridgewater College

([email protected])

Background/PurposeResearch on the impact of student activity choice in high school physical education, though somewhat limited, has been linked to increased student motivation (Prusak et al., 2004; Ward et al., 2008). Grounded in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), the twofold purpose of this study was to examine the impact of student autonomy, specifically activity choice in high school physical education, on (a) student motivation, (b) autonomy, (c) competence, and (d) enjoyment, and to explore teachers' and students' attitudes toward the activity choice model.

MethodBoth choice and nonchoice activity units were implemented by four teachers in 9th- and 10th-grade physical education. Participating students (N = 137) completed surveys measuring the dependent variables at baseline and following each 3-week unit. Qualitative data were gathered through observations, interviews, and focus groups.

Analysis/ResultsFour separate 2 × 3 mixed between-within analyses of variance with a Bonferroni adjustment revealed a significant, positive effect of choice on student autonomy and motivation (p < .0125), but no impact on competence or enjoyment. Qualitative data were inductively and deductively analyzed and triangulated, revealing positive experience with and perceptions of the choice model among teachers, though several barriers to offering choices emerged. Positive perceptions and attitudes toward activity choice also emerged among students, though themes of frustration related to the limitations of the choices offered and lack of student input emerged.

ConclusionsResults provided empirical support for the theoretical presumption that increased autonomy leads to more self-determined motivation. Characteristics of choice that are essential to support student autonomy were identified.

Physical Education Teachers and Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs

Erin E. Centeio and Darla M. Castelli,^F The University of Texas – Austin

([email protected])

Background/PurposePhysical activity participation has multiple health benefits. Implementation of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) can help youth increase physical activity minutes. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the current practice and self-efficacy of physical education teachers toward implementing CSPAPs.

MethodEighty-seven physical education teachers (21 men) volunteered to complete the CSPAP Index (Centeio & Castelli, 2011; Lounsbery et al., 2010) to determine their current level of implementation. Efficacy was measured in five separate subscales (Student, Space, Time, Institution, and During School; Martin & Kulinna, 2003). Participants included: (a) CSPAP professional development participants, (b) Teacher of the Year (TOY) award winners, and (c) practicing teachers.

Analysis/ResultsUsing a multivariate analysis of variance, teacher efficacy and physical activity opportunities for children were compared by group and gender. A significant effect was found on the dependent variables by group, F(5, 81) = 6.889, p < .001, partial h ² = .35. Analyses of variance demonstrated that group significantly affected teacher efficacy subscales: Student, F(2, 81) = 45.5, p < .001, h ² = .53, R ² = .58; Institution, F(2, 81) = 8.7, p < .001, h ² = .18, R ²  = .23; and During School, F(2, 81) = 33.9, p < .001, h ² = .46, R ² = .48. CSPAP training participants have significantly higher self-efficacy (p < .001) toward providing physical activity experiences over TOY award winners and other teachers. No differences were observed between groups by number of physical activity opportunities provided (p = .67).

ConclusionsCSPAP provides points of intervention to increase physical activity opportunities. Understanding teacher efficacy, by cohort, can contribute to the design of targeted professional development.

Learning to Live an Energy-Balanced Life Through Technology

Senlin Chen, Jungmin Lee, Youngwon Kim, and Gregory Welk,^F Iowa State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeLearning principles of energy balance early in life is critical for effective weight management. Grounded in the situational interest theory, this study examined the processes and outcomes of using technological tools to regulate adolescents' energy balance.

MethodA total of 90 sixth graders (44 boys; 72 Caucasian) from seven physical education classes at two Midwest schools in the United States voluntarily participated in this study. The participants were randomly assigned into two groups. The experimental group was asked to utilize a Sensewear armband monitor (BodyMedia, 2009) and a food journal for 7 days (morning of Day 1 to morning of Day 8), while the control group was not. All participants were premeasured and postmeasured on weight, energy-balance knowledge, and situational interest.

Analysis/ResultsIt was found that the armband was utilized more frequently and consistently (M ±  SD = 85% ± 22% time on body; M ±  SD = 7.60 ± 1.32 days) than the food journal (M ±  SD = 5.65 ± 2.21 days). During the week, energy-balance knowledge was enhanced (t = –2.49, p < .05), while situational interest decreased (interest, t = 5.20, p < .01; enjoyment, t = 2.53, p < .01). Weight increased, but not significantly (M ±  SD = 0.15 ± 2.95 lb). The experimental group did not demonstrate superiority over the control in knowledge gain, weight change, and situational interest.

ConclusionsThe technological tools have the potential to be incorporated into physical education and health education curricula. However, they were found too tacit to render a significant effect on the knowledge and behaviors related to energy balance. Educational strategies with frequent informational feedback are needed to make best use of the technologies.

Hegemonic Masculinity in Sport Education Taught by Teaching-Oriented Interns

Yu-Chun Chen and Matthew Curtner-Smith,^F The University of Alabama

([email protected])

Background/PurposePrevious research has indicated that preservice teachers (PTs) with coaching orientations have reinforced sexism and masculine bias while employing the sport education (SE) model. The purpose of the current study was to examine the degree to which SE delivered by PTs with teaching orientations served to combat or reinforce sexism and masculine bias.

MethodParticipants were two PTs who taught four SE seasons during their culminating internship. The theory of hegemonic masculinity (HM) guided data collection and analysis. Data were collected through formal, informal, and stimulated recall interviews, passive participant observation, and document analysis.

Analysis/ResultsAnalytic induction and constant comparison were employed to reduce the data to four main themes. These were female nonconformity, opposition to male dominance, racial and class-related differences, and construction of pedagogical barriers. Key findings were that masculine bias and sexism were largely combatted and rejected during the SE seasons and that the PTs provided a relatively equitable experience for girls and smaller, less physically able boys. On a more negative note, PTs were not skilled enough to recognize more subtle forms of HM nor were they prepared to discuss issues related to HM directly with the children in their classes, a stance that reduced their effectiveness. In addition, they used relatively few of the SE model's structures to combat HM, instead relying mainly on their general pedagogies.

ConclusionsKey reasons for the PTs' success included their liberal views about sport, their willingness to confront the prevailing sporting culture, and the fact that they taught elementary-aged children.

Influence of Sexual Identity Stereotyping on Heterosexual Female Preservice Teachers

Yu-Chun Chen and Matthew Curtner-Smith,^F The University of Alabama

([email protected])

Background/PurposePrevious life history research has revealed that heterosexual female physical education teachers have often been assumed to be lesbians, regardless of their actual sexual orientations, and so have been subjected to some of the same prejudices and marginalization encountered by their lesbian colleagues. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of sexual identity stereotyping (SIS) on heterosexual female preservice teachers (PTs).

MethodParticipants were five heterosexual PTs enrolled in one university's physical education teacher education (PETE) program. Data were collected by formally interviewing each PT.

Analysis/ResultsData were analyzed using analytic induction and constant comparison. Results indicated that the PTs generally had a good understanding of SIS and that four of them had encountered it. Only one of the PTs, however, had been sexually stereotyped herself.

ConclusionsGrounded theory developed during the study included the following five hypotheses: (a) The majority of heterosexual female PTs will be aware that they can be sexually stereotyped as lesbian; (b) the degree to which heterosexual female PTs' sexual identities are stereotyped will be strongly related to the sports and physical activities in which they participate and their physical appearance; (c) stereotyping of heterosexual female PTs is common; (d) the extent to which heterosexual women contemplating a career in physical education are threatened by SIS will influence whether or not they choose to enter PETE; and (e) once heterosexual female PTs graduate and obtain employment, the extent to which they are influenced by SIS will depend on the degree to which they are threatened by it.

Analysis of Daily Physical Activity Choices Among Homeschooled Children

Yoojin Choi and Eric Carpenter, Salisbury University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe Salisbury University (SU) Physical Education Teacher Education program has offered physical education classes for local homeschooled children since 2001. In fall 2011, the SU Homeschool Physical Education Program completed a parent survey to discover social and ecological factors (Welk, 1999) that may influence children's physical activity experiences. One of the main findings of this survey was that the majority of parents valued their children's physical activity experience and believed that they support physical activity opportunities. To collect empirical evidence to support the findings, this study examined physical activity patterns among the children.

MethodAn activity log was created using the physical activity categories from the ActivityGram (4th ed., Cooper Institute, 2005). Participants included children ages 9 to 14 years old (n = 20). The investigator incorporated a 30-min interval recording strategy to measure daily physical activity behaviors. Participants completed 34 logs from April 19, 2012, to May 2, 2012.

Analysis/ResultsPhysical activity choices were recorded from 7:00 a.m. to 10:30 p.m. with 31 blocks of 30-min intervals per day and 217 blocks per a week. Most participants marked “lifestyle activity” such as playground and interactive video games as their main source of activity. Only three boys ages 10 to 14 years old reported “sport activity” as their main physical activity choice. Furthermore, participants reported that they had none or little experiences in flexibility, aerobic, and muscular activities.

ConclusionsHomeschooled children may not have access to a variety of physical activity opportunities related to learning skills and knowledge in sport and developing health-related fitness.

Physical Education Teacher Candidates' Fitness Competency

Margo M. Coleman, Skip M. Williams, Mary L. Henninger, and Amy Marzano, Illinois State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAs part of being competent, physically educated people, physical education teacher education (PETE) majors/minors are expected to achieve and maintain a health-enhancing level of fitness for all five health-related fitness (HRF) components (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2008). The purpose of this study was to determine if PETE majors/minors were achieving health-enhancing levels of fitness for all five HRF components and to establish a baseline for a longitudinal study.

MethodPETE majors/minors (N = 179) at one Midwestern university completed FITNESSGRAM assessments that measured all five components of HRF (body mass index [BMI], Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run [PACER], pushups, curl-ups, and sit and reach). All assessments were administered by PETE faculty.

Analysis/ResultsData were analyzed based on HRF zones (HFZ) established by FITNESSGRAM. Results indicated that 35% of participants were in the HFZ for all five assessments. Percentages in the HFZ were 59% for BMI, 59% for the PACER, 94% for pushups, 92% for curl-ups, and 85% for sit and reach. Male percentages in the HFZ were 50% for BMI, 58% for the PACER, 94% for pushups, 90% for curl-ups, and 90% for sit and reach. Female percentages in the HFZ were 76% for BMI, 60% for the PACER, 95% for pushups, 95% for curl-ups, and 76% for sit and reach.

ConclusionsResults indicate participants in this PETE program are lacking in their ability to demonstrate competency (HFZ) in all components of HRF. It is important that future PE teachers are able to demonstrate fitness competency as students view them as role models. Thus, longitudinal tracking of fitness levels of majors/minors is warranted.

Physical Educators' Attitudes Toward and Understanding of Online Physical Education

David Newman Daum, University of Southern Indiana; and Amelia Mays Woods,^F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected])

Background/PurposeK–12 online physical education (OLPE) is as an educational opportunity in at least 22 states in the United States (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2006, 2010). The purpose of this study was to examine physical education teacher educators' attitudes toward and understanding of K–12 OLPE.

MethodData were collected utilizing semistructured open-ended interviews. Participants (N = 25) were current physical education teacher education (PETE) faculty members at universities granting a bachelor's degree in physical education certification. Participants were randomly selected using a stratified sampling technique based on the Carnegie classification of their institutions.

Analysis/ResultsData were analyzed using the constant comparative method as well as inductive and deductive analysis. Deductive analysis was viewed through the lens of the social-cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986). Results indicated that PETE faculty were generally not cognizant of K–12 OLPE. Participants believed that NASPE (2004) National Physical Education Standards could be met online, except for Standard 1, which relates to motor skill competency. Participants were almost unanimous in their belief that OLPE should not be available to elementary-aged children but is a viable option at the high school level. Results indicated that training preservice teachers to use online resources in K–12 physical education should emanate from the PETE faculty; however, participants did not believe that they held the requisite knowledge of appropriate practices of OLPE.

ConclusionsThere are challenges with the integration of OLPE such as accountability and teaching motor skills; however, as a profession, physical education is behind, as other fields have been researching the impact of online education for a decade or more.

Role of Evidence in Physical Education Reform in China (2001–2010)

Haiyong Ding and Youqiang Li, Shanghai University of Sport

([email protected])

Background/PurposeK–12 physical education in China endured a dramatic change in the last decade. It is in a critical transition from a sport-focused to health-promotion programming. The purpose of this study was to determine the role of research evidence in the reform.

MethodA quasi-meta-analysis was conducted on 14,652 research articles published during 2001 to -2010 in China. These included: (a) article selection, (b) content analyses, and (c) statistical analyses.

Analysis/ResultsA total of 1,951 (13.3%) articles were identified as relevant to K–12 physical education. Nearly 50% were published during 2002–2005, when the reform began and took hold. Among the 1,951 articles, 33.8% were theoretical articulation articles (no data-based evidence), 30.1% were on higher education including teacher education, 18.2% were on organizational issues, and the remaining 17.9% were on pedagogical issues. Statistically significant differences were observed clearly among the distributions (p < .05). A contingency table analysis revealed that the reform had a much stronger connection to theory articles than to others (proportion of agreement>.55). The results indicated that data-based evidence was not widely used in the reform.

ConclusionsThese results echo the findings in the United States. Eyler et al. (2010) reported that among the 781 physical education bills introduced in state legislatures during 2001 to 2007, 272 contained at least one element of evidence; only 43 of them were enacted in comparison with 119 without evidence. Our finding calls for additional effort to implement evidence-based policymaking and practice in physical education.

Impact of Instructional Feedback Type on Student-Perceived Competence

Daniel K. Drost, John R. Todorovich, and Heather L. Green, University of West Florida

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAs a component of self-determination theory, cognitive evaluation theory (CET) posits that intrinsic motivation increases student desire to participate in sport and physical activity (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Scanlan et al., 1989). Teacher feedback may affect student-perceived competence (PC), a construct of CET that influences intrinsic motivation, as they participate in physical education (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between feedback type on student PC in physical education.

MethodStudents (n = 285) from two Northwest Florida middle schools participated in this study. Participants were assigned to small groups and then completed a lacrosse shooting task receiving one of three randomly assigned treatment conditions (general positive, informational correctional, or no feedback). Participants completed a posttask PC questionnaire (Cronbach's alpha = .83) from the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (McCauley, Duncan, & Tamman, 1989).

Analysis/ResultsA one-way posttask analysis of variance revealed differences between treatment groups, F(2, 283) = 12.38, p < .001. Tukey's post-hoc revealed that PC of participants receiving general feedback was significantly higher than that of participants receiving informational feedback (p < .001) and no feedback (p < .001). No mean difference was found between the general-feedback group and no-feedback group (p>.05).

ConclusionsResults indicate that when students in middle school physical education receive informational corrective feedback, they may have lower posttask PC, even when compared with students who receive no feedback. Conversely, positive general feedback may lead to greater PC, which, according to CET, influences intrinsic motivation. Middle school educators who are interested in motivating students may need to consider the type of feedback they use in class.

Effects of Feedback on Students' Process Performance and Motivation

Daniel K. Drost and John R. Todorovich, University of West Florida

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAccording to the competence motivation theory (Harter, 1978, 1981), successful mastery attempts can be supportive of competence or intrinsic motivation through affect. Researchers have found feedback that provides students with specific information may be beneficial for student achievement. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of feedback on process performance, perceived competence, and affect and to determine if successful process performance is related to affect.

MethodParticipants (N = 113) from two elementary schools were randomly assigned to groups of six and to receive a feedback treatment (general, informational, and no feedback). Participants performed a pretest, practice, and posttest of a lacrosse shot and received a feedback treatment during practice. During practice, teachers administered feedback treatments to participants at the rate of every other attempt.

Analysis/ResultsA split-plot 2 × 3 factorial analysis of variance revealed the interaction between process performance change was related to feedback treatment conditions, F(1, 110) = 5.49, p = .005, and a significant main effect for performance change, F(1, 110) = 3.93, p = .022. Tukey's post-hoc revealed informational feedback had a statistically greater effect (p = .016) than general feedback. Additional results revealed no differences between feedback groups among perceived competence or affect, and process performance was not a predictor of affect.

ConclusionsThe results indicate that feedback does have an effect on process performance. Students who receive informational feedback improve their skill form at a higher rate compared with those who receive general or no feedback. However, there was not a significant relationship between feedback and perceived competence or affect, nor was posttask product performance a predictor of affect.

Relationship Between Physical Activity and Student Behaviors: An Exploratory Study

Heather E. Erwin,^F Aaron Beighle, Alicia Fedewa, Ashley Candelaria, and Jenna C. Schwartz, University of Kentucky

([email protected])

Background/PurposeDespite the well-known benefits of regular physical activity (PA), the PA levels of American youth remain low. In an effort to promote PA for youth, school-based interventions are advocated (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2008). It has been shown that students can accumulate approximately 5% of the daily recommended PA in the classroom setting (Erwin et al., 2011), yet teachers often hesitate to provide time for PA during class due to academic pressures and issues related to behavior management (Cothran et al., 2010). The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships among elementary students' classroom PA, behavior, and hyperactivity/attention via teacher-reported standardized rating scales (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Test [ADHDT]; Gilliam, 1995).

MethodThree high-active and three low-active fifth-grade students were selected from one classroom for participation. During the course of 5 weeks, 30 h of systematic observation were conducted on the students. The System for Observing Fitness Instruction time was modified for classroom PA. PA intensity and student on-task and off-task behavior were recorded. ADHD scores were completed by the classroom teacher. Pearson correlations were conducted to determine the relationship between classroom PA and behavior as well as classroom PA and ADHD.

Analysis/ResultsResults indicated a significant correlation between standing and ADHD (r = .83, p = .04). No significant correlations were found between PA and on-task or off-task behavior.

ConclusionsBased on this exploratory study, classroom PA was not related to behavior problems; therefore, classroom teachers should be encouraged to provide structured PA breaks because they may lead to increased on-task behavior.

Relationship Between Physical Activity and Student Behaviors: An Exploratory Study

Heather E. Erwin,^F Aaron Beighle, Alicia Fedewa, Ashley Candelaria, and Jenna C. Schwartz, University of Kentucky

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Despite the well-known benefits of regular physical activity (PA), the PA levels of American youth remain low. In an effort to promote PA for youth, school-based interventions are advocated (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2008). It has been shown that students can accumulate approximately 5% of the daily recommended PA in the classroom setting (Erwin et al., 2011), yet teachers often hesitate to provide time for PA during class due to academic pressures and issues related to behavior management (Cothran et al., 2010). The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships among elementary students' classroom PA, behavior, and hyperactivity/attention via teacher-reported standardized rating scales (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Test [ADHDT]; Gilliam, 1995).

Method: Three high-active and three low-active fifth-grade students were selected from one classroom for participation. During the course of 5 weeks, 30 h of systematic observation were conducted on the students. The System for Observing Fitness Instruction time was modified for classroom PA. PA intensity and student on-task and off-task behavior were recorded. ADHD scores were completed by the classroom teacher. Pearson correlations were conducted to determine the relationship between classroom PA and behavior as well as classroom PA and ADHD.

Analysis/Results: Results indicated a significant correlation between standing and ADHD (r = .83, p = .04). No significant correlations were found between PA and on-task or off-task behavior.

Conclusions: Based on this exploratory study, classroom PA was not related to behavior problems; therefore, classroom teachers should be encouraged to provide structured PA breaks because they may lead to increased on-task behavior.

Impact of Professional Development on Student Activity During Physical Education

Heather E. Erwin,^F Aaron Beighle, Christine Johnson, Eric Moore, and Michelle Thornton, University of Kentucky; and Donna Benton, Jefferson County Public Schools

([email protected])

Background/PurposeIt is recommended that students engage in physical activity (PA) at least 50% of every physical education (PE) lesson (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, n.d.). The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of professional development (PD) for physical educators on PA levels of their students during class time.

MethodThe System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT; McKenzie, Sallis, & Nader, 1991) was utilized to record frequencies of student PA intensity and lesson context at baseline and postintervention during 65 PE lessons taught by 65 different teachers. Follow-up observations were conducted on a random sample of 10 teachers.

Analysis/ResultsSOFIT frequency counts and percentages were calculated, showing that teachers provided 41.33% time in moderate to vigorous PA at baseline. For lesson context, teachers spent 28.66%, 20.77%, 17.55%, 15.42%, and 3.40% of time in games, management, fitness, knowledge, and free play, respectively. Yearlong PD consisting of daylong sessions for all PE teachers were conducted. In addition, a professional learning community was created for these teachers. Follow-up data demonstrated that student PA time increased by 7% to 48.76%. Teachers decreased game time by 11% and management by 7% and eliminated free play. Skill practice increased by 7%, while fitness and knowledge time were maintained.

ConclusionsPreliminary findings from this study suggest targeted PD can be effective in assisting teachers in increasing the PA levels of children during PE. Further research is needed to determine the specific teaching behaviors employed by teachers to increase PA.

We Need to Take Fun More Seriously

Daryl B. Essensa, University of Massachusetts-Amherst

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThis phenomenological study was designed to explore how high school students describe their experiences of having fun (i.e., enjoyment) in physical education (PE) class.

MethodThis study took place in three PE classes in a public high school in the Northeast region of the United States. Participants were 31 students across three different classes. Data collection took place during a 3-month period and included formal interviews, critical incident reports, and field note observations.

Analysis/ResultsData were analyzed using open and axial coding. Results are reported in three broad categories. First, participants experienced fun in PE when they were given a choice of activity. Second, positive peer relationships were strongly associated with a fun experience. Finally, participants expressed the need to feel physically and emotionally safe to ensure a fun experience.

ConclusionsConsidering the fragile nature of secondary PE today, teachers and teacher educators need to take seriously students' voices in curriculum and content development. PE activities that are inclusive, allow student-centered choice, and include opportunities for interpersonal skill building (e.g., self-regulation) have the potential to increase participation and enjoyment (i.e., fun) for all in PE.

Examining Chinese Students' Achievement Goals, Social Goals, and Motivated Behaviors

Min Feng, Tongji University; Tao Zhang,^F University of North Texas; and Ping Xiang,^F Texas A&M University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAs the latest development of the achievement goal theory, the 2 × 2 achievement goal model (mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance) has recently been employed to understand student-motivated behaviors and achievement in physical education (PE). However, the influence of this model on Chinese students' motivated behaviors (i.e., persistence/effort, task challenge) has received little attention. Additionally, few studies have examined their social goals (social responsibility and social relationship) for engaging in PE. Thus, this study examined the relationships among 2 × 2 achievement goals, social goals, and motivated behaviors among Chinese middle school students in PE.

MethodParticipants were 637 students (280 girls, 357 boys; M _age = 13.8 years) enrolled in two middle schools in Shanghai, China. They completed standardized surveys assessing their achievement goals, social goals, persistence/effort, and task challenge in PE.

Analysis/ResultsSimple correlations revealed significant relationships among the study variables. Regression analyses indicated that mastery-approach, social responsibility, performance-approach, and mastery-avoidance goals were significant predicators of persistence/effort (R ² = 61.6%; β = .37, .39, .13, .06, respectively; all p < .05). For the task challenge, mastery-approach, performance-avoidance, social responsibility, and performance-approach goals emerged as significant predictors (R ² = 16.6%; β = .23,–.19, .19, .10, respectively; all p < .05).

ConclusionsMastery-approach, social responsibility, and performance-approach goals emerged as significant positive predictors for both persistence/effort and task challenge. This finding suggests students whose goals were mastering skills, adhering to social rules, and performing better than others were more likely to put forth effort and take challenges in PE.

Factors Contributing to Sport Prominence in Physical Education Teacher Content Selection

Matthew D. Ferry, George Mason University; and Nate McCaughtry,^F Wayne State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeSecondary physical education (PE) ideally exposes students to many diverse physical activities, yet despite an explosion in physical activity culture, many secondary programs focus narrowly on competitive sports. Little research has examined factors that influence PE teachers' selection of physical activities as an avenue to explain this dilemma. Therefore, using theories of habitus, social fields, and occupational socialization, this study examined how secondary physical educators made decisions about curricular content.

MethodInterpretive methodology guided this study that spanned 1.5 school years. Twenty-eight specific factors thought to impact teachers' content decisions were used to guide lesson observations (n = 380), informal and formal interviews (n = 100), as well as document analysis (e.g., lesson plans) with 28 secondary physical educators. Data were analyzed using constant comparison and were subjected to trustworthiness strategies (e.g., data triangulation, peer debriefer, member checks).

Analysis/ResultsThis study found that a complex interplay of personal (e.g., comfort, values) institutional (e.g., facilities, teaching colleagues), and student factors (e.g., student desires, gender) uniquely coalesced to spotlight three distinct typologies of teachers with markedly different content choices and rationales for those choices. The typologies included all-sport teachers, mostly-sport teachers, and partly/no-sport teachers.

ConclusionsFindings support the power of Bourdieu's theories in helping to understand the complexities involved in teachers' content decisions, as well as the powerful role occupational socialization plays in cementing affinities for particular content areas. Specifically, teachers' perceptions of most factors pointed to an ecology and historical dynamic well suited to support sport-dominant secondary curricula.

Age and Gender Differences of Adolescents' Physical Activity in Physical Education

You Fu, The University of Utah; and Zan Gao,^F University of Minnesota

([email protected])

Background/PurposeIt has been documented that adolescents differ in their pedometer-based physical activity (PA) levels across different gender and age groups (e.g., Vincent & Pangrazi, 2002). Such inquiries into the age and gender differences in adolescents' accelerometer-determined PA remain unexplored. Thus, this study was designed to investigate whether adolescents' accelerometer-determined PA differed as a function of gender and age.

MethodParticipants were 188 middle school adolescents (95 boys; M _age = 12.5 years, age range = 11–14 years) at a public school in the United States. Their PA levels were assessed by Actical accelerometers for three physical education (PE) classes. The outcome variables were adolescents' percentages of time spent in sedentary, light PA, and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA).

Analysis/ResultsTwo-way multivariate analysis of variance yielded a significant main effect for age, Wilks's λ = .89, F(9, 433) = 2.45, p < .05. However, there was no significant main effect for gender. Significant univariate tests for age were obtained for sedentary, F(3, 180) = 4.99, p < .01, and MVPA, F(3, 180) = 4.25, p < .01. Follow-up tests indicated the 12-year-old group had significantly more time in sedentary (13.63%) than did the other three age groups (7.46% for 11-year-olds, 7.49% for 13-year-olds, and 5.53% for 14-year-olds), p < .01. This age group also had less time in MVPA (59.46%) than did the 11-year-old (67.31%) and 14-year-old groups (71.56%), p < .01.

ConclusionsThe findings suggest 12-year-old adolescents were less physically active than other age groups in PE. Further research is warranted to explore the in-depth explanations of this phenomenon. Also, no gender differences occurred in adolescents' accelerometer-determined PA levels.

Reliability of Classification Decisions for the FG–COMPASS: A Follow-Up

Ovande Furtado, Eastern Illinois University; and Jere Gallagher, University of Pittsburgh; and Hasan Mavi, Eastern Illinois University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeFundamental movement skills (FMS) are believed to be the foundation upon which more complex skills develop. In addition, FMS development has been linked to prevention of weight gain and increasing levels of physical activity. Thus, because obesity prevention/reduction is critical, it is important for kids to be active. To be active, children need to learn fundamental motor skills, and therefore, FMS evaluation is important. This study investigated the reliability of classification decisions of six FMSs being considered for a new observational assessment tool that classifies individuals into advanced, elementary, and initial developmental levels. The rating scales evaluated in this study were modified following the results of a previous study, which involved 11 FMSs.

MethodThe accuracy of classification decisions for the six rating scales was evaluated by comparing judgments of 28 physical education major students to a standard. Participants were tested 3 to 5 days after training to classify FMS performance by watching prerecorded videos. The training tool was comprised of three videos per skill. During the testing session, participants classified 60 videos (10 per skill).

Analysis/ResultsWeighted kappa (K _w ) scores ranged from .63 to .92 (M = .81). Apart from side sliding and leaping, all rating scales had K _w scores above the expected value.

ConclusionsFour out of the six rating scales evaluated in this study had satisfactory results and were retained in the test battery. The skills of side sliding and leaping were removed from the instrument. The next study will determine concurrent validity of nine skills.

Principals' and Physical Educators' Perceptions of Administrative Support for Physical Education

Chris Gentry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected])

Background/PurposeLiterature provides well-documented evidence that physical educators teach a subject perceived as low-status and are marginalized pedagogues (Lock & Telljohann, 1995; Stevens-Smith, 2007). As a result, support provided by principals for their physical educators may influence the status and impact of the subject. In addition, backing from principals can help to reduce stress and even washout among physical education teachers (Blankenship & Coleman, 2009). Guided by the structuration theory (Giddens, 1984), the purpose of this study was to investigate principals' and their physical education teachers' perceptions of administrative support at elementary, middle, and high school levels.

MethodTo gather rich and detailed information, three physical educators and their coinciding principals participated in individual semistructured interviews each lasting 30 to 45 min.

Analysis/ResultsThe Huberman and Miles Four-Stage Process (1994) was used to inductively and deductively analyze the data. Results indicated that even though principal support was noted by both parties, incongruence existed between the extent of principal support and physical educators' perceptions of such support. Furthermore, the importance of physical education stressed by the teachers seemed at times to be undermined by principals' statements and actions.

ConclusionsIncreased awareness of what constitutes support in the views of principals and physical educators may lead to a greater understanding of how to improve or prepare for this relationship. This type of relevant information may also provide physical education teacher education with strategies to prepare future teachers for the realities of modern schools.

Children's Physical Activity and On-Task Behavior Following Active Academic Lessons

Tan Leng Goh, James C. Hannon,^F You Fu, and Steven L. Prewitt, The University of Utah

([email protected])

Background/PurposeChildren spend many hours a day sitting to receive academic instruction in hopes of improving standardized test scores. Sitting for an extended time is detrimental to children's physical health and may cause off-task behavior in the classroom. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of active academic lessons on children's physical activity (PA) and on-task behavior.

MethodOne hundred thirty-nine children from six classes (third through fifth grades) in one elementary school participated in an active academic lesson program for 12 weeks (4 weeks baseline and 8 weeks intervention). Classroom teachers were trained to implement 10-min bouts of active academic lessons using the TAKE 10! program that they modified to fit into their curriculum. In-school PA, in the form of step counts, was measured using pedometers at baseline (Week 1), follow-up (Week 8), and post-follow-up (Week 12). On-task behavior was measured through classroom observations using a momentary time-sampling method. A one-way repeated-measure analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze PA. A two-way repeated-measure ANOVA compared on-task behavior between preactive versus postactive lessons and baseline versus intervention.

Analysis/ResultsChildren's step counts significantly (p < .05) increased from baseline (5,382 ± 1,560) to follow-up (5,851 ± 1,812) and post-follow-up (6,275 ± 1,944). The program was effective in improving on-task behavior following active academic lessons. There was statistically significant (p < .05) improvement in on-task behavior of 5% between preactive and postactive lessons.

ConclusionsActive academic lessons were effective in increasing children's in-school PA and on-task behavior in the classroom.

Wellness Legislation Awareness and Impact by Teachers of the Year

Kim C. Graber,^F and Amelia Mays Woods^F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Karen Lux Gaudreault, University of Wyoming; and Chris Gentry and John Mercer, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected])

Background/PurposeDespite the passage of the Child Nutrition and Women, Infants, and Children Reauthorization Act (P.L. 108-265) that mandated schools to have a wellness plan by 2006, school physical education programs have not changed significantly. Although nutrition programs have improved (Action for Healthy Kids, 2008; Graber, Woods, & O'Connor, 2012b), changes in physical education have been less noticeable and both physical education teachers and university teacher educators are often unaware that legislation for promoting program improvement exists (Graber, Woods, & O'Connor, 2012a). Grounded in ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 1979), the purpose of this study was to examine if National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) Teachers of the Year have awareness of the legislation and how their programs are impacted.

MethodAfter obtaining institutional review board approval, 22 NASPE Teachers of the Year participated in formal interviews utilizing a standardized open-ended interview approach (Patton, 2002).

Analysis/ResultsTranscripts were analyzed inductively and deductively using open and axial coding. Peer debriefing, triangulation, and negative case searches were employed. Consistent with prior research, the results indicate that even Teachers of the Year have limited knowledge of the legislation. Their ignorance about the specifics of the legislation, however, was tempered by many proactive measures taken to improve nutrition and physical education in their schools. Measures that ranged from introducing greenhouses to receiving Carol M. White Physical Education Program grants to complete curriculum revision characterized their efforts.

ConclusionsAwareness of legislation that can improve physical education should not go unnoticed by any professional; however, the programs of Teachers of the Year may be used as exemplars that demonstrate the intent of the legislation.

Changes of Children's Motivation Toward Physical Education: A Longitudinal Perspective

Xiangli Gu, University of North Texas; and Melinda A. Solmon,^F Louisiana State University; and Tao Zhang, University of North Texas

([email protected])

Background/PurposeChildren's motivation toward physical education (PE) decreases during the elementary school year (Eccles et al., 1998; Xiang et al., 2004), but little is known about how this decline influences their physical activity (PA). Guided by the expectancy-value model, this study examined the relationship among changes in children's motivation, their self-reported PA, and their intentions for future participation in PE.

MethodUsing previously validated instrumentation in a repeated-measures design, school children (N = 354; 180 fourth graders and 174 fifth graders) completed questionnaires twice during the course of a school year, at the midpoint of the fall semester, and again at the midpoint of the spring semester. Their expectancy-related beliefs, task values, PA, and intentions to participate in PE in the future were assessed.

Analysis/ResultsStudents' expectancy-related beliefs and task values were positively related to their PA and intentions for future participation in PE at both Time 1 and Time 2. Task values and intentions decreased during the school year (all p < .01). Regression analyses indicated that changes in expectancy-related beliefs emerged as a significant predictor of changes in children's PA. Additionally, decreases in children's expectancy-related beliefs and task values explained a significant portion of the variance in the decrease in their intentions.

ConclusionsChildren reported lower task values toward PE across an academic year. Decreases in children's motivation contributed to decreases in PA and intentions. The findings indicated that it is important for PE teachers to focus on competence beliefs and the value of activities in their classes to foster engagement.

Achievement Goals and Perceived Motivational Climate in Physical Education

Jianmin Guan,^F The University of Texas-San Antonio; and Rulan Shangguan and Xiaofen Keating,^F The University of Texas – Austin

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAchievement goals (mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals) and perceived motivational climates (mastery and performance climates) are two important constructs that influence the cognitions, emotions, persistency/effort, and behaviors of individuals in physical activity contexts. The purpose of this study was to examine how achievement goals and perceived motivational climates might affect students' persistence toward physical education.

MethodA total of 272 middle school students served as participants in this study. All participants ranged in age from 11 to 15 years old (M = 13.03, SD = 0.84) and were enrolled in Grades 6 to 8. Participants' achievement goals, perceived climates, and persistence were all assessed by the Achievement Goal Questionnaire-Physical Education.

Analysis/ResultsA hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed to examine the joint influence of achievement goals and perceived classroom climates on students' reported persistence toward physical activities. The orders for the entries of the predictor variables were based on previous research. The perceived motivational climates were entered first, followed by the achievement goals. Results revealed that only mastery climate significantly predicted their persistence in the first step. Mastery-approach and performance-approach goals were also significantly positive predictors when entered into the second step of this model.

ConclusionsA major goal of physical education is to motivate student participation in physical activity on a regular basis. The results of this study may increase our knowledge of what and how to motivate students to participate in physical activities and may help physical educators develop students' positive motivation toward physical education class.

Validity of Alternative FITNESSGRAM Upper-Body Tests Among Adolescent Students

Kalani Hobayan, St. Pius X Parish School; and Debra Patterson, Clay Sherman, and Lenny Wiersma, California State University-Fullerton

([email protected])

Background/PurposeIn a society in which the rates of obesity levels have tripled in the past 30 years, the importance of increased fitness levels within the academic setting has become even more critical. The purpose of this study was to investigate the validity of alternative FITNESSGRAM upper-body tests of muscular strength and endurance among seventh- and eighth-grade boys and girls.

MethodAdolescent boys and girls (N = 123) in seventh grade and eighth grade from two urban middle schools were administered all three FITNESSGRAM muscular strength and endurance assessments on different days. The recommended test item used to assess students is the 90° Pushup (90°PSU). However, the FITNESSGRAM provides alternative assessments to measure upper-body strength: Modified Pull-Up (MPU) and Flexed Arm Hang (FAH).

Analysis/ResultsThe validity was determined by equivalence reliability estimates for the following comparisons: PSU–MPU and PSU–FAH. Both percentage agreement and modified kappa were used to determine the relationships between variables. Boys exemplified minimal acceptability for both PSU–MPU and PSU–FAH comparisons. Similar to the boy's results, results for girls indicated unacceptable reliability estimates for both PSU–MPU and PSU–FAH comparisons.

ConclusionsAs a result of this study, it is imperative that physical educators and administrators are aware that implementing the FITNESSGRAM alternative assessments of muscular strength and endurance may hinder and/or alter an adolescent's healthy fitness zone classification. Future research regarding the different muscular strength and endurance test items will ultimately promote higher levels of confidence among practitioners when using the different test items interchangeably.

Critical Discourse Analysis About Korean Student-Athletes' Human Rights

Deockki Hong, University of North Carolina – Greensboro; and Taeho Yu, Korea University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeIt is believed that sports play an important role for human development as a whole person. In an ideal context, sport participation can lead to positive development among student-athletes. But Korean student-athletes had been trained only to win the game without any educational consideration of their human rights. The purpose of this study was to suggest educational discourses about Korean student-athletes' human rights.

MethodBy the critical discourse analysis, this study explored the current human rights conditions among the Korean student-athletes in the context of elite sport and nationalism. In addition, this study analyzed the relationship of human rights and education, education and elite sports in school, and elite sports in school and human rights.

Analysis/ResultsResults showed that three themes emerged. The first theme was the rights of student-athletes to be happy as “human beings.” Student-athletes are human beings before they are athletes, so they should be protected from any kind of violation of human rights. The second theme was the rights of student-athletes to learn as “students.” Student-athletes' educational rights must not be taken away because they are students before they are athletes. The third theme was the rights of student-athletes to enjoy sports as “players.” Student-athletes have rights to enjoy and participate in sports for the sake of sports, not for winning.

ConclusionsIt is suggested that alternative sport paradigms of educational discourses be established for Korean student-athletes on the basis of human rights.

Effect of One Methods Class on Physical Education Teacher Efficacy

Charlotte Humphries and Eddie Hebert,^F Southeastern Louisiana University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeTeacher efficacy is well established as a positive trait in teachers, associated with a variety of effective behaviors and student learning. However, little is known about how efficacy is developed, particularly in physical education (PE) teachers. The purpose of this study was to examine whether an initial methods class affected efficacy for teaching PE.

MethodCandidates (n = 51) enrolled in the initial methods class of a health and PE teacher education curriculum each taught four or five 30-min lessons to intact elementary classes in a closely supervised experience. Candidates watched videos of each lesson as the basis for structured self-evaluations. Before and after their field experience, each candidate completed the Physical Education Teacher Efficacy Scale, a 35-item, seven-factor instrument.

Analysis/ResultsPaired t tests (p <  .05) were run on each factor. Although there were trends for increased efficacy on most factors, only one (efficacy for accommodating skill-level differences) approached significance (t = 1.904). Efficacy about PE content knowledge, efficacy for applying scientific knowledge in teaching PE, efficacy for teaching students with special needs, efficacy about instruction, efficacy for using assessment, and efficacy for using technology had no significant changes.

ConclusionsThese results suggest that efficacy for teaching PE develops with more extensive practice than such a course provides. Further research is needed over longer time periods and in different settings, to identify the amount and types of experience that lead to developing teacher efficacy and skill.

Preservice Teachers' Perceived Competence and Attitudes Toward Promoting Physical Activity

Jungyun Hwang, Jason M. Schafer, Darla M. Castelli,^F and Xiaofen Keating,^F The University of Texas – Austin

([email protected])

Background/PurposePreservice elementary school teachers (PESTs) can effectively deliver physically active lessons targeting academic content (Kibbe et al., 2011). The willingness of teachers to promote physical activity may be inhibited by their perceived competence. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to examine PESTs' perceived competence and attitude toward promoting school physical activity.

MethodPESTs enrolled in a children's movement course (N = 233) volunteered to provide demographic data and complete the prevalidated School Physical Activity Promotion Attitudes Questionnaire and School Physical Activity Promotion Competence Questionnaire (subscales include Attitude Toward Fitness/Physical Activities, Social Responsibility, Motor Skill, and Self-Concepts).

Analysis/ResultsMultivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed on the two scales by the participant characteristics of year in school, age, and race. There were significant effects by race for fitness, F(4, 229) = 4.32, p <  .01, ES = .11, and motor skill, F(4, 229) = 4.37, p <  .01, ES = .11. There were no significant effects by age or by year in school. MANOVA revealed no significant effects for competence for year in school, age, and race. Multiple regression analyses suggested that race, year, and competence, F(3, 228) = 3.64, p <  .01, R ² = .06, were associated with attitude toward teaching fitness/physical activities, while competence and race, F(3, 228) = 4.94, p <  .001, R ² = .08, were associated with promoting motor skills.

ConclusionsPESTs are more positive about teaching fitness and motor skills than they are about teaching social responsibility and self-concepts. Perceived competence may play a role in PESTs' attitude toward promoting physical activity.

Policy, Community, and Individual Influences on Teacher Knowledge Development

Boung Jin Kang, Elizabeth City State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeShulman and Shulman (2004) contend that teacher knowledge is based on fostering communities of learners (FCL). Accomplished teachers need to be ready (possess vision), willing (have motivation), and able (both know and be able to do) to teach and learn from reflection (learning from experience) while acting as a member of a professional community. Although the FCL framework was developed for work with in-service teachers, multiple components of the theory are applicable to preservice teacher (PT) knowledge development. The purpose of this study was to identify the influence of policy, community, and individual on PT knowledge development in early field experience (EFE).

MethodThis study investigated the knowledge of one PT across three semesters of EFE. The PT taught approximately 50 lessons at five different schools, was observed weekly, and engaged in postlesson conferences and multiple formal and informal interviews.

Analysis/ResultsObservation notes, a reflective journal, and interviews were transcribed and analyzed according to the Shulman and Shulman (2004) categories of individual, community, and policy. Four themes emerged: (a) Policy influences included the need for focused, frequent, progressive EFEs that included reflective opportunities; (b) community influences revolved around the cohort as a sounding board and shelter; (c) individual influences revealed a self-reflective PT who trusted and believed in the process; and (d) this PT began the EFE as willing, but developed readiness and ableness as the EFE progressed.

Conclusions(a) Community of Practice: The PT cohort group provided an important safe professional community. (b) Progressive EFE: EFEs need progressive structure that allows for feedback and reflection.

Roles of Teacher Educators' Modeling on Teacher Candidates' Identity Development

Kihee Jo and Okseon Lee, Seoul National University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeTeacher educators should be role models who can model the use of best practices because the way they teach is the message of teacher education. Although teacher educators are good examples to preservice teachers, there is little systematic research about the practice of teacher educators' modeling. The purpose of this study was to examine how teacher candidates perceive modeling of the teacher educator and what roles it plays on their identity development.

MethodEight participants were selected from students who were enrolled in an elementary physical education (PE) methods course in a university located in Seoul, Korea. The course was designed by the thematic framework of learning to teach (Feiman-Nemser, 2009) to offer experiences such as to know, think, feel, and act like a teacher. Data were collected from teacher candidates' reflective writing, participant observation, and interviews with participants. Data were analyzed inductively, and triangulation and member check were used to enhance trustworthiness of data.

Analysis/ResultsFindings revealed that teacher candidates perceived both implicit and explicit aspects of teacher educators' modeling. Teacher candidates attempted to copy some aspects of teacher educators' modeling and also use it as a springboard to form their own teacher identity. Teacher candidates' initial images of a PE teacher have been changed: (a) from a skilled athlete to a facilitator, (b) from a static statue to a dynamic actor/actress, and (c) from safety personnel to a tour guide.

ConclusionsFindings showed that a methods course designed with a specific focus of modeling can be helpful for teacher candidates' identity development.

Case Study of At-Risk Middle School Students in Physical Education

Jinhong Jung and Paul M. Wright,^F Northern Illinois University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeHellison's teaching personal and social responsibility (TPSR) model was developed in the United States but has been applied in many different countries. However, its application in East Asian cultural contexts has not been sufficiently examined. This study aimed to describe and interpret the cultural translation of this value-based instructional model in the physical education program of a South Korean middle school.

MethodA multiple case-study design was used to examine the relevance and impact of TPSR through the experiences and perceptions of six purposefully selected students who had been identified as at risk for school failure. Data sources included individual interviews, participant observations, lesson plans, student assessments, and written reflections. The data were analyzed by using the levels of Hellison's model as an analytic framework that guided initial coding, categorizations, and thematizing. The trustworthiness of the study was established by peer debriefing, member checking, and investigator triangulation.

Analysis/ResultsResults indicate that a 20-lesson TPSR unit was well-received by the students and contributed to numerous positive behavior changes. The core goals and life skills associated with TPSR appeared relevant and acceptable to case-study participants; however, the concept of self-direction emerged as more challenging for them to understand and enact. This may relate to differences in cultural schemas and educational norms. Such issues, as well as implications for research and practice, are discussed.

ConclusionsThe current study expands the TPSR literature by being one of the first to examine and make a case for the implementation of TPSR in an East Asian country.

Physical Education and Non-Physical Education Major Students' Empirical Experiences in Sport Education

Boung Jin Kang, Elizabeth City State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe purpose of this study was to explore 26 collegiate students' empirical experiences and receptivity and how they changed the perception of the sport education (SE) model (Siedentop, Hastie, & van der Mars, 2004) in a physical activity (PA) class.

MethodNine physical education (PE) major and 17 non-PE major collegiate students participated in PA class for 15 weeks that focused on exercising and implementing SE. Qualitative data were collected through class observations and interviews to assess students' receptivity and perceptions of the SE model as well as students' attitudes and beliefs about SE.

Analysis/ResultsEvery student expressed a variety of experiences of SE in PA class. (a) All students recognized the benefit of the SE model in PA class (i.e., actual involvement, leadership, and skill improvement). (b) Several students pointed out that implementing the SE model in PE class took too much time at the beginning of the unit of instruction. (c) Mixed students (PE major and non-PE major) class setting supported non-PE students easy to acquire sports skills and understand knowledge.

ConclusionsMost students complained that the lack of their understanding of the SE model concept increased the implementation time at the beginning of the season because it was very time-consuming to implement due to the organization involved. Nonetheless, the students in both majors did see the greater utility of the SE model for skill improvement and decision-making opportunities—the shift from an instructor-centered to a student-centered model of instruction as students took on various roles during the season.

Changes in Physical Education Programs From 2006 to 2010

Xiaofen Keating,^F The University of Texas – Austin; Prithwi Raj Subramaniam,^F Ithaca College; and Rulan Shangguan and Louis Harrison^F University of Texas – Austin; and Li Chen,^F Delaware State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeIt has been suggested that significant changes are needed to current physical education (PE) programs to ensure that PE programs are effective in combating childhood obesity. Data procured at the programmatic level allow PE professionals to monitor program development. This study aimed to examine PE program changes from 2006 to 2010.

MethodData reported in the Shape of the Nation published by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education in 2006 and 2010 were analyzed. The following three types of variables were included in the reports: PE requirements for K–12 students, online PE, and teacher qualification requirements.

Analysis/ResultsMeans and standard deviations for numeric variables were computed. For the categorical variables, percentages were calculated. Wilcoxon test was used to analyze the data. Results indicated a significant change in the mandated PE requirements for elementary school (Z = –2.31, p = .021), middle school (Z = –2.32, p = .020), and high school (Z = –3.61, p = .001). Moreover, a significant increase in offering online PE (Z = –3.16, p = .002) was found. Unfortunately, there was a significant decrease in funding for professional development (Z = –3.00, p = .003) and the requirement for the position of PE coordinator (Z = –5.01, p = .0001).

ConclusionsAlthough some positive programmatic changes have occurred, there is still work to be done (i.e., funding) if PE is to be a factor in the fight against childhood obesity. In addition, more PE might be taught online in the future.

Preservice Teachers' and Students' Physical Activity Outcomes

Tiffany A. Kloeppel, Horner Junior High School; and Kristin A. Scrabis-Fletcher, Eric Zullo, Nathalie Pfeifer, and Steve Leigh, Montclair State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThis study was informed by the body of knowledge on health promotion literature calling for America's schools and physical education (PE) programs to serve as intervention sites to remedy the current obesity epidemic (McKenzie & Kahan, 2008). It has become increasingly important to measure students' physical activity (PA) levels in PE programs when teachers use a particular curricular model. This study measured students' PA levels, lesson context, and teacher behaviors in classes where preservice PE teachers implemented the dynamic physical education (DPE) curricular model. This study is unique in that the DPE curriculum is taught to the teacher candidate throughout their physical education teacher education (PETE) program.

MethodParticipants were 11 preservice PE teachers using DPE curricula and their elementary PE students. Data were collected using quantitative measures including videotapes and the direct observation instrument System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (McKenzie et al., 2001). Each preservice teacher was observed across two lessons.

Analysis/ResultsInitial analyses investigating students' PA levels, lesson context, and teacher behavior revealed students were often standing (46% of class time), and 32% of class time was spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Further, managerial activities (25%) and skill practice (25%) were the most frequently observed lesson contexts. Lastly, teachers were frequently promoting PA (67%) within PE lessons.

ConclusionsAlthough student PA levels did not meet the national standard of 50% of PE class time, teachers were promoting PA often throughout the lessons, and this may be one of the most critical outcomes of PE programs.

Teacher Fidelity to Physical Education Curricular Models

Tiffany A. Kloeppel, Horner Junior High School; and Pamela Hodges Kulinna,^F Hans van der Mars,^F and Michalis Stylianou, Arizona State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeSchool districts generally do not require physical education programs to adhere to a prescribed curriculum. Ongoing formal professional development is known to help physical educators (Armour & Yelling, 2007). Grounded in the fidelity of curricular implementation literature, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether teacher fidelity to a specific curriculum was affected by the level of district-delivered professional development support and oversight.

MethodParticipants were elementary physical education teachers (N = 20) from seven school districts. All were prepared in the dynamic physical education (DPE) model from the same university. Ten teachers taught DPE in a district with high support and oversight, while 10 teachers taught in non-support/-oversight districts. Data were collected using a validated observation fidelity checklist, field notes, informal interviews, and document analysis.

Analysis/ResultsDescriptive statistics and t tests were run to investigate differences between teacher-support groups based on the checklist (Author, 2011). Teachers in the high-support district were significantly more faithful to the DPE curricular model across all three observations, t(2.87) = –8.91, p <  .01. Two qualitative themes were identified regarding teacher fidelity: (a) district support led to higher teacher fidelity levels to the DPE curriculum/schedule, and (b) teachers from the non-support district implemented management procedures differently.

ConclusionsSimilar to many other studies related to fidelity of curricular implementation, this study showed different levels of teacher fidelity based on district-support levels. Fidelity levels were related to being prepared to teach the curricular model, ongoing professional development, and administrative support.

Physical Educators' Exergaming Integration Behaviors, Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Jennifer Krause, The University of Texas-San Antonio

([email protected])

Background/PurposeExergaming technologies have emerged in physical education in recent years as an attempt to revitalize physical activity levels among youth. Research on the effects of exergaming is increasing; however, there is little research on teachers' implementation. Past studies have indicated that physical educators had low levels of confidence with regard to technology integration (Woods et al., 2008). Due to exergaming technology's potential impact, it is essential to understand the extent to which physical education teachers implement these technologies. Bandura (1997) stated that self-efficacy beliefs, influenced by prior experiences, are powerful motives of behavior. For physical educators to integrate exergaming into their classes successfully, it is important to understand their beliefs. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate teachers' self-efficacy beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors with regard to integrating exergaming technology in physical education.

MethodThis study involved 402 in-service physical education teachers from 35 U.S. states who completed the online Physical Educators' Exergaming Technology Integration, Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy Inventory.

Analysis/ResultsIn-service physical education teachers reported having moderate-to-high levels of attitude and self-efficacy beliefs, and Pearson's r correlations suggested strong, positive relationships between attitude and self-efficacy beliefs (r = .56, n = 402, p <  .001) toward integrating exergaming technology in physical education. Teachers' prior exergaming integration experiences were positive overall, yet were limited due to barriers such as budget and support.

ConclusionsResults of this study suggest that physical education teachers feel confident and have positive attitudes, despite many barriers, toward integrating exergaming in physical education.

Capabilities of Primary Students Participating in a Sport Education Unit

Todd Layne, University of Memphis; and Peter A. Hastie,^F Auburn University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeAlthough research has supported using sport education in physical education, little investigation has been conducted regarding the effectiveness of sport education in the early elementary grades. The purposes of this investigation were to investigate the extent to which students could perform the less teacher-directed components of the model, namely, (a) performing team duties and skill practices independently of the teacher, (b) playing a modified game without constant intervention from the teacher, (c) successfully officiating games, and (d) managing the various organizational tasks associated with the season.

MethodThe participants in this study were 48 students from two fourth-grade classrooms. Each task (N = 640) from two complete seasons were coded according to the following categories: type of task, the explicitness of the task, and student compliance. Skill opportunities and success and referee involvement and success were also coded.

Analysis/ResultsResults indicated that students achieved high levels of compliance (94%) in all tasks across the season, even as tasks moved from a more explicit to implicit form of presentation. There was no increase in management time as teacher supervision decreased, even as the class prepared for the culminating event. Skill success improved from the formal competition to the postseason phase (F = 7.44, p = .041), as did refereeing success (F = 26.39, p = .004) and the active involvement (F = 39.85, p = .001) of students in their refereeing roles.

ConclusionsThese results indicate positive student responses to their initial experience with sport education and suggest that it can potentially be incorporated with students in the early elementary grades.

Validation of the Pedagogical Content Knowledge Measurement Tool

Yun Soo Lee, Donald Belcher, Tina J. Hall, and Minsoo Kang,^F Middle Tennessee State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposeTo accurately assess teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), better methods of determining their PCK through observation are needed. The PCK measurement tool was developed (Lee, 2011); however, there is a lack of validity evidence. The purpose of this study was to validate the PCK measurement tool in physical education (PE) by comparing it to the concept map assessment, an alternative measure of teachers' knowledge structure.

MethodA total of 25 teacher candidates generated their own concept map about the content they taught in a secondary PE field experience. The concept maps were scored by the researchers. Three trained observers scored each teacher candidate's teaching using the 10-item PCK measurement tool, which included verbal and visual representations, task appropriateness, and maturity of task representations. Two groups (experienced vs. nonexperienced) were identified based on their level of teaching, coaching, and playing experiences about the content they taught. The Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to establish convergent validity between the PCK measurement tool and the concept map assessment. Independent t test was used to establish known-group difference validity evidence.

Analysis/ResultsThe scores of the PCK measurement tool were strongly related to the scores of the concept map assessment (r = .85). Independent t test revealed that the experienced group (M = 36.98, SD = 3.76) scored significantly higher than the nonexperienced group (M = 32.66, SD = 4.51) in PCK scores (p = .016).

ConclusionsThe results supported the convergent validity and known-group difference validity evidence of the PCK measurement tool. The PCK measurement tool can be useful to accurately assess PE teachers' PCK.

Implementation Fidelity of Responsibility Model in Elementary Physical Education Classes

Okseon Lee, Kihee Jo, Kyunghee Kong, Seoul National University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: With the increasing number of school violence and youth problems, there is growing interest in implementing teaching personal and social responsibility (TPSR; Hellison, 2003) in Korean physical education (PE) classes. Although studies on TPSR outcomes are increasing in Korea, little is known regarding fidelity of the program implementation. Given that program outcomes should be explained in relation to the fidelity of implementation, it is an important topic to explore. The purpose of this study was to examine fidelity of TPSR implementation and factors influencing the implementation of the model in Korean elementary PE classes.

Method: Participants were seven elementary classroom teachers (six men, one woman) who had agreed to participate in the study. Data were collected from the observation of PE classes with the fidelity benchmark, teachers' reflective journal entries, and interviews with students and teachers.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed inductively, and a participant-fidelity matrix was made to determine the level of fidelity of each participant. Findings revealed the four continuums of TPSR implementation: (a) fidelity to model with no modifications, (b) fidelity to students with adaptation, (c) moderate fidelity with adaptations, and (d) low fidelity with elimination of the critical components. Participants' implementation fidelity was influenced by teacher factors (e.g., knowledge, belief), student factors (e.g., student responsiveness to the model), and contextual factors (e.g., school culture).

Conclusions: Teachers' implementation of TPSR was in the continuum of low to high fidelity, and it was influenced by practicality of process of implementation and the needs of students, teachers, and educational contexts.

Influence of Instructional Climates on Management Tasks and Physical Activity

S. Wood Logan, Leah Robinson, E. Kipling Webster, Brandie Battiste, Chelsea Nortick, Michael V. Tigner, Christina Willmann, Kara Palmer, Auburn University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: To determine the influence of instructional climates on class time spent in management tasks and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA).

Method: Forty-eight second graders participated in a 5-week physical education intervention that promoted physical activity. Prior to the intervention, a typical physical education (TPE) class (n = 48) consisted of 50-min class periods. Students were randomly assigned to a mastery (n = 23) or performance (n = 25) climate that occurred daily for 25 min across 5 weeks. The System for Observing Fitness and Instruction Time (SOFIT) was used to determine the percentage of class time spent in management tasks and MVPA. SOFIT is a time-sampling observation protocol that includes a 10-s observe and 10-s record interval. Data were analyzed with two independent-samples Kruskal-Wallis tests.

Analysis/Results: A significant difference was found between climates on percentage of time spent in management (p <  .001). The mastery climate (9.6%, p <  .001) spent significantly less time in management compared with the performance climate (23.5%, p <  .001) and TPE (54.6%, p <  .001). A significant difference was found between climates on percentage of class time students spent in MVPA (p = .01). MVPA during the mastery (68%) and performance climate (67%) was significantly higher compared with TPE (p <  .001).

Conclusions: A mastery climate allowed students to make engagement-related decisions and less time was spent in management tasks. Regardless of climate, students spent more time in MVPA compared with TPE. High-quality instruction that supports autonomy promotes physical activity during physical education.

Expert Opinions: Fate of Kinesiology and Physical Education Pedagogy

Jenna R. Lorusso, Nancy Francis, Brock University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Despite the profound and widespread concern for the future of the academic discipline of kinesiology, and more specifically physical education pedagogy, there has been little systematic study on the topic (Dunn, 2009; Kirk, 2010).

Method: This research sought both American and international (n = 5) experts' opinions on the possible, probable, preferable, and undesirable futures of the academic discipline. Utilizing a two-round interview Delphi method, participants were asked to project 15 years into the future regarding the undergraduate degree program curricula and location, as well as the focus, name, organizational framework, and profession–discipline relationship of the academic discipline.

Analysis/Results: Data were content-analyzed to determine patterns and themes (Patton, 2002). Experts agree a preferable future includes: a focus on physical activity; faculty members with the interest, intellect, and education to discuss and deal with the field's issues; consensus over the field's undergraduate and professional degree program curricula; kinesiology as the name of academic units and the discipline; and lastly no longer having a profession-versus-discipline distinction.

Conclusions: Experts indicate that achieving preferable scenarios requires a realization that issues are endemic in any academic discipline, and therefore, the emphasis should not necessarily be on debating the issues at large, but rather should be on organization at the institutional level. More specifically, this involves emphasis on strategic leadership, quality doctoral preparation addressing the field's issues, and awareness and understanding of the particular local, geographical, and institutional constraints. Expert advice on how to operationalize a preferable future will be presented.

PEP Grant Funding: An Impetus for Change in Physical Education

Chris MacPherson, Karen Richardson, Bridgewater State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Physical educators teach many children and adolescents who are physically inactive and who become less active as they mature (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). Grants to improve physical education are supported by the Carol M. White Physical Education Program (PEP; U.S. Department of Education, 2009). This study's purpose was to examine a PEP grant's impact on a suburban physical education program.

Method: Participants were one elementary, two middle, and two high school physical education teachers, one physical education director, and nine students. Qualitative data were collected and analyzed inductively from five sources: (a) individual 45- to 60-min semistructured interviews with the director and five teachers, (b) descriptive field notes from 15 class observation hours, (c) 30- to 45-min semistructured student focus-group interviews with three students at each grade level, (d) a teacher demographic questionnaire, and (e) extensive document analysis.

Analysis/Results: The results indicated that ongoing professional development served as an impetus for programmatic change. Implementation of a robust K–12 Project Adventure program was evident. The collegiality created from the professional development led to teacher buy- in and commitment to Project Adventure's philosophy and program.

Conclusions: In conclusion, the district was in Fullan's (2007) continuation phase of educational change. Project Adventure was built into the curriculum and embraced by faculty and students. The teachers' improved organizational capacity allowed them to solve problems and created a deeper understanding of the content and a change in beliefs about Project Adventure's place in the curriculum, all of which are dimensions of change in the continuation phase (Fullan, 2007).

Factors Affecting Curriculum Implementation: One Teacher's Perception

Matthew Madden, Melissa Parker^F, Mark A. Smith, Kevin Patton^F, California State University–Chico

([email protected], Background/Purpose: Educational reforms are often impeded by the gap between policy intentions and their implementation (Penney & Jess, 2004). A common reason for success or failure is how teachers perceive the changes impact student learning (Ha et al., 2008). The purpose of this study was to examine the reflections of a physical education teacher after the 1st year of new curriculum implementation. The specific research question was: What were the teacher's perceptions of her experience of implementing a new curriculum?, Method: Data were collected with interviews, field notes of classroom observations, documents, and artifacts., Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using open and axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Results indicated that the teacher perceived student response to change as extremely important. Student response included behavior and learning transfer. Change in behavior was not a direct response to the new curriculum but a multifaceted response to related factors resulting from curriculum implementation. The teacher also perceived that initially, revised teacher practices negatively altered student behavior. Learning transfer was described as the skills learned as a direct result of the new curriculum. Despite students' somewhat negative response to changes, the teacher perceived an improved ability by students to transfer concepts learned in one content area to another., Conclusions: Overall, the role of the teacher within the study was that of a change agent throughout implementation. The findings reinforce the importance of understanding how students respond to change. Additionally, teachers must recognize that change is difficult and must perceive it as contributing to student leaning.

Physical Education Teachers' Self-Efficacy and Burnout

Kimberly Maljak, Bo Shen^F, Nate McCaughtry^F, Alex Garn, Jeffrey Martin^F, Noel Kulik, Mariane M. Fahlman^F, Laurel L. Whalen, Wayne State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: According to social-cognitive theory, teachers' self-efficacy includes confidence in planning, organizing, and executing activities toward educational goals. Continual crises affecting teachers' self-efficacy may result in emotional distress, such as anxiety or burnout. This study investigated associations between teachers' self-efficacy and burnout.

Method: Using a mixed-method design, 87 physical educators completed three-dimension measures of teachers' self-efficacy (instruction, management, and motivation) and feelings of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment). Hierarchical regression analyses were used to predict dimensions of burnout. In addition, 8 teachers were randomly selected and interviewed individually for 1 h. Interview data were analyzed through constant comparison, and trustworthiness strategies included member checking and negative case analysis.

Analysis/Results: Quantitatively, management self-efficacy was the strongest negative predictor of emotional exhaustion (R ² = .08, α = –.27, p <  .01) and depersonalization (R ² = .12, α = –.36, p <  .01); whereas instructional self-efficacy was the strongest predictor of reduced personal accomplishment (R ²  = .05, α = –.21, p <  .01). Qualitative interviews found that self-efficacy intersected with interpersonal relationship with students, variety of instructional strategies, and providing choice and support. In addition, increased burnout stemmed from physical fatigue, diminishing work conditions, changes in students' personalities, and further marginalization in schools.

Conclusions: Teachers' self-efficacy beliefs are negatively related to their burnout level. There is a dynamic web of interrelations among different dimensions of teachers' self-efficacy. Management self-efficacy and the unique nature of burnout in physical education must be taken into consideration when developing interventions both to prevent and to treat burnout among physical education teachers.

Student Perceptions of Choice and Teacher Support During Initiative Games

Ron E. McBride^F, Fatma Sacli, Ping Xiang^F, Texas A&M University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Self-regulation of learning (SRL) is planning and monitoring the cognitive, behavioral, and motivational process toward completion of tasks/goals (Hadwin, Jarvela, & Miller, 2011). SRL environments offer students choice and decision-making opportunities (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Because few research reports perceived choice and teacher support during challenging physical activities, we explore perceived choice, teacher support, and strategic decision-making during initiative games (activities requiring cooperation and critical thinking).

Method: Nineteen boys aged 11 to 13 years old were interviewed after participating in initiative games during a 3-week summer sports camp. We asked about opportunities for choice, teacher support, and strategic decisions. Interviews were 10 to 15 min long, audio-recorded, transcribed, and subjected to analysis of content (Patton, 2002). Disagreements were discussed until 100% consensus occurred. Trustworthiness was attained through prolonged engagement, dependability, and negative case (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Analysis/Results: Students perceived opportunities for choice (16/19): “If I am given choices, the games are enjoyable.” Teacher-support evidence included “caring,” “encouraging,” and a “positive personality.” Strategy decisions employed “size,” “We had the short people go first”; taking turns, “The one person goes in to touch the rest of the buttons”; and teamwork, “We hung on and put our arms around everybody.”

Conclusions: Wigfield et al. (2011) recommend investigating salient student choices and how they make decisions when approaching learning tasks. We extend current research by examining student-perceived decision-making opportunities, teacher support, and strategic decisions during learning activities. Autonomy development requires opportunities for decision-making, but teachers must provide opportunities for “thoughtful” decision-making. Initiative games study holds potential for future research.

TPSR Values and Life Skills: Impact on Former Program Participants

Anthony Melendez, University of North Carolina–Greensboro

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate what teaching personal and social responsibility (TPSR) values and life skills former participants have acquired in Project Effort and through other sources, and how they have guided their lives. The triangle model of responsibility (TMR; Schlenker, 1994) was used to describe links among program experiences, values and skills acquired, and life experiences.

Method: A multiple-case design was used. Purposeful sampling resulted in the selection of five participants. All were older than 18 and were past members of Project Effort for at least 3 years. Two in-depth interviews were conducted. Interviews focused on the importance placed on TPSR values and life skills and where and how they learned the values and life skills.

Analysis/Results: TMR linkages were determined via single and cross-case analyses. Former participants considered the TPSR values of respecting and helping others as really important to their lives. They learned the values and skills of helping others, self-direction, reflection, respect, and leadership in Project Effort. Being reflective was most useful to the participants.

Conclusions: The goal of the TPSR model is for participants to apply the concepts. TMR linkages were substantial enough to indicate that participants applied program values to their life experiences. Helping others and being reflective were also found to be important skills in guiding them in the way they live their lives. Additionally, a high premium was placed on leading and helping others—two important requisites for contributing to the community. These support two of the main principles underlying effective youth development programming.

The Influence of Novelty and Variety on Situational Interest

John Mercer, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: As students continually become disinterested in the repetitive learning tasks often associated with physical education (Ennis, 2007; Roslow Research Group, 2009), there is an inherent need to reappraise the types of activities offered to promote widespread evolution of the field. The conservative nature of the field has seen the traditional multiactivity unit plan design used as the predominant approach since its inception. The purpose was to study the impact of novel activities and a variety-centered curriculum on situational interest (SI) and its individual measures.

Method: One hundred and one seventh and eighth grade students from three separate classes participated. To further understand the influence of novelty and variety on SI, 12 students of varying activity levels were randomly selected to participate in one-on-one interviews. The study employed a convergent mixed-methods design using triangulation from multiple sources to analyze both quantitative and qualitative data. Multiple sources included the Situational Interest Scale (Chen et al., 2001), interviews, and observations.

Analysis/Results: Multivariate analysis of variance and post-hoc analysis revealed that the actualizing measures of SI (instant enjoyment and attention demand) were positively influenced by the novelty offered by an activity and the exploratory opportunities provided by a learning task. Interviews revealed that the variety-centered curriculum was important to students and was directly linked to the individual measures of SI.

Conclusions: Although traditional multiactivity designs are most often found in physical education, the results suggest that designing a curriculum that emphasizes novelty and variety may have a unique and direct impact on the development of SI.

Developing Habitus Through Student-Designed Games

Claire M. Mowling, Helen Hazelwood, Michael Hobson, Andrew Stopher, St. Mary's University College

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Student-designed games (SDG) embraces the games creation journey and encourages students to construct their own meaning by creating an environment that promotes innovation, creativity, and problem solving. SDG provides an environment for developing habitus and thereby challenging an individual's ties to their reality of yesterday. The purpose of the study was to investigate the development of habitus through SDG.

Method: A case study was adopted to describe, explore, and illustrate the SDG intervention. A total of 88 students and 6 lecturers from a university in the United Kingdom participated in the study. The 5-week (10-hr) unit was designed to create an environment where students experienced SDG through an “Olympic Athletics Challenge.” The unit was designed based on the four phases of SDG development (planning, modification, refinement, and finalization). Data were gathered from reflections, discussion groups, online forums, game templates, and game evaluation forms.

Analysis/Results: Thematic analysis of data identified four themes. These were labeled as: building cohesion, preeminence of rules, experiences of learning, and embracing the creative process. The themes are thoroughly discussed within the context of developing habitus.

Conclusions: SDG allows for the development of group habitus. A group of “like” people placed in a new environment opens the doors to safely question their reality of yesterday. SDG allows recognition of positives and negatives of being a part of a seemingly constructivist learning environment and highlights the need to further explore the specific roles of all involved.

Facilitating Leisure-Time Physical Activity by Autonomy-Supportive Learning Climate

Mine Muftuler, M., Levent, Ince, Middle East Technical University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Previous studies indicated that providing an autonomy-supportive learning climate in physical education settings might be critical in improving adolescents' leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) behaviors (Hagger et al., 2009). The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an intervention designed to provide an autonomy-supportive learning climate on college students' perceived autonomy support and LTPA.

Method: Seventy college students were randomly assigned to an experimental group (M _age = 23.23 years, SD = 3.82; 15 women and 20 men) or a control group (M _age = 23.29 years, SD = 2.52; 15 women and 20 men). The experimental group followed a 12-week (4 h/week) intervention designed to introduce an autonomy-supportive learning climate by providing students with a meaningful rationale, offering different physical activity choices, and acknowledging individual differences and behavioral feelings. Data were collected by using the Perceived Autonomy Support Scale for Exercise Settings (Hagger et al., 2007), Physical Activity Stages of Change Questionnaire (Marcus et al., 1992), and International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form (Craig et al., 2003). These measures were applied before and after the intervention.

Analysis/Results: Paired-samples t test and chi-square analyses were used. Results indicated that autonomy-supportive intervention improved the experimental group students' perceived autonomy support from the instructor and from peers and improved their physical activity stages and levels (p <  .05).

Conclusions: This study indicated that the intervention was successful in increasing perceived autonomy support, physical activity stages, and physical activity levels of college students. Application of autonomy-supportive physical activity interventions is strongly recommended for the late-adolescence group.

Associations Between Adolescents' Situational Motivation and Physical Activity in Physical Education

Weihong Ning, Zan Gao^F, University of Minnesota

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: This study aimed to examine: (a) the relationship between adolescents' situational motivation (intrinsic motivation [IM], identified regulation [IR], external regulation, and amotivation [AM]) and physical activity (PA) levels in physical education (PE); and (b) the predictive strengths of adolescents' situational motivation to their PA levels.

Methods

A total of 259 middle school students ranging from 11 to 14 years old (M _age = 12.47, SD = 0.97) participated in the study. Participants completed the Situational Motivation Scale (Guay, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2000) at the end of three PE classes. Their PA levels in PE were assessed by pedometers and Actical accelerometers. The PA levels were quantified as steps per minute with pedometers, and as percentages of time in sedentary, light, and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) with accelerometers.

Analysis/Results: AM (r = –.17, p <  .01) was negatively related to participants' steps per minute; IM (r = –.27, p <  .01) and IR (r = –.25, p <  .05) were negatively correlated to their time in sedentary activity; and IM had a positive relationship with time in MVPA. Multiple regression analysis further yielded that IM was the only positive predictor for participants' time in MVPA (ß = .22, p <  .05), and was the negative predictor for the sedentary (ß = –.28, p <  .01). Additionally, AM negatively predicted steps per minute.

Conclusions: IM emerged as the positive predictor for adolescents' PA participation in PE, while AM was the negative predictor of PA. Thus physical educators may identify effective strategies to increase adolescents' IM.

Preservice Physical Educators' Development During a High School Virtual Internship

Peg Nugent, Nell Faucette^F, Sara Flory, University of South Florida

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Though internships are highly effective learning experiences for preservice teachers, few universities have incorporated them into virtual settings. This research on a 7.5-week virtual internship examined outcomes of constructivist teaching practices delivered by cooperating teachers and university supervisors. Cooperating teachers worked online synchronously with intern teams while teaching high school health and physical education content. Simultaneously, interns analyzed instructional behaviors, strategies to engage students, and their own skill development. Interns also analyzed the virtual course while teaching it to each other.

Method: Upon university institutional review board approval, eight seniors participated in this qualitative research. Data were collected from semistructured interviews, open-ended surveys, Elluminate sessions, group debriefing sessions, and reflection journals.

Analysis/Results: Coding and triangulation enabled interpretation of interns' experiences and identification of themes and categories. Results indicated that eight interns moved from mixed feelings to mostly positive responses. Initial concerns included calling or e-mailing students and parents and assessing work online. Positive outcomes involved time management and organizational skills; grading, feedback, and curriculum development skills; collaborating and communicating well with students, parents, and mentors; and using new technology. Though two interns continued to be concerned about teaching online, most were positive about it and all would accept a virtual position.

Conclusions: Though half the participants still preferred traditional teaching, all felt capable of teaching online, and four moved from deep concerns to enthusiastic consideration. Thus, results indicate that strategic engagement with constructivist practices can quickly develop preservice teachers' confidence, knowledge, and skills.

Students' Perceived Support in Relation to Bullying in Physical Education

Jamie A. O'Connor, Kim C. Graber^F, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The psychological ramifications for students involved in bullying and victimization behaviors cannot be ignored (Brunstein Klomek et al., 2007; Swearer et al., 2001), and bullying prevention in schools has become a public health concern (Spriggs et al., 2007). The purpose of this investigation was to use ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 1979) to examine the perceptions of middle school students about bullying in physical education and the support they receive from others.

Method: After obtaining institutional review board approval and informed consent, 24 sixth-grade students and 4 physical education teachers were invited to participate in the investigation. The researcher formally and informally interviewed participants about their perceptions of support from physical education teachers, parents, and peers in relation to bullying in physical education.

Analysis/Results: Interview transcriptions were analyzed using open and axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Member checks, peer debriefing, and negative case searches were also employed. Results indicate that students perceive a lack of support pertaining to bullying in physical education. Specifically, students reported that physical education teachers enable certain bullying behaviors and fail to create meaningful class rules. Students also perceive that the majority of their peers antagonize or ignore bullying events and that parents provide mixed information with regard to bullying in physical education.

Conclusions: Overall, many students do not perceive an effective support system exists for preventing bullying in physical education. More research exploring the effectiveness of teacher-, parent-, and peer-support systems pertaining to bullying in physical education is warranted.

Physical Activity Levels During Secondary School Physical Education

Hyun-Ju Oh, Sharon R. Rana, Rhonda Hovatter, Ohio University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Physical education (PE) can be a focal place to affect healthful physical activity behavior changes in youth (Pate et al., 2006). Students should engage in PE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during at least 50% of class time (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000). The purpose of this investigation was to assess the physical activity levels of secondary school youth during PE.

Method: Total observations included 1,238 data points from 395 students (652 observations from boys and 586 from girls; 673 from middle school [MS] and 565 from high school [HS]) recruited from two MS and two HS. Data were collected during PE classes for three consecutive lessons per school. The average time spent in MVPA and step counts per class were measured by using a New Lifestyles NL-1000 pedometer with an MVPA timer.

Analysis/Results: Average minutes for each PE class were 33.7 for MS and 33.6 for HS. 2 ×  2 factorial analyses of variance (school level ×  sex) were analyzed and a significant interaction was found for both MVPA (p = .025) and steps (p = .008). Independent t tests demonstrated that HS youth had more steps (2,106 vs. 1,743, p = .000) and MVPA minutes (8.6 vs. 6.6, p = .000). Sex-related differences were prevalent, as boys had more MVPA minutes (8.2 vs. 6.8, p = .000) and took more steps during PE (2,066 vs. 1,734, p = .000).

Conclusions: The participants spent approximately 22.3% of time in MVPA in PE class, which is far less than the 50% recommended. HS youth and boys took more steps and spent more time in MVPA during PE.

Third-Grade Students' Naïve Theory of Heart Function During Exercise

Denis Pasco, Cody Talbert, Ioannis Syrmpas, Senlin Chen, Deockki Hong, Jerry W. Loflin, Tan Zhang, Jared Nathan Androzzi, Ang Chen^F, Catherine D. Ennis^F, University of North Carolina–Greensboro

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Naïve theories represent the explanations students use to describe a particular phenomenon within a domain based on their prior knowledge. They are the knowledge base from where students build new knowledge. The purpose of this qualitative research study was to examine third-grade students' naïve theory of heart function during exercise.

Method: Forty-five third-grade students were interviewed to ascertain their understanding of heart function during exercise. Interviews were analyzed using open and axial coding to identify emerging categories and themes.

Analysis/Results: Data revealed that third-grade students' understanding of heart function during exercise is related to the function of pumping blood to the body. Students expressed a naïve theory in which, during exercise, the heart creates new blood and gives energy to the body by pumping. For example, when students were asked, “What happens when your heart beats fast?” one third grader replied, “You get new blood in your heart.” When we asked, “What does it mean when your heart is beating faster, what is it doing?” the student answered, “It gets new blood and it's giving your body a new life or air and blood.”

Conclusions: This study demonstrated that students understand phenomena through a naïve theory based on prior experience and knowledge. Data were discussed in relation to the impact of naïve theory on student learning in physical education, the gradual knowledge growth, and the metaphor of the octopus race to describe students' naïve theory about heart function during exercise.

Quality Elementary Physical Education: What Do the Children Think?

Todd Pennington, Keven A. Prusak, Carol Wilkinson, Tirza Davis, Brigham Young University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: At the center of the district-wide model of systemic success in physical education (SSPE) identified by Prusak, Pennington, Vincent-Graser, Beighle, and Morgan (2010) is quality physical education (PE). Quality PE in the SSPE model is defined by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (2003). This study examined elementary school children's attitudes and behaviors of PE after experiencing the SSPE model for 3 consecutive years in the district.

Method: This study employed a mixed-methods approach. Student perceptions (n = 277) of (a) enjoyment and (b) usefulness of PE were assessed by the 20-item, six subscale survey validated for use with this population (Subramaniam & Silverman, 2000). Focus-group interviews were conducted to further access student perceptions of their PE experience in the district. A representative sampling, four schools, of the district's demographics participated.

Analysis/Results: Survey data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Scores for all six subscales were calculated by averaging respective scale items. Data were also analyzed for within-group and between-group differences, and post-hoc analyses were performed. Interview data were transcribed and analyzed using the constant comparative method. Results identified three student-originated themes and valuable insights that may broaden the definition of quality PE. Students defined quality PE as enjoyable and useful when it (a) provided a fun, social, learning environment and activities; (b) made an impact on healthy behaviors and knowledge; and (c) consisted of well-managed classes with engaging teachers.

Conclusions: Future studies examining student perceptions of what professionals consider quality PE is recommended. Furthermore, children's voices ought to be considered when district-wide elementary school PE is being revised and assessed.

MP3s for a Healthy Me: Healthy Messages for Teens

Stephen Presley, Lynne Bryant, Darla M. Castelli, University of Texas–Austin

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Physical inactivity, the media, and poor nutrition are contributory factors to public health issues such as obesity. The purpose of this research project was to evaluate the feasibility and affects of video public service announcements (PSAs) containing healthy messages in a school setting to promote healthy behaviors.

Method: Two phases were employed: (a) development of PSAs in health and film classes, and (b) implementation during physical education. Twenty-four high school students (50% boys) created PSAs and participated in semistructured focus-group interviews. In the second phase, an additional 35 students completed focus-group interviews and a valid physical activity intentions survey.

Analysis/Results: All interviews were transcribed verbatim and coded for patterns. Repeated debriefing and data audits were conducted to confirm trustworthiness. Three themes emerged: (a) peer-to-peer messages are appreciated; (b) relevance carries weight; and (c) PSAs are reinforcers of health behaviors. John stated, “They (the PSAs) may not be professional but they may be as effective because they are coming from students.... and we can connect.” Developers of PSAs selected issues of self-importance that had potential impact on their peers. After watching the PSAs, students reported that they were more likely to make healthy food choices and be physically active for 60 min each day of the following week.

Conclusions: Implementing PSAs into physical education instruction is feasible and provides a meaningful experience for both the developers and observers when the topic is relevant. Playing PSAs at the end of the school day is recommended.

Understanding the Impact of Service Learning on Preservice Teachers' Attitudes

K. Andrew R. Richards, Andrew Eberline, Thomas J. Templin^F, Purdue University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Service learning-based physical activity programs that serve children with disabilities (CWD) are common on university campuses, but little is known about the impact of these experiences on the undergraduate students who participate in them. The purpose of this study was to understand the impact of one such program in developing positive attitudes toward service and CWD in undergraduate student volunteers.

Method: Participants included 45 undergraduate students from varying majors and with a variety of previous experience working with CWD. Quantitative data were gathered using pre/post-psychometric instrumentation that evaluated changes in students' attitudes toward service and attitudes toward individuals with disabilities. Qualitative data were collected via program observations, document analysis, and semistructured interviews with participants.

Analysis/Results: Quantitative data were analyzed using t tests and analysis of variance to test differences between group characteristics and changes from presurvey to postsurvey administration. Qualitative data were analyzed using inductive analysis and constant comparison. Results indicated that students' attitudes toward service and CWD improved during the program. This was especially true of students who had limited prior contact with CWD. Overall, students indicated they enjoyed participating in the program and believed that in doing so, they were helping to enhance the community.

Conclusions: Service-learning programs can positively influence college students' attitudes toward service and CWD. However, this impact may be more limited for students who have previous experience working with this population. Nevertheless, this type of service-learning programming has definite benefits for the community and provides undergraduates with opportunities to become engaged in serving others.

What Makes Physical Education Teachers Credible to Children?

Nilo C. Ramos, Bryan A. McCullick^F, University of Georgia

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Source credibility theory (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953) posits that teachers' power of persuasion, and consequently, effectiveness is amplified when students view them as credible. Remarkably, the literature on physical education (PE) teacher effectiveness is bereft of studies on PE teacher credibility. This is especially surprising given that PE teachers are allegedly instrumental in helping children to learn how to lead active and healthy lifestyles (Pate et al., 2006). The purpose of this study was to investigate students' perceptions of a PE teacher's credibility.

Method: Eight high- and low-skilled students from Grades 3 and 5 were selected from a school employing a PE teacher holding a National Board Certification with more than 20 years of experience. Data were collected during 3 months in the school setting utilizing: (a) observations, (b) field notes, (c) open-ended questionnaire, (d) student drawings, (e) a photo elicitation exercise, and (g) group and individual interviews.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed inductively using Miles and Huberman's (1994) four-stage analysis procedure to identify commonalities and themes. In the eyes of the students, a credible PE teacher: (a) “looks like” one, (b) is a “poly-athlete,” (c) is an “awesome” pedagogue, and (d) practices what she preaches.

Conclusions: If quality PE teachers are important in children's development of a positive disposition toward physical activity (Graham, Holt/Hale, & Parker, 2010), knowing what children believe to be characteristic of credible teachers appears essential. Students' valuable insight about teacher credibility has implications for both current PE teachers and PE teacher education programs concerned with teacher effectiveness, and hence, it also has implications for student learning.

Urban Middle School African American Girls' Attitudes Toward Physical Education

Victor Ramsey, Stephen J. Silverman^F, Teachers College, Columbia University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: African American girls are particularly likely to be overweight and obese, and their physical activity levels are lower than those of other adolescents. The theories of reasoned action and planned behavior strongly suggested that attitude is related to physical activity participation. The purpose of this study was to explore urban middle school African American girls' attitudes toward physical education.

Method: An attitude instrument with previously validated scores was administered to a diverse sample of Black girls (N = 992) in sixth through eighth grades. The girls were enrolled in 21 middle schools in the New York City public school system.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics were calculated. Multivariate analyses of variance, discriminant function analysis, analyses of variance, and analyses of covariance were performed to investigate differences among grade levels for the attitude variables (i.e., enjoyment curriculum, teacher; usefulness teacher, and curriculum) and for summary variables. Results indicated that Black girls had moderate attitudes toward physical education. There was a significant difference in attitude variables among the three grades (Wilks's λ = .966), F(8, 1972) = 4.302, p = .001, with follow-up analyses indicating that enjoyment teacher was higher for sixth graders than for others. Other significant differences for summary variables and total attitude were based on enjoyment being higher in the lower grades.

Conclusions: As with other middle school students, there is a decline in Black girls' attitudes as students get older. Given the risk for obesity among this group of girls, the data from this study suggest that attitude, and particularly the affect/enjoyment component, is critical in examining physical activity patterns and adherence for African American girls.

An Examination of JTPE Authorship Patterns From 1981 to 2010

Jesse Rhoades, Amelia Mays Woods^F, David Newman Daum, John Mercer, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Citation frequency is commonly used as an indicator of journal article quality (Patterson & Harris, 2009). This study examined aspects of citation frequency in the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education (JTPE).

Method: JTPE articles published from 1981 to 2010 were analyzed (N = 775) in relation to title, year of publication, and number of authors. Each article was further examined through Google Scholar to identify the number of times the JTPE article had been cited.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson product–moment correlations, independent t tests, and a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). JTPE articles were cited on average 1.5 times per year, and 10.8% (n = 84) of articles published in JTPE were not cited anywhere. A substantial increase in the number of multiple-author articles occurred from the 1980s to the 1990s, and then another significant (p < .05) increase occurred in the number of multiple authors from the 1990s to the 2000s. No correlation was found between the number of authors on an article and the number of citations per year. Significant (p < .05) differences were found between citations per year for single and co-authored publications in both t tests and MANOVA.

Conclusions: There was an increase in multiauthored articles throughout the lifespan of JTPE; however, the number of citations per year did not increase. This finding suggests that quality, defined as the number of citations that an article received per year, did not appear to be related to the number of authors on the article. In addition, the number of articles published that were never cited within JTPE was unanticipated.

Teacher Candidates' Experiences Using Game Modification by Adaptation

Karen Richardson, Deborah A. Sheehy, Bridgewater State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: There is limited research about how teacher candidates (TCs) learn to teach game-centered models (Gubacs-Collins, 2007; Lodewyk, 2009; Storey & Lunn, 2009) and their associated principles of game modification (i.e., representation, exaggeration, adaptation). Game modification by adaptation increases the challenge to a successful player based on the previous game outcome (Hopper, 2010), which serves as a critical tool to create the space where learning emerges from interactions of the players, rules, space, and equipment (Mason, 2008). This study investigates using a principle of game modification, adaptation games, to teach broadly about the “game as teacher” and move TCs beyond replication of game-centered models.

Method: Participants were 2 physical education teacher education professors and 19 TCs concurrently enrolled in a game theory course and advanced methods. Qualitative data collection and inductive analysis methods were employed and included (a) a preinstruction questionnaire, (b) lesson plans and reflections, and (c) video-recorded lessons.

Analysis/Results: Results indicated that at the onset, TCs were already committed to using small-sided games to meet students' challenge level. Teaching adaptation games, however, prompted deeper critical thinking and shifted TCs' pedagogical actions to align with using the “game as teacher” (e.g., mindful questioning based on observation of student responses, decentralized teacher control). Furthermore, providing challenge and equality for each student, by changing game constraints, became paramount as TCs recognized that disparate students were fully immersed in their games.

Conclusions: In conclusion, teaching adaptation games required TCs to think like game designers and highlighted their role as facilitators in creating empowering game experiences for all.

Principals' Attributes Associated With Promoting Physical Education

Terry L. Rizzo^F, Stephen J. Kinzey, California State University–San Bernardino

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: This study assessed attributes of middle and high school principals on their intentions to promote physical education.

Method: Sample size was estimated and showed a need to survey 55 principals (p = .05). The Principals' Attitude toward Physical Education (PAPE) Survey was sent to 150 principals, and 106 (70%) responded. PAPE conformed to the theory of planned behavior (TpB). Eight experts in kinesiology reviewed the survey for content relevance and theoretical appropriateness. The coefficient alphas of the PAPE for beliefs, normative beliefs, control beliefs, attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavior control, and intention were .82, .88, .41, .78, .63, and .81, respectively.

Analysis/Results: Middle school principals exhibited higher scores on each TpB construct when compared with their high school counterparts (Wilks's λ = .814), F(7, 96) = 3.132; p = .005, η² = .186; 1-β = .933. Better working experiences with physical educators resulted in higher scores on each TpB construct (Wilks's λ = .607), F(21, 270) = 2.448, p = .001, η² = .153, 1-β = .996. Similarly, better personal experiences taking physical education classes resulted in higher scores on intention, attitude, subjective norms, beliefs, and normative beliefs (Wilks's λ = .672), F(28, 336) = 1.403, p = .088, η² = .095, 1-β = .939. Higher perceived competence in promoting physical education results in higher scores on TpB constructs except control beliefs (Wilks's λ = .702), F(21, 270) = 1.688, p = .032, η² = .111, 1-β = .955. Lastly, when compared with Caucasians, non-Caucasians scored lower on subjective norms and normative beliefs (Wilks's λ = .834) (F(7, 96) = 2.739, p = .01, η² = .166, 1-β = .891.

Conclusions: The selected attributes make a difference in the intentions to promote physical education among principals.

Achievement Goals and Diversity Attitudes in Physical Education Preservice Teachers

Paul B. Rukavina^F, Anne Gibbone, Christy Greenleaf^F, Jody Langdon, Jayne Jenkins^F, Penelope A. Portman, Lynda Ransdell^F, Boise State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Despite efforts to promote inclusive attitudes, often physical education (PE) preservice teachers are socialized by competitive sport where sociocultural messages and achievement goals may be incongruent with teaching diverse students (e.g., Todorovich, 2009). Many correlates of diversity attitudes are known; the study's aim is to model the direct and indirect effects among achievement goals, sociocultural attitudes toward appearance, and antifat attitudes on preservice teachers' attitudes toward diversity.

Method: Preservice PE teachers (N = 199) from six universities (115 men, 84 women, M _age = 19.89 years) completed previously validated questionnaires. The hypothesized model examined the influence of task and ego goals, sociocultural attitudes toward appearance (athlete and general internalization, pressures and information), and antifiat attitudes (character disparagement, romantic attractiveness, weight blame) on diversity attitudes (appreciate, value, implement, and uncomfortable with diversity).

Analysis/Results: All measures indicated good fit for this path model, X^2(9) = 86.05, p < .001, goodness-of-fit index = .94, root mean square error of approximation = .08 (CI [0.053, 0.097], expected cross-validation index = .95, adjusted goodness-of-fit index = .87). Task goals were directly associated with appreciating cultural pluralism. Character disparagement was negatively associated with appreciating and valuing cultural pluralism and positively related to being uncomfortable with cultural diversity. The effect of ego goals on obesity bias was positively mediated by all sociocultural attitudes toward appearance.

Conclusions: This study provides a first step for understanding how preservice teachers' achievement goals and endorsement of appearance ideals are associated with attitudes toward diversity and inclusiveness. Additional research is needed to confirm findings and test evidence-based interventions to promote inclusive learning environments.

Elementary Physical Education Teachers' Experiences in Teaching English-Language Learners

Takahiro Sato, Samuel R. Hodge^F, The Ohio State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: In the United States, during the last 13 years, the enrollment of English-language learners (ELLs) has grown at a rate of 57% compared with less than 4% of all other students in K–12 public schools (McGlynn, 2009). Ernst-Slavit and Mason (2011) asserted that the meaning of language phases in physical education, such as object-control and locomotor skills, are easily understood by most English-speaking elementary school-age students, but are much more difficult for their peers who are ELLs. Communication differences tend to have negative implications for teachers and ELLs in physical education (Burden et al., in press). The purpose of the current study was to describe and explain elementary physical education teachers' views about teaching ELLs in physical education.

Method: The participants were six physical education teachers in the Midwest region of the United States. Situated in positioning theory (Harré & van Langenhove, 1999), the research method was descriptive-qualitative. The primary sources of data were face-to-face interviews (Seidman, 1998), and the transcript data were analyzed using NVivo 8 software and constant comparative method (Merrian, 1998).

Analysis/Results: Four major interrelated and complex themes emerged from the data. These themes were: (a) teaching difficulty, (b) adjustment, (c) irritation, and (d) cultural dissonance.

Conclusions: This study encourages physical education teacher education program faculty to use existing courses or to develop courses (e.g., coursework in intercultural language education and intercultural competence). Likewise, school districts should offer professional development workshops on implementing culturally and ethnolinguistically relevant pedagogies in physical education.

Idaho Physical Education: Quality and Quantity Surveillance Data, 2009–2011

Philip W. Scruggs^F, Grace Goc Karp, Helen F. Brown, Christa A. Davis, Jane Shimonm, Clay Robinson, Michael J. Lester, David R. Paul, Terry-Ann Gibson, Lynda Ransdell^F, Chantal A. Vella, Kathy D. Browder, John M. Fitzpatrick, Idaho State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Physical education (PE) policies, standards, and teaching practices (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006; Idaho State Department of Education [ID SDE], 2010; National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2004, 2009) have been set for positively impacting healthy, active lifestyles. The first and second ID PE program and policy surveillance surveys were conducted in 2009 and 2011, with a threefold purpose: (a) administer a revised PE Questionnaire (PEQ), (b) collect current data, and (c) compare data.

Method: Researchers from ID universities and ID SDE developed the revised 2011 PEQ. The PEQ was mailed to 690 K–12 ID public schools and 290 (42.0%) responded. PEQ questions utilized a variety of formats to gather current PE and healthy school data.

Analysis/Results: Current and comparative descriptive findings of concern were: (a) Schools offered PE less in 2011 (86%) than in 2009 (94%); (b) NASPE-recommended weekly PE minutes were rarely met at the elementary level (3% of schools); (c) PE budgets were low (78% ≤ $500), and (d) very little homework was assigned (80% reported none). Promising findings were: (a) High school teachers targeted state PE standards more in 2011 (73%) than in 2009 (48%), (b) average class sizes were below NASPE recommendations, (c) more secondary schools were meeting NASPE-recommended weekly PE minutes in 2011 (57%) than in 2009 (31%), and (d) the number of certified physical educators remained high in 2011 ( ≥ 97%).

Conclusions: The collection of statewide PE data represents a stakeholder effort to examine PE policy, standards, and best practice implementation, and findings provide data for strengthening PE.

Coaching Behaviors of Successful High School Girls' Basketball Coaches

Tedi Searle, James C. Hannon^F, Barry B. Shultz, Nicole Miller, The University of Utah

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Observation of successful basketball coaches, such as John Wooden and Pat Summit, has noted the importance of instruction. Few studies have been conducted with high school coaches. The purpose of this study was to systematically examine the behaviors of a successful female high school girls' basketball coach and male high school girls' basketball coach. A secondary purpose was to examine the correlation between coaches' behaviors and athlete expectancy status.

Method: Verbal and nonverbal behaviors were video-recorded during eight practices. Five hundred and fifty-three minutes consisting of 3,141 of the female coach's and 590 min. consisting of 3,678 of the male coach's practice behaviors were coded using the Arizona State University Observation Instrument. After 2 weeks of practices, and again 2 weeks after the season, coaches completed the Modified Expectancy Rating Scale on athletes selected for the varsity teams.

Analysis/Results: Both coaches provided instruction more often (female coach = 35.5%; male coach = 29.2%) than any behavior when the categories of preinstruction, concurrent instruction, and postinstruction were combined. The female coach exhibited management (27.9%) and the male coach exhibited praise (22.1%) more than any other behavior category. The praise-to-scold ratio for both coaches exceeded a 2:1 ratio. Pearson product correlation suggested that coaches' perceptions of athletes' expectancy remained consistent from the beginning to the end of the season. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed no differences in the coaching behaviors that coaches directed toward high- and low-expectancy players.

Conclusions: These data suggest that successful coaches treated athletes the same in terms of the 13 coaching behaviors and that coaches spend the majority of their time using instruction.

Perceptions of Physical Education Among Elementary School Classroom Teachers

Kate H. Shipp, Zachary Wahl-Alexander, Catherine E. Vollmer, The University of Alabama

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the perceptions elementary school classroom teachers (CTs) had on teaching physical education (PE) during a 5-week early field experience (EFE).

Method: Participants will be elementary education majors enrolled in a content course connected with a 5-week follow-up EFE at a local elementary school. Each CT will teach a wide variety of lessons ranging from skill themes to interdisciplinary lessons. Nonparticipant observations, formal and informal interviews, and critical incident reports were all used to collect data. Data were analyzed by sorting into common categories and themes.

Analysis/Results: At the onset of the course, CTs perceived PE teaching as easy, unimportant, and not truly teaching. However, at the conclusion of the EFE, three reoccurring themes were presented. These themes included: (a) PE involves strategic planning; (b) newfound respect for PE teachers; (c) PE is more than free play. The CTs' perceptions of PE improved drastically throughout the semester. The CTs' perceptions of PE changed the most during the actual instruction portion of the course.

Conclusions: At the beginning of the course, the CTs had little respect for PE teachers based on previous experiences. These perceptions began to change during the lecture portion as the instructor taught the “proper” way to teacher PE. This insight helped to change the perceptions, but the CTs' opinion of PE went through the biggest changes during the actual EFE.

A Visual Inquiry Into Students' Responses to a Body Curriculum

Mara Simon, Laura Azzarito^F, Risto Marttinen, Teachers College, Columbia University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Although public health reports have raised concerns about physically inactive lifestyles among specific youth populations (Nazroo, 2003), some literature also suggests that ethnic minorities, overweight young people, and girls and boys whose bodies do not conform to societal norms of size, shape, and muscularity face social stigmatization and discrimination (Puhl & Latner, 2007; Tiggermann, 2005). This study aimed to develop and implement a body curriculum into a fitness unit in a secondary school and to conduct research on the extent to which this curriculum enhances students' critical embodied learning.

Method: To address the purpose of this research, the researchers conducted qualitative action research using visual methods to raise students' critical awareness about body issues. The participants were 11 high school students, aged 15 and 16 years old (4 White girls, 6 White boys, 1 Black boy). Data were collected from a number of data sources: participants' visual diaries and written reflections on body issues, multiple formal interviews using photo elicitation, and extensive field notes.

Analysis/Results: The researchers conducted an inductive and deductive analysis of the students' discourses articulated through class discussions, formal interviews, written reflection, and visual images that centered on critical body issues (Rose, 2007).

Conclusions: This study's findings demonstrate that a body curriculum, using visual pedagogies integrated into a fitness unit, holds the potential to enhance young people's agency in the learning process by providing them with tools to critically reflect on body issues and express their subjective experiences.

Preservice Teachers' Locus of Foci in Sport Education

Oleg A. Sinelnikov^F, Catherine E. Vollmer, Kate Shipp, Andrew Young, The University of Alabama

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Model-based instructional approaches have garnered significant empirical support in recent years (Metzler, 2005), which led to a majority of physical education teacher education programs emphasizing specific curricular models in their instructions (Ayers & Housner, 2008). However, our understanding of how preservice teachers (PTs) teach within these models remains limited. This study examined PTs' locus of foci during their first delivery of sport education (SE). Specifically, two research questions guided the study: (a) What were PTs' main points of attention during instruction? (b) How did PTs' focus change, if it did?

Method: Eighteen PTs taught a 16-lesson (50 min) soccer season of SE to a group of seventh and eighth graders (n = 110). Data were collected through individual and group interviews, document analysis, observations, and critical incidences.

Analysis/Results: A three-step process of open, axial, and selective coding was used to analyze data. Overall, PTs focused their attention on three task systems: instructional, managerial, and student social. The PTs' focus shifted from managerial and instructional (skill practice) to managerial (preseason). During the competition phase, managerial locus of focus was evident. Moreover, PTs recognized the importance of the student social task system as it remained an important part of SE throughout all season phases.

Conclusions: The results of the study demonstrated that learning how to teach within model-based instruction is a multifaceted and pedagogically complicated process. Similar to previous research, PTs in this study tended to focus their attention on managerial and behavioral indexes. Further delineation of PTs' focus may help them appropriately balance each task systems' requirements.

Maximizing Time on Task During Physical Education

Karen Smail, College of Charleston

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The time physical education teachers spend with their students is limited. Therefore, it is important to maximize the time students are engaged in activity during class time. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact a new curriculum, GenMove, had on students' engagement in activity time.

Method: Eight fourth-grade classes from four schools of similar demographics were selected to participate. Classes were randomly assigned to the control group (N = 91) or experimental group (N = 96). Prefitness and postfitness assessments were completed on all students using the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test–FITNESSGRAM. All students wore pedometers, and the number of steps and activity time were recorded at the end of each class. The experimental group participated in the GenMove curriculum for 10 weeks, and the control group used teacher-generated lessons using similar goals and objectives.

Analysis/Results: The number of students that scored in the healthy fitness zone on the PACER test increased 14% in the experimental group and 6% in the control group during the 10 weeks, which was a significant increase between the two groups (p = .037). The GenMove group completed on average 8,546 steps (SD = 482) compared with 6,942 steps (SD = 761) by the control group. The GenMove group spent on average 17.4 min (SD = 3.2) engaged in activity, whereas the control group participated for an average of 14.5 min (SD = 5.8).

Conclusions: Students that participated in GenMove increased the time engaged on activity and completed more steps, which resulted in an increase in the PACER assessment during a 10-week period.

Determinants of Competence and Self-Regulation Among Ghanaian Physical Education Students

Seidu Sofo, Daniel Kpebu, Tontie L. Kanton, Bagabaga College of Education

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The satisfaction of the needs for both competence and autonomy influence student motivation. Guided by self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), this study examined the influence of gender, grade level, program type, and school sport participation (SSP) on perceived competence and self-regulation among secondary physical education (PE) students.

Method: Participants included 158 students (109 men and 49 women) aged 14 to 24 years old (M = 18.91 years; SD = 1.48) enrolled in compulsory 2nd- and 3rd-year (Grades 11–12) PE at one high school in Ghana. The students completed the Perceived Competence Scale (PCS; Williams, & Deci, 1996) and the Self-Regulation Questionnaire-Learning (SRQ-L; Black & Deci, 2000). The PCS and SRQ-L were reworded to pertain to the PE context. The Relative Autonomy Index (RAI) for each student was determined by subtracting the SRQ-Controlled subscale score from the SRQ-Autonomy subscale score. The RAI indicates the degree to which a student is self-determined in learning—positive scores indicate more self-determination.

Analysis/Results: Correlation results indicated a positive relationship between the PCS and RAI (r = .183, p = .02). Both PCS and RAI were not significantly correlated with age. Independent t test analyses suggested PCS scores differed with grade level (t = –6.275, p = .000), but not gender, program type, or SSP. RAI mean scores by program type were significant (F = 2.98, p = .021). However, RAI mean scores for men and women or SSP did not differ.

Conclusions: Differences in grade level and program type should be considered to enhance students' perceived competence and self-determination in PE.

Social Relationships and Lived-Positive Emotionality in Adventure-Based Learning

Paul T. Stuhr, Amaury Samalot Rivera, Esther M. Ortiz-Stuhr, Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Adventure-based learning (ABL) incorporates sequenced team-building activities with student-centered debrief sessions to promote social development (Sutherland, Ressler, & Stuhr, 2009). Recent ABL inquiry has suggested that ABL can help middle school students develop appropriate relationships inside and outside the context of physical education (Stuhr, Sutherland, & Ressler, 2012). The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which elementary students were able to develop interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships from ABL and to explore these students' lived-positive emotionality (LPE).

Method: The Sunday afternoon drive model (Sutherland, 2011) and an ABL student outcome model (Stuhr et al., 2012) helped guide the qualitative research. The institutional review board-approved study included an elementary physical educator who was trained in and then taught a 10-session ABL unit to her fifth-grade students. Data from the 28 students and their teacher were collected through observations, interviews, journals, and photo voice. Open and axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) and the constant comparison method (Strauss & Corbin 1984) were used to analyze the data. Trustworthiness was established through prolonged engagement, member checking, peer debriefing, and negative case analysis.

Analysis/Results: The data were related to each category of the student outcome model (Stuhr et al., 2012). An additional category (i.e., resisting) also emerged from the data. LPE was expressed as providing benefit for teacher and students and as a cyclical phenomenon that motivated the teacher.

Conclusions: For the participating teacher, ABL and LPE were seen as important ways to promote social development at the start of the school year.

Achievement Goals as Predictors of Expectancy-Value Motivation, Effort, and Intention

Xiaoxia Su, Ron E. McBride^F, Ping Xiang^F, Jaeyoung Yang, Fatma Sacli, Robert Speer, Glenn Schroeder, Texas A&M University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Achievement goals and expectancy-value motivation are both critical to students' engagement and learning in physical education/physical activity (PA) settings. However, few studies have simultaneously explored 2 × 2 achievement goals (mastery-approach [MAp], mastery-avoidance [MAv], performance-approach [PAp], and performance-avoidance [PAv]) and expectancy-value motivation (expectancy beliefs, interest, importance, and usefulness). The purpose of this study is to examine how these 2 × 2 achievement goals predicted children's expectancy-value motivation, effort, and PA intention.

Method: Participants were ninety-seven 10- to 13-year-old boys enrolled in a summer sports camp located in the Southern United States. They completed well-established questionnaires assessing achievement goals, expectancy-value motivation, effort, and PA intention.

Analysis/Results: MAp positively predicted boys' expectancy beliefs (β = .423, p < .001), interest (β = .389, p < .001), importance (β = .442, p < .001), usefulness (β = .319, p < .01), effort (β = .404, p < .001), and intention (β = .332, p < .001). MAv negatively predicted expectancy beliefs (β = –.208, p < .05), interest (β = –.323, p < .01), usefulness (β = –.209, p < .05), and intention (β = –.221, p < .05). PAp positively predicted expectancy beliefs (β = .326, p < .01) and intention (β = .330, p < .001). PAv was not a predictor of any of the dependent variables.

Conclusions: The results of this study supported the adaptive role of MAp and the maladaptive role of MAv for children's engagement and learning. The fact that PAp positively predicted boys' expectancy beliefs and PA intention supported the “multiple-goal perspective” in which both MAp and PAp goals can be beneficial (e.g., Barron & Harackiewicz, 2001). We suggest camp administrators structure an MAp supportive learning climate while simultaneously helping students adopt PAp along with MAp to optimize boys' engagement and learning in this camp setting.

Influence of Preservice Teachers’ Motivational Profiles on Students’ Need Satisfaction

Haichun Sun^F, Jianhua Shen, Yong Gao^F, Weijin Shi, Shanghai Normal University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Self-determination theory postulates that satisfaction of needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can enhance learner motivation and lead to greater learning. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of preservice teachers’ motivational styles and self-determined motivation for teaching on their students’ perceived need satisfaction in physical education.

Method: Participants included 28 preservice teachers at a large urban university and their students (n = 857) from 20 middle schools in China. The Problems in Schools Questionnaire and Situational Motivation Scale were used to measure preservice teachers’ autonomous versus controlling motivational styles and their self-determined motivation to teach. To measure students’ perceived satisfaction of three innate needs, we used a previously validated need satisfaction instrument.

Analysis/Results: Results from generalized estimating equations analysis indicated that teachers’ moderately controlling style negatively predicts students’ need satisfaction of autonomy (p = .011) and competence (p <  .001). For students’ relatedness need, preservice teachers’ intrinsic motivation was a positive predictor (p = .049) while external regulation was a negative predictor (p = .035). Surprisingly, preservice teachers’ amotivation was found positively predict all three needs (p = .023, p = .013, and p = .010).

Conclusions: Research has suggested that teachers who reflect a controlling style are more likely to use extrinsic incentives and consequences for teaching. The findings indicate that teachers’ moderately controlling style might have a negative impact on students’ needs for competence and autonomy in physical education. Future research on examining the function of teachers’ amotivation on student need satisfaction is warranted.

Impact of Responsibility-Based Teaching in an Alternative High School

Cody Talbert, Francisco J. Martinez-Oronoz, Tom Martinek, University of North Carolina–Greensboro

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of a personal and social responsibility-based physical education (PE) course on students in a university-based alternative high school.

Method: Using Hellison's (2011) teaching personal and social responsibility model, 3 PE teachers taught 47 high school freshmen. Students’ responsibility and its changes in classrooms and PE were rated individually by three academic teachers and the PE teachers using a modified Personal and Social Responsibility Questionnaire (PSRQ; Li et. al., 2008) before, during, and after instruction during a school year. Participating students also rated their own level of responsibility in the classroom and the gym using the PSRQ.

Analysis/Results: A multivariate analysis revealed all teachers rated students’ responsibility highest at the midpoint (F = 3.60, p < .05). However, classroom teachers’ ratings were significantly higher than those of PE teachers (F = 9.37, p < .01). The analysis also showed the students’ self-evaluation over time (F = 4.33, p < .05) and the same for both settings (F = 1.28, p = .26).

Conclusions: Data showed that responsibility increased from the beginning to the end of the course. This was especially true for the classroom setting. Although the analysis showed that students’ responsibility was highest at the midpoint, data at the postmeasure remained higher than the premeasure. This suggests that students’ responsibility levels were positively impacted over time, regardless of the setting. Such findings show promise for the use of responsibility-based physical activity programs, especially in an alternative high school setting. In addition, the ability for responsibility transfer to take place from one setting to another appears tenable.

Secondary Students’ Healthy Behavior Knowledge: An Update

Courtney Teatro, Pamela Hodges Kulinna^F, Weimo Zhu^F, Elena Boiarskaia, Bridget Wilde, Arizona State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: During the last 20 years, numerous studies have reported insufficient knowledge and misconceptions in students’ healthy behavior knowledge (e.g., Placek et al., 2001). The current study, guided by the public health literature and constructivist theory, sought to update our understanding of students’ healthy behavior knowledge.

Method: This was a cross-sectional investigation in a district that used the Fitness for Life middle school curricular model exclusively for 7th through 9th grades. Participants completed one of four forms of a student assessment (with 21 common items and 52 unique items each) from the Fitness for Life middle school test bank (Corbin et al., 2007). Participants (N = 663) were in Grades 7 through 12 (mostly 9th, 86%) at two schools in the Southwestern United States, with both genders well represented and various ethnic backgrounds.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Rasch analysis that set four forms onto the same measurement scale, and t tests using item-response theory measures. The Rasch model fit the data well with students’ knowledge ranging from 1.25 to − 2.71 logits (M = –0.92, SD = 0.28). Total scores ranged from 2 to 55 (M = 21.70, SD = 9.05) out of 73. Girls had greater healthy behavior knowledge than did boys, t(658) = –2.71, p <  .01 (effect size = .10).

Conclusions: Results suggest that secondary students (mostly junior high) still have many misconceptions or incomplete knowledge regarding healthy behavior content—an important link to developing healthy behaviors (DiLorenzo et al., 1998). Additional steps need to be taken to increase youths’ healthy behavior knowledge.

Inclusion of Act 31 in PETE Teacher-Training Curriculum

Dan Timm, Heather Miller, Tom Cavanagh, Walden University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to generate a grounded theory that explains how a Wisconsin university includes Act 31 in its physical education teacher education (PETE) teacher-training curriculum. Act 31 requires preservice teachers in Wisconsin to receive training in the history, culture, and tribal sovereignty of federally recognized tribes and bands to become licensed teachers by the Department of Public Instruction (DPI). An absence of research exists on how PETE programs include Act 31 in teacher-training curricula.

Method: A qualitative grounded theory approach was used to investigate this phenomenon. Data were collected from four instructors and five PETE preservice teachers through class artifacts and formal interviews.

Analysis/Results: Interpretive analysis and line-by-line coding were used to analyze the data. Five themes emerged from the analysis: (a) factors affecting the teaching of Act 31, (b) instructors’ teaching of Act 31, (c) instructors’ thoughts on their teaching of Act 31, (d) Act 31 and PETE courses, and (e) PETE preservice teachers and Act 31. A critical pedagogy analysis identified each theme with a schooling approach (preparation for employment) or an education approach (developing transformative individuals) to teaching Act 31. Instructors’ teaching of Act 31 was the only theme identified as an education approach.

Conclusions: The participant university followed a schooling approach to including Act 31 in its PETE teacher-training curriculum. How the university addresses the Act 31 requirement for PETE preservice teachers needs to be reevaluated. Additionally, Wisconsin DPI needs to reconsider the concept of compliance for Act 31.

Shifting and Narrowing Masculinity Hierarchies in Adventure Physical Education

Amy Tischler, Nathan A. McCaughtry^F, Wayne State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Physical education (PE) settings dominated by sport tend to consistently privilege boys who embody particular athletic characteristics. Research shows that in many sport-based PE settings, hierarchies are static with well-pronounced differences among subgroups of boys. We need research examining masculinity configurations in nonsport settings. Using masculinity theory, we examined boys’ masculinities in three adventure PE classes.

Method: We spent 45 full school days working with 79 students and 1 teacher in three adventure PE classes during 15 weeks yielding 135 class observations. Teacher data included sixteen 1-hr formal and two 1-hr phone interviews, as well as 20 e-mail interviews. Student data included 84 formal and 200 e-mail interviews. Multiple daily informal conversations were held with teacher and students. This site was chosen through purposive sampling. Data were analyzed using constant comparison.

Analysis/Results: Boys described masculinity hierarchies in adventure PE as shifting and narrowing, which were produced by several mechanisms related to content, pedagogies, teacher disposition, and student relations. Shifting and narrowing resulted in significant outcomes for boys, which resulted in expanded perceptions of and enhanced orientations toward physical activity. Boys described the above as being in stark contrast to their experiences in past sport PE classes.

Conclusions: Physical activity settings producing shifting and narrowing masculinity hierarchies can enhance boys’ perceptions of physical activity. Participating in adventure PE led different types of boys to think differently about various aspects of physical activity. We need more physical activity programs that inspire different subgroups of boys to increase physical activity participation in and out of class and into adulthood.

Using Case Studies to Facilitate Graduate Teaching Assistant Instructional Development and Support

Michelle Vaughn, Jared A. Russell, Asherah Blount, Auburn University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) have long served a critical role as lead instructors of college and university instructional physical activity program (C/UIPAP) courses. However, very little attention has been paid to how best to support their immediate teaching responsibilities and overall development as effective instructors. This ethnographic case study examined the perceptions and impact of using GTA-generated case studies as a means to facilitate the pedagogical development and evaluation of two cohorts of novice GTAs (n = 23).

Method: Researchers used traditional qualitative data collection and analysis techniques for this study. Specifically, semistructured interviews, journals, and coursework were utilized to gain an understanding of the participants’ perspectives. Moreover, qualitative data analysis techniques included developing content analysis of submitted case studies, coding categories, analytic induction techniques, and theme development.

Analysis/Results: Results indicate that using the case-studies method benefitted the GTAs in multiple ways including: (a) exposure to a greater range of common instructional issues and concerns, (b) gaining a deeper understanding of the connection between policy, instructional design, and student-learning experiences, (c) providing a forum for constructive dialogues about teaching and learning, and (d) facilitating an awareness of the dissonance between perceived pedagogical practices and actual learning impact.

Conclusions: In conclusion, the dissemination of these findings will lead to further discussion among graduate program administrators regarding the proper conceptualization of GTA instructional development and support processes. Specifically, processes must be developed, implemented, and evaluated, which will assist GTAs in their immediate pedagogical development as C/UIPAP instructors and as future members of the professoriate.

Perceived Efficacy of Stress-Reducing Techniques Following a Natural Disaster

Zachary Wahl-Alexander, Oleg A. Sinelnikov^F, The University of Alabama

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: In the last decade, more than 20 million people in the United States have been affected by natural disasters (Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, 2012). The purpose of this study was to examine students’ perceived efficacy of stress-reducing techniques within an afterschool physical activity program conducted after a natural disaster. Somatic (positive self-talk and group sharing) and physiological (deep breathing and relaxation) stress- and anxiety-reducing techniques were introduced within physical activity.

Method: Forty elementary school students participated in an 8-afterschool program that consisted of sixteen 1-hr sessions. Each session included the initial period of physical activity (20 min) followed by group sharing or a drawing session (20 min) and 20 more min of physical activity. Data were collected through individual interviews (30 min), drawings (7 per child), student narrations that accompanied drawings, group interviews (10), and nonparticipant observations (16).

Analysis/Results: Codes were developed to concurrently interpret drawings and accompanying narratives while data from other sources were coded independently. Thematic analysis was used to analyze all data. The following themes relative to efficacy of stress- and anxiety-reducing techniques were identified: (a) applicability to self, (b) multidimensionality of use, (c) transferability to others, and (d) simplicity and practicality.

Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that students recognized the efficacy of stress-reducing techniques. A combination of somatic, physiological, and group-sharing elements created a uniquely positive environment that was previously unseen in physical activity settings. Following a natural disaster, an inclusion of stress-reducing strategies within an educational setting is recommended.

Influence of Negotiations on Preservice Teachers' Instruction

Zachary Wahl-Alexander, Matthew Curtner-Smith^F, The University of Alabama

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Previous research has indicated that sport education (SE) has structural advantages over traditional multiactivity (MA) teaching, which may help preservice teachers (PTs) learning to teach. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of negotiations between pupils and PTs on PTs' instruction within MA teaching and SE.

Method: Participants were 17 PTs engaged in a secondary early field experience in which they taught 12-lesson MA and SE soccer units. Data were collected through formal, informal, and stimulated recall interviews, nonparticipant observation, document analysis, and critical incident reflections.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using analytic induction and constant comparison. Key findings were that pupils initiated negotiations aimed at securing changes in instructional tasks and a reduction in standards of performance for those tasks. Highly skilled and aggressive boys were more likely to negotiate than were other pupils and focused primarily on increasing the amount of game play within lessons. PTs initiated negotiations aimed at securing compliance with instructional and managerial tasks. During MA instruction, negotiations were relatively negative and common, increased as the unit progressed, and adversely influenced the effectiveness of the majority of PTs' pedagogies. During SE instruction, negotiations were relatively positive and infrequent, declined as the season progressed, and enabled PTs to deliver comparatively good-quality physical education.

Conclusions: The results of the study suggest that physical education teacher education (PETE) faculty would do well to feature SE more prominently than MA instruction, and they provide further indication that requiring PTs to teach parallel MA and SE units is a good strategy for PETE faculty to employ.

Game-Play Participation of Amotivated Students During Sport Education

Tristan L. Wallhead, Alex Garn, Carla Vidoni, University of Louisville

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Amotivated students are a subgroup of students for which the physical education experience is often perceived as meaningless and boring, and manifests in a lack of attendance or minimal participation. A number of pedagogical strategies have been proposed to reduce the prevalence of amotivated students in physical education. An instructional model that has commonalities with many of these features is sport education (Siedentop, 1994). The purpose of this study was to provide an examination of the game-play participation rates of amotivated students within a season of sport education.

Method: A sample of 394 high school students from a compulsory physical education program completed a motivational profile survey and participated in a 25-lesson unit of sport education team handball. A hierarchical cluster analysis revealed a three-cluster, low-, moderate-, and high-motivational profile groups. Stratified samples of 25 students from each of the three profiles were coded for ball success and active participation rates during the unit.

Analysis/Results: Analysis revealed no significant differences in ball engagement or success rates across the three profile groups. The only significant difference occurred in the active participation between the high- and low-motivated students with high-motivated students moving more often to receive a ball or defend support players.

Conclusions: The results of this study revealed that the sport education model elicited a level of inclusivity to the physical education sport experience that facilitated amotivated students to participate in game play at a similar level to other students in the program.

Effect of Cognitive Disequilibrium on Preservice Teachers Using Constructivist Service Learning

Stefan Wardn, Mark I. Perez, Heidi Henschel Pellett, Central Washington University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Service learning is a teaching method that provides opportunities where students learn by doing, serving, and then reflecting on their experiences (Galvan & Parker, 2011). Cognitive disequilibrium (CD) refers to the experience of a discrepancy between something new and something already known or believed (Cooper, 2007). A constructivist approach was used to allow eight physical education/school health preservice teachers (PSTs) to create and implement their own program for teaching wellness concepts in a summer program. The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of CD created when PSTs utilize social constructivism in service learning in a nontraditional setting.

Method: Eight PSTs participated in the qualitative study. Data sources included planning session videos, teaching reflection videos, formal interviews, lesson plans, and researcher field notes. The data from the videos and interviews were transcribed verbatim.

Analysis/Results: Analysis was performed utilizing open and axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2010). Trustworthiness strategies included triangulation of multiple data sources, peer debriefing of the video and transcription, and member checks with the participants. Results indicated four themes: empowerment, transformation, relatedness, and resistance.

Conclusions: The participants reported that the CD experience was ultimately positive. This process of utilizing constructivism aligned well with service learning and generated a transformative effect that was catalyzed by the CD experience of being outside their comfort zone. Consequently, many of these PSTs were empowered to change their assumptions about themselves, their teaching, and working with diverse youth.

Physical Education Students’ Health-Related Fitness Knowledge, Aerobic Capacity, and Body Composition

Skip M. Williams, Dan Phelps, Dale Brown, David Q. Thomas, Illinois State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship of high school (HS) physical education (PE) seniors’ health-related fitness (HRF) knowledge, aerobic capacity, and body composition and to assess the need of a conceptually based required PE course.

Method: Participants were 171 seniors (88 boys, 83 girls) aged 17 to 18 years old from a Midwest suburban HS. Each participant was enrolled in PE each semester for all 4 years of HS. Institutional review board approval was obtained. Each participant completed the FitSmart (in press) HRF exam designed for HS students. Participants also participated in the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run aerobic capacity test, and body composition was assessed through the Tanita TBF 300A body composition analyzer. Trained PE teachers conducted all assessments.

Analysis/Results: Pearson correlation coefficients were generated to determine the strength of the relationships between HRF knowledge, aerobic capacity, and body composition. All correlations indicated a low-positive ( ≤ .32) or little to no correlation ( ≤ .30). Results indicated that 74% of the students met the FITNESSGRAM HRF zone for aerobic capacity and 84% met the HRF zone for body composition. However, 91% of the students failed the HRF knowledge exam.

Conclusions: Although no moderate-to-high correlations were found, the participants in this study showed adequate levels of aerobic capacity and body composition suggesting that PE could be contributing to the achievement/maintenance of these two HRF components. Results also indicate that students are not gaining the necessary HRF knowledge in PE and may support the notion of implementing a required conceptually based PE class for all HS students.

Teachers’ Perceptions of Physical Education

Skip M. Williams, Kristin B. Carlson, Amanda Draeger, Illinois State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Throughout the past few decades, the debate regarding the importance of physical education has intensified. Perceptions about the value of physical education are influential in determining the amount of time and resources allocated to one's program (Mitchell & Earls, 1987). Although some research has been conducted examining the perceptions of students, parents (Tannehill, Romar, O'Sullivan, England, & Rosenberg, 1994), preservice teachers (Xiang, Lowry, & McBride, 2002), and administrators (Bias, 2011), little research has been conducted on classroom teachers’ perceptions of physical education. The purpose of this pilot study was to examine how physical education is perceived by current classroom teachers.

Method: Faculty (N = 45) from five elementary and secondary schools located in the Midwestern United States completed on online survey that examined their perceptions of physical education. The survey consisted of demographic, Likert-scale, and open-ended questions.

Analysis/Results:

Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the demographic and Likert-scale data that were gathered from individual participants, while constant comparative techniques were used to analyze responses from the open-ended question. Results indicated that overall, classroom teachers have positive perceptions of physical education. Ninety-eight percent of respondents felt physical education was an important component of the curriculum, while 100% felt it should be a required component of the curriculum. Similarly, 86% of participants felt physical education was just as important as other academic subjects.

Conclusions: Results indicate classroom teachers have positive perceptions of physical education. This support will help physical educators as they continue to advocate for the importance of physical education in elementary and secondary schools.

Service Learning for Preservice Teachers: Teaching Young Adults With Disabilities

Elizabeth A. Woodruff, Oleg A. Sinelnikov^F, The University of Alabama

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Service learning is a credit-bearing experience for students and is focused on community needs. Scholars agree that service learning is beneficial to both the student and the community, yet research on service learning in physical education (PE) is limited. The purpose of this study was to examine preservice teachers' experiences of taking part in service learning.

Method: Ten preservice PE teachers delivered individual health and fitness instruction to 10 young adults with disabilities for a total of one hundred and twenty 75-min sessions. All young adults had varying degrees of intellectual delay ranging from mild-to-moderate learning disabilities to autism, and some had physical disabilities such as those associated with Down syndrome. Data were collected through individual interviews, informal interviews, critical incident reports, document analysis, and direct observation.

Analysis/Results: Thematic analysis was used to analyze all data. The following themes relating to preservice teachers' experiences were identified: (a) initial frustration and communication challenges, (b) evidence of effective teaching skills, (c) early use of PE “shared technical language,” (d) increased teaching confidence, and (e) a sense of learner accomplishment.

Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that preservice teachers utilized their early pedagogical content knowledge, which enabled them to plan for, using effective teaching strategies and lesson modifications, and meet the challenges presented by the young adults with disabilities. Similar to previous research in education, preservice PE teachers viewed their service learning as a positive experience, which contributed to their own growth as teachers and was beneficial to the community.

Analysis of a Discipline-Specific Instructional Technology Course in PETE

James Wyant, Emily Jones, Sean Bulger, West Virginia University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: In recent years, increased attention has been placed on physical education teachers' use of instructional technology. However, to date, little research has been disseminated regarding the specific strategies physical education teacher education (PETE) programs are employing to prepare teacher candidates to use technology. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a discipline-specific instructional technology course on advancing change in stages of concern and stages of adoption among teacher candidates.

Method: A mixed-methods process involving qualitative (i.e., weekly journal entries and postcourse semistructured interviews) and quantitative (i.e., precourse and postcourse survey) data collection was employed. Participants included 12 undergraduate PETE candidates enrolled at a mid-Atlantic university. Data analysis involved descriptive statistics, inductive analysis, and mixing of qualitative and quantitative data to produce independent case profiles. Data reduction and cross-case synthesis were then used to identify within- and across-group themes.

Analysis/Results: Four dominant themes emerged from participant data: (a) increased technological and technological pedagogical knowledge; (b) persistent first- and second-order barriers to technology use; (c) necessity of experiential and hands-on learning; and (d) variation in warrant for technology use. The four themes included a total of nine subthemes that illustrate the benefits and limitations of a single-course strategy in facilitating teacher candidate use of instructional technology.

Conclusions: Faced with the challenge of preparing PETE candidates to effectively integrate technology in their teaching, faculty need to implement a combination of strategies to advance technology perceptions and promote its meaningful application in physical education classrooms.

Self-Determination as a Predictor of Effort and Future Activity

Jae Young Yang, Ron E. McBride^F, Ping Xiang^F, Xiaoxia Su, Glenn Schroeder, Robert Speer, Fatma Sacli, Hacettepe University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Self-determination theory (SDT) addresses learner motivation through satisfying innate needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Within SDT are five self-determined regulatory motivation categories (amotivation, external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic) reflecting degrees to which behavior is internalized and integrated (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Most SDT research explores physical activity (PA) in traditional school settings. We investigate effort and future intention (FI) for PA in a summer camp setting for adolescent at-risk boys.

Method: Participants were 97 boys aged 10 to 13 years old who completed four well-validated questionnaires assessing psychological needs and self-determined motivation toward camp activities.

Analysis/Results: Multiple regression analysis revealed boys' self-determined motivation significantly predicted effort, F(5, 80) = 6.226, p < .001, and FI, F(5, 80) = 3.690, p < .01. Based on standardized coefficients, effort and FI were significantly predicted by identified regulation (â = .297, p < .05; α = .300, p < .05. Psychological needs significantly predicted effort, F(3, 92) = 5.469, p < .01. Perceived competence (α = .313, p < .01) was the only significant predictor. No psychological needs predicted FI.

Conclusions: Elements of psychological needs and self-determined motivation regulations predicted effort and FI. Because identified motivation reflects a conscious valuing of a goal or task, the boys accepted and worked hard during the camp's activities. They also provided evidence of intention for future PA. While competence (effectiveness in the engaged activities) also predicted effort, no psychological needs predicted FI. Results document that when at-risk boys value the activities in a nontraditional PA setting and feel competent, they will engage and show effort. For continued effort, we recommend camp personnel also foster autonomy and relatedness.

Student Conception of Grade in Physical Education

Xihe Zhu^F, Old Dominion University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Recent state and federal legislations on educational accountability push teachers to look more into grading. This study explored student conception of grade in physical education attempting to address two questions: How do students view grading in physical education? What do students expect physical education to be graded on?.

Method: The chosen participants included students (N = 39, 21 girls) from two middle schools. Data were collected through observation, a grading sheet, and cognitive interviews (Willis & Schechter, 1997). The grading sheet profiled 5 athletic, participative, popular, knowledgeable, and behaving students, respectively. Participants were asked to grade the profiles in physical education and were interviewed immediately after. The profiles' grades were analyzed descriptively. The interview data and observation notes were analyzed using constant comparison (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).

Analysis/Results: The five student profiles on average received from 84.90 (SD = 9.93) to 93.21 (SD = 5.62). Students voiced that being athletic or popular should not earn the highest grade in physical education; they favored the participative, knowledgeable, and behaving profiles. Analysis of variance showed that the latter three profiles earned significantly higher grades than did the athletic and popular ones (F = 19.40, df = 4, MS = 1,149.77, p < .01).

Conclusions: Students overall assigned relatively high grades for all the profiles, consistent with the general view that physical education is the easiest subject in school (Stodolsky et al., 1991). Students emphasized that participation, class behavior, and knowledge should be valued higher than popularity or athleticism for grading. This finding has a significant implication for assessing and grading in physical education.

Sex Differences in Student Interest and Performances in Fitness Testing

Xihe Zhu^F, Senlin Chen, James A. Parrott, Old Dominion University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Boys and girls have similar situational interest in physical education (Shen et al., 2003). Yet, particularly for fitness testing, they have voiced different opinions (Graham, 1995). This study examined sex differences in student interest and performance in fitness testing, providing quantitative evidence on their levels of interest and performance.

Method: Adolescents (N = 356) including 180 girls from three middle schools participated in the study. They took the 1-mile run and Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) tests and Situational Interest Scale (Chen et al., 1999) right after each test. Student body mass index (BMI) and both test scores were recorded. We analyzed the data using descriptive statistics and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA).

Analysis/Results: Student situational interest averaged from 1.81 (SE = 0.09) to 3.20 (SE = 0.12) on a 5-point scale. Results from MANOVA showed there were significant differences in situational components and performance between boys and girls (λ = .80, F = 12.28, p < .01, η ²  = .20) and between the two running tests (λ = .02, F = 2,339.74, p < .01, η ²  = .98), and a significant interaction between test and performance level (λ = .24, F = 49.42, p < .01, η ²  = .51). Interestingly, student BMI had no significant effect (p > .05) on situational interest.

Conclusions: In general, students reported a low-to-moderate level of situational interest for fitness testing. Students reported significantly higher situational interest in PACER than in the 1-mile run; boys reported statistically significant higher interest and higher performance than did girls. There was significant interaction between sex and performance: Low-performing boys reported lower situational interest than did low-performing girls. Thus, it is not simply a sex issue that impacts situational interest; it is also the performance and its interaction with sex and the fitness test.

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY EPIDEMIOLOGYImpact of Community-Based Participatory Initiative on Children's Pedometer-Determined Physical Activity

Rahma Ajja, Rohan Shah, Falon Tilley, R. Glenn Weaver, Daria Winnicka, Morgan Hughey, Collin A. Webster^F, Aaron Beighle, Russell R. Pate^F, Ruth Saunders, Michael W. Beets^F, University of South Carolina

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: State and national physical activity (PA) guidelines recommend all children attending afterschool programs (ASPs) accumulate 4,600 steps per day while attending an ASP. Research indicates less than 20% of children meet this guideline in ASPs. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of a comprehensive and coordinated approach on pedometer-determined PA levels of children attending four large-scale ASPs.

Method: Five hundred and fifty children (255 girls) attending four ASPs participated in a quasi-experimental pre/post study. Children wore Walk4LifeMVPa pedometers on 4 nonconsecutive, unannounced days (Monday through Thursday) during baseline (Fall 2011) and postintervention (Spring 2012). The intervention (January 2012 through April 2012) consisted of: policy implementation, professional development training, on-site booster sessions, and ongoing technical assistance. Random-effects linear and logit models evaluated the impact of the intervention on steps/day and the percentage meeting the 4,600 steps/day guideline.

Analysis/Results: Increases from 2,558 to 3,264 steps/day and 3,375 to 4,258 steps/day from fall to spring were observed, representing a 4.41 (95% CI [2.49, 7.83]) and 2.24 (95% CI [1.57, 3.21]) increase in the odds of meeting the 4,600 steps/day guideline for girls and boys, respectively. The proportion meeting 4,600 steps/day increased from 8.3% to 21.1% and 25.1% to 39.1% for girls and boys, respectively.

Conclusions: The comprehensive and coordinated approach implemented during 4 months is effective in increasing the number of children attending ASPs meeting the 4,600 steps/day guideline. Additional efforts are required to ensure all children meet the activity guideline.

The Impact of Classroom Activity Breaks on Children's Physical Activity

Teresa Berschwinger, Timothy A. Brusseau, The University of Utah

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Schools have been identified as a central element in a system that ensures that children participate in enough physical activity to develop healthy lifestyles. Even with this recommendation, many school-based physical activity opportunities (i.e., physical education, recess) are being eliminated/minimized. With children spending much of their time at school, other supplemental physical activity opportunities are essential. One such opportunity is through classroom teacher-led physical activity breaks. Very little evidence exists identifying the impact of classroom activity breaks on the daily physical activity patterns of children. Thus, the purpose was to determine the impact of classroom teacher-led physical activity breaks on the school-day step counts and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) of fourth-grade children.

Method: Participants in this pilot study included a fourth-grade class (N = 18; aged 9.2 ± 0.4 years; mostly Caucasian [n = 14]; body mass index = 19.9 ± 2.8) in a rural school district in the Northeast United States. Children wore the NL-1000 accelerometer for 2 weeks (a baseline week and an intervention week) during the winter of 2012. Activity breaks were created by the teacher/students to give them ownership in the program (activities included numerous classroom games and walking activities).

Analysis/Results: At baseline, children averaged 4,806 ± 639 steps and 17.7 ± 2.8 min of MVPA/day. During implementation of the physical activity breaks, children significantly increased both their steps (p < .01; 5,651 ± 627; Δ = 845) and MVPA (p < .01; 22.3 ± 3.5; Δ = 4.6 min).

Conclusions: Findings suggest that classroom activity breaks have the potential to increase children's daily physical activity patterns at school. Future studies are needed with a larger and more diverse population to support these findings.

Children's Physical Activity at Recess: Kindergarten Through Fourth Grade

David Newman Daum, Amelia Mays Woods^F, Kim C. Graber^F, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Recess contributes to approximately 42% of children's daily physical activity (Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2007). The purpose of this study was to describe the extent to which kindergarten through fourth-grade boys' and girls' recess physical activity preferences changed over time.

Method: Data were collected utilizing the System of Observing Children's Physical Activity and Relationships During Play (SOCARP) instrument. Participants (N = 249) were kindergarten (n = 21 boys, n = 22 girls), first-grade (n = 22 boys, n = 20 girls), second-grade (n = 17 boys, n = 32 girls), third-grade (n = 31 boys, n = 37 girls), and fourth-grade (n = 21 boys, n = 26 girls) students at two Midwest elementary schools.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics and multivariate analyses of variance with Scheffe's post-hoc were used to examine the differences among grade, gender, and the SOCARP variables. As boys got older, they spent significantly (p < .05) less time in small groups (2–4 people) and more time in large groups (10+). Also, as boys became older, they spent less time in locomotor activities and more time in sport activities, with a significant (p < .05) increase from first to second grade. Both boys' and girls' activity levels remained similar from kindergarten to fourth grade. As girls became older, they spent more time in medium-sized groups (5–9 people), less time in sedentary activities, and significantly (p < .05) more time in sport activities.

Conclusions: Physical activity levels were similar among boys and girls; however, physical activity choice changed depending on grade level. As boys aged, they tended to prefer sport activities in larger groups at recess. Girls, though, tended to enjoy similar activities and group sizes from kindergarten through fourth grade.

Children's Physical Activity Levels in DDR by Body Mass Index

Zan Gao^F, University of Minnesota

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Dance Dance Revolution (DDR) has been recognized as an innovative approach to promote children's physical activity (PA; Gao, 2012). Nevertheless, few studies have investigated accelerometer-determined PA levels in DDR among overweight and obese children as compared to normal-weight children in population-based studies. The purpose of this study was to examine children's PA levels in DDR across different body mass index (BMI) groups.

Methods

Participants were 160 third- through sixth-grade urban children (79 girls; 70% White). They participated in a weekly 30-min DDR program for 18 weeks beyond a 30-min physical education. Children's BMI was calculated by their height and weight, and their PA levels in DDR were assessed by ActiGraph accelerometers for three sessions. The outcome variables were percentages of time in sedentary, light PA, and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA).

Analysis/Results: 32.5% of children fell into the overweight (n = 26) and obese (n = 26) groups. One-way (overweight/obese vs. normal weight) multivariate analysis of covariance with skill level as covariate yielded a significant main effect (Wilks's λ = .93), F(3, 154) = 4.02, p < .01, η ²  = .07. Follow-up tests indicate normal-weight children (32.36%) accumulated significantly higher percentage time in MVPA than overweight and obese children (26.13%) did (F = 8.94, p < .01). However, overweight and obese children had higher percentages of time in sedentary (F = 3.27, p = .07) and light PA (F = 3.77, p = .054) than normal-weight children did.

Conclusions: Overweight and obese children were less physically active than were normal-weight children when playing DDR. Consequently, effective strategies should be adapted to stimulate overweight and obese children to move in DDR exercise.

A Comprehensive Coordinated Approach to Increasing Physical Activity in Afterschool Programs

Morgan Hughey, R. Glenn Weaver, Falon Tilley, Rahma Ajja, Rohan Shah, Daria Winnicka, Collin A. Webster^F, Aaron Beighle, Russell R. Pate^F, Ruth Saunders, Michael W. Beets^F, University of South Carolina

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Afterschool programs (ASPs) are an important setting to increase moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) of children. Policies exist that explicitly target MVPA in the ASP setting. Unfortunately, the majority of children fail to accumulate sufficient amounts of MVPA while attending ASPs. Strategies to increase children's MVPA in ASPs, therefore, are needed. The purpose of this study was to describe the impact of a comprehensive and coordinated approach to improving child MVPA in ASPs.

Method: Four large-scale ASPs serving about 500 children participated in a quasi-experimental pre/post study. Observation (System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity in Youth [SOPLAY]) of child activity levels was collected on 4 nonconsecutive, unannounced days during baseline (Fall 2011) and postintervention (Spring 2012). The intervention (January 2012 through April 2012) consisted of policy implementation, professional development training, on-site booster sessions, and ongoing technical assistance.

Analysis/Results: MVPA was classified as the “vigorous” SOPLAY category. Random-effects regression models examined the impact of the intervention on the proportion of boys/girls observed in MVPA or sedentary. A total of 4,525 observations were collected. At baseline, 16.1% and 11.4% of boys and girls, respectively, were engaged in MVPA compared with 20.1% and 17.2% at postintervention. Additionally, at postintervention, observations demonstrated a decrease of about 10% in sedentary behavior for boys and girls.

Conclusions: The comprehensive and coordinated approach implemented during 4 months can lead to important changes in the proportion of children in MVPA while also reducing sedentary behavior. Further exposure to the comprehensive approach has the potential to help ASPs meet MVPA goals outlined in polices.

Latent Class Analysis of Health Risk Behaviors Among Adolescents

Youngdeok Kim, Saori Ishikawa, Minsoo Kang^F, Middle Tennessee State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Physical activity and sedentary behaviors are associated with higher risk for obesity among adolescents. Little is known about the joint associations of physical activity and sedentary behaviors with obesity. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships of obesity with the latent subpopulations of adolescents based on their health risk behaviors.

Method: Data from a total of 13,827 adolescents who participated in the Youth Risk Behaviors Survey (YRBS) during 2010 to 2011 were analyzed. Six health risk behaviors (i.e., regular participation in physical activity, strength exercise, physical education classes, sports team activity, and TV watching and computer usage) were used to predict the latent subpopulations. Latent class analysis (LCA) with the covariates (i.e., gender and grade) and a distal outcome of obesity (i.e., body mass index ≥  95th percentile by age and gender) was performed using Mplus Version 6.2. A complex sampling scheme of YRBS was accounted for all analyses.

Analysis/Results: LCA with three latent subpopulations showed relatively good data–model fit. The first latent subpopulation (35.7%) consisted of adolescents who were highly physically active and less sedentary. The second subpopulation (18.2%) was highly physically active and sedentary, and the third subpopulation (46.1%) was modestly physically active and sedentary. The probability of being obese was 6.5%, 19.9%, and 14.8% for each subpopulation, respectively.

Conclusions: The results clearly implied that reducing sedentary behaviors and increasing physical activities may reduce the risk for obesity among adolescents. Furthermore, sedentary behaviors were shown to be more crucial health risk behaviors related to obesity than were physical activities.

Predictors of Physical Activity in Nontraditional-Age College Students

Ka Man Leung, Lynda Ransdell^F, Yong Gao^F, Jane Shimon, Shelley Lucas, Boise State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Physical activity (PA) declines as an individual transitions from high school to college. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine predictors of PA among nontraditional-aged college students using 2011 National College Health Assessment (NCHA) data.

Method: A total of 949 students (M _age = 26.52 years, SD = 8.95) completed an online NCHA survey in the fall of 2011. A subset of demographic, personal, sociocultural, and environmental items was examined in the analysis. Logistic regression was used to identify significant predictors of recommended levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and strength exercise (SE) participation.

Analysis/Results: About 43% of students in this sample were either overweight or obese and 68% did not meet MVPA or SE recommendations. Current health status (β = .82 [MVPA], β = .95 [SE]) and knowledge about PA (β = .43 [MVPA], β = .52 [SE]) were significant predictors of recommended MVPA and SE participation (p < .05). Interest in receiving information about PA (β = .33), perceived safety (β = .20), overall stress (β = –.19), male gender (β = .67), and younger age (β = –.04) explained additional variance in whether students met the SE recommendation (p < .05). Students who lived on campus (β = –.64) or who had a healthy weight or were underweight (β = –.39) were more likely to meet the MVPA recommendation than were those who lived off campus or were overweight or obese (p < .01).

Conclusions: The findings have implications for increasing PA in this sample. A required course on active lifestyles is recommended for nontraditional students.

Correlates of School-Day Physical Activity of Young Children

S. Wood Logan, Leah Robinson^F, Laura T. Barber, Julia C. Smith, Alexa D. Isaacs, Kara Palmer, Auburn University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: To determine the contribution of sex, age, body mass index, and motor competence to school-day physical activity participation in young children.

Method: Thirty-two children from two childcare centers participated in this study. Sample 1 and Sample 2 included 14 children (M _age = 3.5 years) and 18 children (M _age = 4.9 years), respectively. Body mass index (BMI) values were calculated according to established guidelines. Children wore Omron HJ-720ITC pedometers for 7 consecutive weekdays during the school day, and total step counts were converted to mean steps per minute for analyses. Children completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-Second Edition (TGMD) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (MABC). The TGMD includes two subscales: Object Control and Locomotor Skills. The MABC includes three subscales: Manual Dexterity, Aiming and Catching, and Balance. Raw scores for subscales on each assessment were converted to standard scores according to manual guidelines. Spearman's correlations were calculated to determine the association between each variable and school-day physical activity.

Analysis/Results: Correlations included: age (–.64**), BMI (–.16), object control (.44*), locomotor (.03), manual dexterity (–.09), aiming and catching (–.06), and balance (–.28). * and ** indicate significance at the .05 and .01 levels, respectively.

Conclusions: Three-year-olds were more active than 4-year-olds. Competence in object-control skills was significantly associated with participation in physical activity. None of the subscales of the MABC were associated with physical activity. The type of motor assessment administered may lead to different conclusions regarding the relationship between motor competence and physical activity.

School Policies, Environment, and Physical Education and Recess Time

Monica Lounsbery^F, Thomas L. McKenzie^F, San Diego State University, Emeritus

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to assess the adoption of district- and school-level physical education (PE) policies and their association with PE environmental variables and PE and recess time in elementary schools.

Method: Key informants in 65 schools from nine states completed (a) the School Physical Activity Policy Assessment instrument to assess district- and school-level policy and related school environmental variables, and (b) the Physical Activity Record for Classes to record student time in PE and recess.

Analysis/Results: Correlation was used to examine relationships between district- and school-level policies, PE environmental variables, and PE and recess time. We found substantial variability in physical activity (PA) program minutes. Mean total weekly PA time was 209 min (SD = 59), with 70% (146 min; SD = 49.0) accrued from recess and 30% (63 min; SD = 30.4) from PE. District-level PE policies were more prevalent than school-level PE policies. Few policies were significantly related to either weekly PE or recess minutes. However, PE policies were related to a number of school PE environmental variables and several of these were predictors of PE and recess time.

Conclusions: Results suggest that district-level PE policy adoption may serve as a catalyst for school-level PE policy adoption, but the translation of policies from the district to the school level is not 100%. More PE environmental variables were associated with district-level rather than school-level policies. Path analyses in future studies could help decipher specific dependencies of policies, school environments, and time in PA.

Challenges in Offering Inner-City Afterschool Physical Activity Clubs

Kimberly Maljak, Nate McCaughtry^F, Alex C. Garn, Noel Kulik, Laurel L. Whalen, Michele Kaseta, Bo Shen^F, Jeffrey Martin^F, Wayne State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Comprehensive school physical activity proponents suggest afterschool programs might reduce the impact of physical education reductions nationwide. However, little is known about maintaining voluntary and engaging afterschool activity programs, beyond competitive athletics, especially in challenging urban communities with wide health disparities. This study used social ecological theory to examine inner-city high school students' and adult leaders' perspectives on the challenges of implementing afterschool physical activity clubs (PACs).

Method: We created 14 inner-city PACs as “fun, safe, supportive places to do physical activities with friends” that were student-centered with nonsport activities. During 2 years, leaders held 938 PAC sessions averaging 16.5 students. We conducted 126 leader interviews, 278 student interviews, and 115 observations. We analyzed data using constant comparison and analytic induction and sought trustworthiness through prolonged engagement, triangulation, member checks, and negative case analyses.

Analysis/Results: Students and leaders identified five significant challenges to implementing PACs, including: competing for activity space with high-profile athletics; managing student hunger to avoid lethargy or investment in unhealthy options; addressing transportation issues like safe waiting spaces, risky city buses, and fluctuating daylight; PAC leaders with limited experience or interest in nonsport activities; and extended-day academic requirements in state-identified low-performing schools.

Conclusions: Given the high volume of club sessions, as well as attendance and participation rates, PACs seemed to offer attractive healthy living opportunities, notwithstanding significant structural, status, and personnel barriers that threatened those opportunities. Based on a social-ecological perspective, specific recommendations are offered to reduce the impact of each barrier.

Practice Context and Levels of Physical Activity in Youth Basketball

Julio Morales, Kimberly Gauthreaux, Jose A. Santiago, Sam Houston State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: As youth sports and athletics continue to grow, there is a need to ascertain their contribution to children's levels of physical activity (PA). The purpose of this study was to examine the activities in youth basketball practice and their relationship to levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in practice.

Method: Fourteen practices of boys' teams between the ages of 10 and 12 years old participating in a local competitive basketball league were observed using the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time. Practices were observed by the same trained researcher to assess the intensity and content of practices.

Analysis/Results: Because practice times ranged from 50 to 66 min, data were converted to percentages for analysis. The majority of practice time was spent in skill practice (61.94%), followed by game play (17.52%), with fitness activities being the least used (0.33%). Most of the time (76.53%) was spent in MVPA. Significant correlations were found between MVPA and game play (.708), between MVPA and knowledge content ( − .608), and between skill practice and game play ( − .800). Multiple regression analysis was used to predict MVPA with significant contributions of game play and skill practice (R ²  = .810, SEE = 5.489).

Conclusions: These results suggest that appropriate levels of PA were achieved during the majority of practices and that MVPA can be predicted from practice components. However, the negative correlation between some desirable practice components and MVPA suggests that careful attention has to be paid to practice design to achieve appropriate levels of MVPA and develop skill.

A Meta-Analysis of Physiological and Psychological Benefits of Exergaming

Weihong Ning, Zan Gao^F, Melanie A. Hart^F, Yan Zhang, Hansel Burley, Texas Tech University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The project synthesized the published studies investigating the physiological and psychological effects of exergaming among children and adults via meta-analysis.

Methods

A comprehensive review was conducted to identify studies published by April 2012 that compared the effects of performing exergaming with sedentary video games (SVGs) and traditional exercises. Studies (N = 31) that met the inclusion criteria were identified for analysis. Effect size (g), standard error (SE), and confidence intervals (CI) were calculated based upon study means, standard deviations, sample sizes, p value, and t value.

Analysis/Results: The results showed that exergaming yielded more energy expenditure (g = .61; SE = 0.04; 95% CI [0.53, 0.70]; p < .001), greater heart rates (g = .61; SE = 0.05; 95% CI [0.51, 0.71; p < .001), and greater oxygen consumption (g = .63; SE = 0.05; 95% CI [0.54, 0.71]; p < .001) as compared with SVGs. There were no significant differences between the effects of exergaming and traditional exercises on these outcomes. For the psychological effects (e.g., enjoyment, fun), exergaming demonstrated more benefits than did SVGs (g = .60; SE = 0.12; 95% CI [0.36, 0.83; p < .001) and traditional exercises (g = .45; SE = 0.13; 95% CI [0.21, 0.70]; p < .001).

Conclusions: Performing exergaming has demonstrated more physiological and psychological benefits than has SVGs. Also, exergaming could bring more positive psychological effects for individuals as compared with traditional exercise. Therefore, exergaming can be an effective approach for physical activity interventions.

Factors Affecting Chinese University Administrators' Physical Activity

Rulan Shangguan, Jianmin Guan^F, Xiaofen Keating^F, The University of Texas–Austin

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: University administrators' physical activity (PA) attitudes and actions may play an important role in student fitness promotion on campus, but they have been given little attention. Guided by the theory of planned behavior, this study explored the relationships of factors that influence Chinese university administrators' PA behaviors.

Method: Administrators from diverse universities across China (n = 443, M _age = 47.83 ± 5.32) participated in the study; 16.7% were women. Data were collected concerning PA behaviors, beliefs about PA, subjective norms of PA, self-efficacy, intentions to PA participation, satisfaction of accessible exercise facilities, perceived health, and body mass index (BMI).

Analysis/Results: Path analysis was used to test the predictive and mediational role of these variables on total PA. Results revealed a good model fit with a normed fit index of .97, a comparative fit index of .933, and root mean square error of approximation of .04. Attitudes, BMI, and perceived health affected total PA directly and indirectly (p < .05). Attitudes mediated the effects of BMI and perceived health on total PA. Subjective norms and self-efficacy had significantly direct effects (p < .05) and mediated the effects (p < .05) of satisfaction and attitudes on total PA (p < .05). The effects of intentions on total PA were not significant.

Conclusions: Chinese university administrators' PA behaviors were significantly influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, self-efficacy, BMI, perceived health, and satisfaction of exercise facilities. The nonsignificant effects of intention to PA participation were not expected. More studies on the topic are needed in the future.

Impact of an ‘App’ on Psychosocial Measurements of Physical Activity

Tom Watterson, University of South Florida

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Rates of obesity have more than doubled for youth aged 6 to 19 years old since 1980. These statistics have dangerous long-term effects because 40% to 70% of obese children grow up to become obese adults. Using the theory of self-determination, a motivational application (“app”) was created for the iPad for students to self-report their daily physical activity (PA), with the teacher having direct access to their information. The purpose of this study was to examine adolescent PA psychosocial changes.

Method: Psychosocial data were collected on 140 middle school students in Grades 6 through 8 in a highly diverse, inner-city school. Using the Patient-centered Assessment and Counselling for Exercise (2001) instrument, students' measurements were compared in PA confidence, family support, and friend support using a pretest and posttest study design. Students' changes came after using the app for 4 weeks and self-reporting their daily PA from pedometer use and their moderate-to-vigorous PA outside of school. All student information was sent directly to a teacher “app” with motivational rewards given to students for daily accomplishments.

Analysis/Results: A paired-samples t test showed significant change in PA confidence (p = .013) and PA friend support (p = .049). Grade level, age, and teacher variables were also examined for correlation and significance. The app intervention showed significant improvement in the students' PA psychosocial measurements.

Conclusions: Mobile technology has become a strong medium to help influence adolescent needs for increased PA. Based on the findings, further research involving technology and mobile learning should be conducted to investigate motivational strategies to increase students' PA.

PsychologyPromoting Aerobic Physical Activity Through Cell Phones

Chantrell Antoine, Rebecca Ellis^F, Georgia State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: More than 80% of adults do not meet the guidelines of 150 min per week of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity. The purpose of this study was to determine if electronic messaging on cell phones would increase average weekly minutes of cardiorespiratory physical activity (CPA) in older adults.

Method: Participants were 28 male and female older adults (M _age = 60 years, SD = 5.99, range = 51–74 years) who worked with a personal trainer for at least 6 consecutive months. Using an ABBA counterbalanced within-subjects design, participants were randomly assigned to begin the 4-week study receiving either the treatment or control condition. At the end of the first 2 weeks, participants changed conditions. During the treatment condition, participants received a morning and evening text message reminder about CPA 3 days each week. Participants in the control condition received only an evening text message 3 days each week. Participants reported minutes of CPA by cell phone e-mail or text.

Analysis/Results: The within-subjects multivariate analysis of variance showed significant group differences, Wilks's λ = .82, F(1, 27) = 5.76, p < .05, ηp ²  = .18, observed power = .64. Specifically, participants in the treatment condition (M = 96.88 min, SD = 62.90) had significantly greater weekly average minutes of CPA compared with the participants in the control condition (M = 71.68 min, SD = 40.98).

Conclusions: Electronic messaging on cell phones was effective at increasing minutes of CPA and shows promise for motivating older adults to meet the CPA guidelines.

Perceptions of Competence and Motor Skill Proficiency Among Kindergarten Children

Rick I. Bell, Viviene A. Temple, Jeff R. Crane, Buffy-Lynne Williams, Patti-Jean Naylor, University of Victoria

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Self-theorists suggest that there is little need to enhance or protect self-image in early childhood because young children inaccurately appraise themselves and inflate their perceptions of competence. We examined the relationships between motor skill proficiency, perceptions of competence, and gender of children in their 1st year of school.

Method: Participants were 387 kindergarten children (M _age = 5 years, 9 months; 53% boys) from eight schools. Motor skills (Test of Gross Motor Development-Second Edition) were videoed in physical education lessons, and perceptions of physical competence were assessed using the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children.

Analysis/Results: Mean scores for the dependent measures of locomotor skills, object-control skills, and perceptions of competence for girls were: 27.5 ± 7.4, 19.5 ± 6.0, and 19.5 ± 2.8, respectively; and for boys, they were: 25.6 ± 7.1, 23.4 ± 7.7, and 18.3 ± 3.1. A multivariate analysis of variance with gender as a factor and age in months as a covariate showed a significant overall effect for the dependent measures, F(3, 382) = 21.1, p < .001), and all univariate F tests were significant. Stepwise linear regression revealed that object-control skills accounted for 5.9% of the variance in perceptions of competence for boys, and locomotor skills accounted for 6.1% of the variance in perceptions among girls.

Conclusions: These findings are consistent with theory suggesting that young children have normatively high perceptions of physical competence. A small proportion of the variance in perceptions was accounted for by motor skill proficiency and this relationship differed by gender. Girls' perceptions were related to locomotor skill levels while boys' perceptions were related to their object-control skills.

The Impact of Season Success on New Coach–Athlete Relationships

Lindsey C. Blom, Michelle R. Colvin, Chelsea Bastin, Ball State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: A coach–athlete relationship is determined by a growing mutual respect and appreciation between a coach and athlete (Jowett, 2005), and it provides the foundation for which both the coach's and athlete's emotional, practical, social, and psychological needs are fulfilled (Jowett, 2009). Coach–athlete relationships have been shown to predict how team members will interact with one another (Jowett & Chaundy, 2004), which can affect their team success. However, little research has been conducted on understanding a new coach–athlete relationship and the impact of the outcome of the season. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the impact of the success of a season on college athletes' perceptions of their relationship with a new coach. It was hypothesized that athletes' perceptions would significantly improve when they experienced a successful season, more so than student-athletes who experienced a nonsuccessful season.

Method: A total of 48 female collegiate team sport student-athletes from a Division I university participated in this study. At the beginning and end of the season, participants completed the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2004), which examines the closeness, commitment, and complementarity of the coach–athlete relationship.

Analysis/Results: Results indicated significant changes in the interactions for the closeness and commitment dependent variables, with the nonsuccessful group's scores significantly decreasing, while the successful group's scores did not significantly change.

Conclusions: The findings of the present study identify the need for coaches to develop strong relationships with athletes to combat the effects of an unsuccessful season.

Dominant Energy System Influence on Burnout in Collegiate Female Athletes

Shelley H. Bradford, Christopher M. Keshock, Phillip M. Norrell, Larry R. Gurchiek, Robert J. Heitman, University of South Alabama

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: To determine the influence of the dominant energy system used in select female collegiate sports on burnout using the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI).

Method: Ninety-nine volunteer female (M _age = 19.93 ± 1.10 years) varsity athletes at a Division I university in the Southeast United States served as participants. Burnout was assessed by the MBI subscales of Emotional Exhaustion (EE), Depersonalization (DP), and Personal Accomplishment (PA). Participants were classified according to the dominant energy system used in their respective sport as classified by Fox (1993): (a) ATP-CP, (b) glycolytic, or (c) oxidative. Golf, field events, and softball were considered ATP-CP-dominant (N = 39); soccer, basketball, and volleyball (N = 54) were considered glycolytic-dominant, and cross-country was considered (N = 6) oxidative-dominant.

Analysis/Results: Three separate one-way analysis of variance procedures were conducted using the MBI subscales (EE, DP, and PA) as a dependent variable and type of energy system used as the independent variable. Analyses showed significant main effects for the PA, F(2, 96) = 5.22, p = .007, and DP, F(2, 96) = 3.20, p = .045, subscales, but not the EE subscale, F(2,96) = 0.018, p = .982). Post-hoc comparisons (Fischer's Least Significant Difference) for the PA and DP subscales showed significant differences (p ≤ .05) for PA between the oxidative (M = 41.666 ± 4.273) and the ATP-CP (M = 32.692 ± 7.567) and glycolytic (M = 31.351 ± 7.568) groups. DP significant differences were also found between the oxidative (M = 2.33 ± 1.751) and the ATP-CP (M = 6.871 ± .803) and glycolytic (M = 7.444 ± 4.648) groups. No significant differences were found between the ATP-CP and glycolytic groups. No significant differences were found for EE for ATP-CP (M = 24.974 ± 7.198), glycolytic (M = 25.314 ± 9.828), and oxidative (M = 25 ± 5.86).

Conclusions: Participants in oxidative-dominant sports experience higher levels of PA and DP burnout.

Physical Education Motivation and Physical Activity Change During Middle School

Anne E. Cox, Lindley McDavid, Meghan H. McDonough, Purdue University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Physical education is often targeted as a promising avenue to address declining physical activity behavior during adolescence. Indeed, studies demonstrate positive relationships between autonomous forms of physical education motivation and leisure-time physical activity (e.g., Hagger et al., 2009). This study utilized physical education motivation to predict between-student variability in physical activity change across the middle school years.

Method: Middle school students (N = 400; 225 girls) completed measures of motivation in physical education and physical activity during the fall and spring semesters of each school year. Those in the sixth grade (33.6%) at the start of the study had the opportunity to complete the survey six times; the seventh graders (35.3%) could complete it four times, and the eighth graders (31%) could complete it two times.

Analysis/Results: Multilevel modeling revealed no significant change in physical activity on average over time (β = − .01, p = .68), but significant individual variation in both intercepts (τ = .76, Wald Z = 5.21, p < .01) and slopes (τ = .02, Wald Z = 2.72, p < .01). In a subsequent model, only autonomous motivation had a significant effect on both the intercept (β = .34, p < .01) and slope of physical activity (β = − .04, p < .01).

Conclusions: Although students' physical activity did not change on average, there is substantial individual variation that can be predicted by physical education motivation. Students with greater autonomous motivation have higher initial levels of physical activity and experience a slower rate of change in physical activity during middle school.

Prospective Analysis of Physical Activity Among Individuals With Physical Disabilities

Rebecca Ellis^F, Maria Kosma^F, Louisiana State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Individuals with physical disabilities are more likely to develop a chronic lifestyle-related disorder because they are physically inactive (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000). Understanding factors that influence physical activity participation is important for intervention design; therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the ability of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to predict physical activity during a 4-month period in persons with physical disabilities.

Method: Participants were 190 individuals (M _age = 49.8 years, SD = 10.3) with physical disabilities (53.7% with multiple sclerosis) who completed an online survey at two time points. At Time 1, participants responded to questions that measured the TPB constructs including intention (3 items, α = .89), attitude (7 items, α = .91), subjective norm (4 items, α = .76), and perceived behavioral control (4 items, α = .84). Four months later, participants completed the 13-item physical activity scale for individuals with physical disabilities.

Analysis/Results: Based on the path analysis, the most important predictors of intention were attitude (.39), perceived behavioral control (.37), and subjective norm (.13). The only significant predictor of physical activity was intention (.28). The TPB model fit the sample data well (e.g., root mean square error of approximation < .01), and the explained variance in intention and physical activity was 57% and 11%, respectively.

Conclusions: Overall, the TPB was supported with attitude and perceived behavioral control as the strongest predictors of intention, and intention was the strongest predictor of 4-month physical activity. Interventions among this population should include behavior change strategies that target these specific constructs.

Collegiate Soccer Coaches' Philosophies on Systems of Play and Recruiting

Andy Gillham, Dale Weiler, Augustana College

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Having a specific philosophy for coaching has been recommended for years and has been examined in greater depth recently (Becker, 2009). However, published information about coaches' philosophies for specific offensive/defensive formations is rare, as is information on the recruiting philosophies of collegiate coaches.

Method: Following institutional review board approval, six collegiate head soccer coaches were interviewed. Each interview included the same initial questions, exceeded 60 min, and was transcribed verbatim. Prior to analysis, member checking was completed by sending the transcripts to participants for additions or clarifications. Both researchers independently analyzed the data and discussed meaningful data units.

Analysis/Results: Changes to system of play (SOP) and influential recruiting factors were the resulting themes. Reasons for and against making changes to a coach's SOP were discussed by all participants. Key elements of the decision revolved around the gender and coachability of their players. Influential recruiting factors focused on how coaches gather information about recruits and balance ability versus character in recruits. One of the most important recruiting factors for the participants was the recruit's relationship with his/her parents.

Conclusions: Most coaches in most sports institute an SOP for offense/defense. However, the factors involved in deciding when to make a change are not well documented and are of relevance to coaches from different sports across different levels of competition. Information on recruiting is generally a well-guarded secret, but the results from this study provide a depth of understanding of the recruiting practices yielding information for college and high school coaches and parents.

Effects of Physical Education on Cognition and Total Daily Activity

Morgan H. Gralla, Brandon L. Alderman, Rutgers University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Previous research has substantiated that physical activity (PA), including physical education (PE), is associated with better cognitive and scholastic achievement. However, there is a lack of research examining the impact of active (PE) versus sedentary (no PE) school days on cognition. The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of active versus sedentary school days on children's cognition and accumulated PA levels throughout the day.

Method: PA was recorded via Yamax SW-200 pedometers in approximately 65 sixth-grade children (34 girls, M _age = 11.4 ± 0.52 years). Height and weight data were gathered to calculate body mass index (boys = 21.0 0 4.4 kg/m², girls = 20.3 ± 4.7 kg/m², p>.05). Step counts were assessed during waking hours across 6 segmented days, 3 of which included scheduled PE. On a PE day and non-PE day, students were administered tests of attention (d2 test) and cognition (Trail-Making Test Parts A and B).

Analysis/Results: Boys accumulated significantly more steps than did girls (∼2,585 steps), particularly during afterschool hours. PE did not significantly affect afterschool PA, although it did increase in-school activity for both genders. PE had no significant influence on attention or cognition; however, a trend favors PE days.

Conclusions: These findings add to the current body of evidence highlighting importance of daily PE for improving total daily PA. We found no evidence for an effect of PE on cognitive performance at the end of the school day; however, methodological limitations inherent to field research may have affected our results.

Physical Activity and Self-Regulatory Capabilities

L. Kent Griffin, Nicole J. Gilinsky, Texas Tech University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The benefits of exercise have been well documented (Craft, 2005; Craft & Landers, 1998; Pedersen & Saltin, 2006). However, Lowry et al. (2000) found that less than 40% of college students are maintaining adequate amounts of physical activity for health benefits. Additionally, compelling evidence exists for a positive relationship between physical activity and favorable academic outcomes (Datar & Sturm, 2006; Grissom, 2005). This study, based on social-cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), examined the relations between physical activity engagement and academic outcomes for college students.

Method: Structural equation modeling was used to investigate the relation between: (a) frequency and type of physical activity; (b) academic self-efficacy; (c) academic self-regulation; and (d) academic outcomes (grade point average, college entrance test scores, and number of credit hours completed).

Analysis/Results: Results from the hypothesized model indicate that physical activity significantly predicted academic self-efficacy, which in turn significantly predicted academic achievement. In addition, physical activity is significantly correlated with physical activity regulation, and academic self-efficacy is significantly correlated with academic self-regulation. The analysis does not support a direct relationship between academic self-regulation and academic achievement. Similarly, the model did not support a direct relationship between physical activity regulation and academic self-regulation; however, indirect relationships could be inferred.

Conclusions: Findings demonstrated that students who engage in more physical activity exhibited a higher degree of academic self-efficacy than did students who engage in lower levels of physical activity. In addition, the results showed that students who engage in more physical activity attain more favorable academic outcomes.

Personality and the ‘Clutch’ Athlete

Eric Huebner, Lynn M. Owens, Montana State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: It has been well documented that increases in pressure have affected athletes' performances both positively and negatively (Cao, Price, & Stone, 2011; Cooke, Kavussanu, McIntyre, Boardley, & Ring, 2011; Geukes, Mesagno, Hanrahan, & Kellmann, 2012; Jackson, Ashford, & Norsworthy, 2006; Mesagno, Marchant, & Morris, 2008; Otten, 2009; Wilson, Chattington, Marple-Horvat, & Smith, 2007; Wilson & Smith, 2007; Wilson, Smith, & Holmes, 2007). The purpose of this research was to understand the difference between strengths of personality traits of “clutch” and “nonclutch” athletes.

Method: Subjects included 26 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football athletes identified by their head coach as either “clutch” or “nonclutch.” Each athlete completed a modified Professional DynaMetrics Programs ProScan survey to identify strengths of personality traits and accommodations made for those strengths in high-pressure game situations. An in-depth interview was conducted with the head coach to understand how he selected each athlete into their respective categories.

Analysis/Results: Results suggest that there are clear differences between the “clutch” and “nonclutch” student-athletes in each personality trait including dominance, extroversion, pace, conformity, and energy style. Themes include: (a) the high dominance/low pace/low conformity connection, and (b) the thrust/allegiance impact on performance under pressure.

Conclusions: By understanding strengths of athletes' personalities, coaches could more easily predict which athletes would perform better under pressure situations.

Moderators of the Message-Framing Effects on Physical Activity

Kin-Kit Li^F, Sheung-Tak Cheng, Helene H. Fung, Camille K. Li, City University of Hong Kong

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: According to prospect theory, gain-framed messages are more effective than loss-framed messages for promoting nonrisky health behaviors such as physical activity (PA). Considering the age-related positivity effects, framing effects may be stronger among older adults. However, it may not equally apply to women, as being attentive to negative information is advantageous in maintaining relationship harmony. Effects may also be stronger for people with less perceived risks associated with PA, because it strengthens the nonrisky nature of PA. This study examined whether age, gender, and perceived risks moderate framing effects.

Method: Participants included 103 older (aged ≥ 60 years old) and 114 younger (aged 18 to 35 years old) Chinese adults with weekly moderate-to-vigorous PA of less than 150 min (67% were women). After completing a questionnaire, participants were randomly assigned to read either gain-framed or loss-framed PA promotion messages and then wear an accelerometer to record their PA for 2 weeks.

Analysis/Results: Controlling for demographic factors and baseline self-report PA, the Age × Gender × Frame interaction predicted the objectively measured PA (β = –.40, p < .05) in a regression analysis, indicating framing effects were only apparent among older men. The Frame × Risks interaction was nonsignificant.

Conclusions: Although findings supported that framing effects were the strongest among older men, the lack of effects in other groups was inconsistent with the literature. People in collective cultures may be more attentive to negative information. In addition, the messages might not successfully catch the attention of younger adults. Because the PA messages only focus on benefits, perceived risks may not become cognitively accessible when processing the promotion messages.

Playing to Win: A Look Into the Motivation of Athletes

Stefanee O. Maurice, Ashley A. Samson, Mark P. Otten, California State University–Northridge

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Athletes are told that they need to play to win. Research demonstrates that playing to avoid losing provides more motivation in competition than does playing to win. This is primarily due to loss aversion, explaining that the pains of losing are worse than the joys of winning; people will do anything they can to avoid those pains. This study looks not only at how athletes respond to situations that warrant loss aversion, but also how the athlete's motivational profile affects their response. An achievement-goal framework was used to determine if athletes have approach versus avoidance motivation. The research hypothesized that athletes with approach motivation will accept the challenge from loss aversion, while those with avoidance motivation will perform worse.

Method: The participants in this study (n = 44) were asked to complete a free-throw shooting task. Participants in the experimental group were told at the halfway point in the task that they were either ahead, behind, or tied with other participants; those in the control group were given no feedback.

Analysis/Results: Participants who were playing to win were more likely to have a mastery approach orientation, r(42) = .37, p = .01; however, this only occurs when losing, r(10) = .89, p < .001. Participants identified as having performance avoidance motivation were more likely to play to avoid losing, r(42) = .40, p = .01.

Conclusions: This study can provide coaches, athletes, and sport psychologists with insight into motivations of athletes who respond either positively or negatively to loss-aversive situations and will be beneficial to developing future interventions aimed at increasing positive performance outcomes.

Selection Bias in Sport Psychology Research: A Mixed-Method Analysis

Elizabeth M. Mullin, William Paterson University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Selection bias (SB) is a component of measurement error introduced when participants choose not to participate for nonrandom reasons. In sport psychology, homophobia and heterosexism research is at greater risk for SB because of the perceived controversial nature compared with other topics. This study explored whether differences existed in SB between two psychosocial variables: homophobia/heterosexism (HH) and team cohesion (C).

Method: A physical education index database search was conducted using: (a) homophobia OR heterosexism AND sport, and (b) cohesion AND sport, from 2000–2012. From the HH search, 19 articles were used (50% of search), and 67 C articles were used (65% of search). The examined measures of SB were: response rate (RR), sample size, recruitment, sampling, and design.

Analysis/Results: HH article RRs were: 15% reported, 15% not reported, 58% not applicable, and 15% textual analysis. C article RRs were: 35% reported, 55% not reported, 7% not applicable, and 1% textual analysis. There was no significant difference in RR between HH (66.10% ± 44.87) and C articles (63.89% ± 20.20). HH researchers used significantly more qualitative (73.7%) and fewer quantitative (19.4%) designs than did C researchers (10.5% and 70.1%, respectively). Qualitative analysis indicated that C researchers conducted experimental designs that require multiple layers of approval; HH researchers employed nonexperimental designs using snowball sampling.

Conclusions: HH researchers are more likely to use nonrandom samples and to employ designs with fewer approval layers than C researchers, distorting the interpretation of SB. Without accessing larger, randomly selected pools of athletes, the impact of HH in sport is unknown.

Effects of Psychological Skill Training on Anxiety Among Soccer Athletes

Casey Ann Quinn, Kimberly Kostelis, Michael Voight, Peter Morano, Central Connecticut State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to examine the effectiveness of psychological skill training (PST) of goal setting and mental imagery on anxiety levels among Division I female soccer athletes.

Method: Participants (N = 21) included members of a Division I female soccer team; age ranged from 17 to 22 years old. Participants completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory–2 (CSAI–2), Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT), and Sources of Sport Confidence Questionnaire before preselected home and away conference and nonconference games. Athletes met with a sport psychology consultant throughout the season; PST focused on goal setting and mental imagery.

Analysis/Results: Repeated-measures analyses of variance were run on three factors of CSAI–2 and SCAT to examine effectiveness of PST on anxiety levels. Correlation analyses between the nine sources of sport confidence and confidence factor of the CSAI–2 examined impacts of confidence as a result of the PST. Trait anxiety levels decreased during the course of the season, F = 12.63, p < .05. State anxiety levels, both cognitive (F = 12.631, p < .05) and somatic (F = 3.272, p < .05) decreased during the course of the season. Significant relationships were found among physical self-preparation and environmental comfort when compared with the CSAI–2 confidence factor at the time of the nonconference home and away games.

Conclusions: The current study demonstrated that PST focusing on mental imagery and goal setting helped lower state and trait anxiety, as well as cognitive and somatic levels in Division I female soccer athletes. Future studies should include additional PST interventions to lower anxiety levels and improve overall confidence throughout the season.

Microtrauma Sport Injury Psychology Narratives Among Long-Distance Runners

Hayley C. Russell, Reed H. Steele, Ayanna Franklin, Diane Wiese-Bjornstal^F, Shelby A. Hoppis, University of Minnesota

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Personal and situational factors affect athletes' cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to injury, as well as their physical and psychological outcomes (Wiese-Bjornstal, 2010). Type of injury is one personal factor influencing athletes' responses. The majority of sport injury psychology research is based on macrotrauma injuries (single, sudden force onset; Flint, 1998), but athletes with microtrauma or overuse injuries (accumulation of repeated small forces onset; Flint, 1998) may differ in their psychological responses because of the unique challenges presented by these insidious onset and often chronic injuries (Henert, 2000; Wasley & Lox, 1998). Our purpose was to use narrative inquiry to examine the distinctive experiences and responses of 11 male and female adult long-distance runners who had recently experienced microtrauma injuries.

Method: Qualitative data analysis of interview data led to a chronological timeline of the injury experience and an assessment of the meaning attributed to these injury experiences using a variation of Mishler's (1986) core-narrative approach.

Analysis/Results: Results showed that long-distance runners with microtrauma injuries experienced psychosocial responses in a consistent and sequential order: planning for achievement of an athletic goal during the preinjury phase; emotional distress and social support during the onset, diagnosis, and acceptance of the injury; and learned perseverance as an outcome of the injury. A higher-order meaning theme of “injury invisibility” emerged with dimensions that included ambiguity of diagnosis, feeling psychologically weak, seeking validation, pressure to continue training, and inconsistency of symptoms.

Conclusions: The use of narrative methodology proved effective in identifying psychosocial experiences unique to microtrauma-injured long-distance runners.

Changes in Runners' Motivations Across Training

Ashley A. Samson, Laura K. Stewart, Louisiana State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Researchers have long been interested in the motivations behind runners' willingness expose themselves to distress and pain while following strict training plans; however, a major limitation of the current research is the cross-sectional design. This study's purpose was to longitudinally investigate motivations for marathon training across a 14-week program.

Method: Participants in this study included 39 college-aged runners. Prior to and at the conclusion of the training, runners completed the Motivations of Marathoners Scale (Masters, Ogles, & Jolton, 1993).

Analysis/Results: Pretraining data indicated that runners were most motivated by health orientation, self-esteem, and personal goal achievement. T tests revealed differences for gender, with men higher in competition, t(37) = 3.256, p = .005, and women higher in weight concern, t(37) = 2.056, p = .048, and self-esteem, t(37) = 2.328, p = .025. Analysis of post-training data revealed a decrease from pre to post in health orientation, t(38) = 2.711, p = .010. In addition, an increase in the Recognition subscale from pre to post was found, t(38) = 2.626, p = .012. Lastly, the gender differences found in the pretraining data for the Competition and Weight Concern subscales were reported in the post-training data.

Conclusions: These results indicate that motivational factors driving an individual to begin a training program may shift over time. This is congruent with physical activity research, which states that motivations for beginning exercise can differ from motivations to continue those activities over time. These results provide important insight into how motivations may shift over time, which is a critical factor to consider when developing interventions aimed at maintaining motivation over time.

Sport Decision-Making: Lessons From Former High School Athletes

Judy Reed Sandlin, Rosanne S. Keathley, Michael Sandlin, Texas A&M University

(([email protected]))

Background/Purpose: It is often believed that sports participation contributes to character development. For this to be true, it is imperative that athletes learn to make ethical decisions while participating in sports. This study examined the sports decision-making of former high school athletes.

Method: Subjects were a convenience sample of 602 undergraduate college students who had minimally competed as high school athletes. Participants completed the Sports Decision-Making Survey. Seven questions were related to demographic information while 15 questions presented sport scenarios. Respondents stated whether the situation was clearly ethical (1), somewhat ethical (2), somewhat unethical (3), or clearly unethical (4). The minimum score was 15 (questionable ethical standards) and the maximum was 60 (exceptional ethical standards).

Analysis/Results: Statistical analyses revealed a difference in score both by gender, F(1, 599) = 63.59, p = .000, and by highest level of sport participation, F(2, 590) = 3.43, p = .033. Women had a significantly higher ethical decision score (M = 45.80, SD = 6.44) when compared with men (M = 41.37, SD = 7.02). Post-hoc analyses revealed significant differences among all levels of participation. Participants whose highest level of participation was in high school had the highest ethical decision score (M = 43.66, SD = 6.99) followed by college athletes (M = 41.86, SD = 7.37) and then professional athletes (M = 36.67, SD = 8.39). The people who most influenced the ethical decisions of the athletes were parents/family (42.1%), coaches (31.1%), and other athletes (15.2%).

Conclusions: Clearly, ethics and ethical decision-making should be addressed at all levels of sport participation. In addition, parents/families, coaches, and athletes should acknowledge their influence on impressionable athletes.

Attitudes Toward Physical Activity Among Hispanic Elementary School Children

Jose A. Santiago, Julio Morales, Emily A. Roper, Sam Houston State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Significant documentation has attested to the high rates of obesity, physical inactivity, and type 2 diabetes in Hispanic children and youth (Crespo, 2005). Promoting regular involvement in physical activity is one way to decrease disease and promote health in children. Children's attitudes are considered to be critical factors impacting physical activity engagement (Solmon, 2003). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine attitudes toward physical activity of Hispanic school children.

Method: A convenience sample of 176 school-age children classified as Hispanic, 83 boys and 93 girls, from an urban school located in Southeast Texas participated in this study. Attitudes were assessed by employing the Children's Attitudes Toward Physical Activity (CATPA) Inventory for Grade 3 (Schutz, Smoll, Carre, & Mosher, 1985). CATPA questions measure children's value and enjoyment of five subdomains of physical activity.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics revealed that boys scored slightly higher on social growth (M = 4.92, SD = 0.45), while girls scored slightly higher on social continuation (M = 4.93, SD = 0.28), health and fitness (M = 4.81, SD = 0.46), vertigo (M = 3.08, SD = 1.37), and aesthetic (M = 4.61, SD = 0.87). Independent t test results, t(2, 186) = –3.20, p <  .01, indicated that significant differences exist between boys and girls on social continuation.

Conclusions: Hispanic boys' and girls' attitudes toward physical activity were both positive and consistent with previous findings. The results suggest that Hispanic girls participate in physical activity to be with friends.

Goals, Need Satisfaction, and Motivation of High-Intensity Exercise Participants

Benjamin A. Sibley, Shawn M. Bergman, Appalachian State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: High-intensity exercise programs are increasing in popularity, which runs in contrast to the accepted practice of prescribing low-to-moderate intensity programs to make exercise more approachable and increase adherence. The purpose of the present study was to use self-determination theory to examine the motivational underpinnings of high-intensity workout program participation.

Method: Individuals (n = 322) who reported participating in the CrossFit (CF) exercise program completed the Goal Content for Exercise Questionnaire, Basic Needs Satisfaction at Work Scale, Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire, and a survey of exercise behaviors that included items that assessed duration of CF participation, membership in a CF facility, number of days per week they do CF, dietary habits, and whether they have participated in formal CF competitions.

Analysis/Results: Results were analyzed using multiple regression and structural equation modeling techniques. Intrinsic goal contents were found to positively predict autonomous motivation for exercise. Competence and autonomy psychological need satisfaction were found to partially mediate this relationship. Intrinsic goal contents, competence need satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation were all found to directly predict self-reported exercise frequency.

Conclusions: The findings are consistent with the tenets of self-determination theory in that more intrinsic goals, greater psychological need satisfaction, and more autonomous motivation were associated with higher frequency of exercise. High-intensity exercise programs may produce enhanced exercise motivation through satisfaction of the basic psychological need for competence, in particular. Specific facets of these programs that lead to greater feelings of competence among participants are discussed.

Frequency and Psychological Predictors of Disordered Eating in Figure Skaters

Dana K. Voelker, Daniel Gould^F, Justine J. Reel^F, Tracey Covassin, Michigan State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Figure skating is often considered an “at-risk” sport for body image concerns and eating disorders due to performance demands and weight-related pressures. This study examined the frequency and psychological predictors of disordered eating (e.g., body dissatisfaction, weight pressures, perfectionism, self-esteem, athletic identity) in skaters with an emphasis on girls and women competing at the subelite level.

Method: Six measures including the Eating Attitudes Test-26 and a series of open-ended questions were administered to male and female skaters (N = 301) aged 12 to 26 years old (M = 15.90, SD = 3.24) across five states.

Analysis/Results: The majority of skaters (88%) were not symptomatic of an eating disorder, with most citing benefits of skating on body image, eating, and exercise. A smaller proportion (12%) scored within the clinical range of an eating disorder, but they were no more symptomatic than their adolescent and college-aged peers when compared with existing normative data. Disordered eating did not differ by skating discipline, competitive level, or sex (p <  .05). Among female subelite skaters, a standard multiple regression analysis revealed that disordered eating was significantly predicted by body dissatisfaction, weight pressures, and positive and negative perfectionism (p <  .05). A discriminant analysis showed that weight pressures, body dissatisfaction, negative perfectionism, and self-esteem significantly discriminated between those who did and did not score within clinical range of an eating disorder (p <  .05).

Conclusions: Figure skating can positively and negatively influence body image, eating, and exercise. Researchers and practitioners are encouraged to focus efforts on reducing the frequency of disordered eating while also maximizing opportunities for skaters to proactively learn healthy behaviors.

Associations Between Physical Self-Perceptions, Autonomous Motivation, and Fitness Variables

James R. Whitehead,^F, Andrea P. Charlebois, Dennis J. Caine, Thomas B. Steen, University of North Dakota

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: A key goal of physical education (PE) is to promote lifetime participation in healthful physical activity. Because physical activity is usually volitional for adults, developing autonomous motivation and positive physical self-perceptions in high school (HS) PE should logically enhance post-HS participation. Thus, this study investigated the relationships between HS students' physical self-perceptions, relative autonomy (autonomous vs. controlled motivation), engagement in physical activity in a PE class, and health-related fitness test scores.

Method: More than 300 HS students completed FITNESSGRAM tests and took part in a special lesson designed to teach correct aerobic exercise intensity. They also completed questionnaires measuring physical self-perceptions (Children and Youth—Physical Self-Perception Profile [CY–PSPP]) and exercise motivation (Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire [BREQ–2]). The BREQ–2 subscale scores were used to calculate a relative autonomy index (RAI) that indicated the degree to which an individual's exercise motivation is autonomous versus externally controlled.

Analysis/Results: Fitness competence feedback (FITNESSGRAM scores) significantly, but weakly (R ² _adj = 4%–11%), predicted autonomous exercise-related motivation, and significantly and more substantively (R ² _adj = 6%–28%) predicted congruent CY–PSPP scores. Also, the CY–PSPP scales were significantly moderately correlated (r = .30–.57) with RAI. However, the students' time in the healthy heart rate zone in the special PE lesson was not associated with RAI.

Conclusions: Because these results showed support for the conceptual links between competence feedback (fitness test scores), subsequent competence perceptions (CY–PSPP scores), and more autonomous exercise motivation (RAI scores), to some extent, they indicate support for the PE program's curricular approach and long-term aims. Future research should try to evaluate how such approaches affect motivation during the students' subsequent adult lives.

Identifying Theoretical Predictors of Chinese International Students' Physical Activity Behavior

Zi Yan, Bradley J. Cardinal,^F, Alan C. Acock, Oregon State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: This study tested the utility of the Youth Physical Activity Promotion (YPAP) model for predicting whether Chinese international students met the physical activity recommendation (MPAR; i.e., achieving > 150 min of physical activity per week).

Method: Chinese international students (older than 18 years of age) enrolled in American colleges and universities were recruited through Chinese student associations (N = 649, 320 women, 329 men). Participants completed an online survey consisting of 53 questions aligned with the YPAP model. Structural equation modeling, logistic nested-regression model analysis, and mediation effect analysis were performed.

Analysis/Results: Three hundred forty-six (53.31%) participants met the physical activity recommendation. The model fit of the original YPAP model to our data was poor, χ2(19) = 178, p <  .01, comparative fit index = .871, Tucker-Lewis Index = .728, root mean square error of approximation = .117, with “Able” being the most proximal and strongest predictor of MPAR (B = .28, OR = 1.35, p <  .05). The originally proposed YPAP model was rejected for this sample. Using logistic nested-regression analysis, we identified the factors that predicted the odds of MPAR. In this model being a man and one standard deviation higher in body mass index, competency, self-efficacy, attitude, and enjoyment significantly increased the odds of MPAR, all p <  .001. Mediation analysis identified that all of the enabling and reinforcing factors predicted MPAR indirectly through “able” and “worth” (p <  .001), except the language barrier (p > .05).

Conclusions: Colleges and universities ought to provide physical activity resources, as well as social resources, to increase the perceived competence, self-efficacy, positive attitude, and enjoyment of physical activity among Chinese international students, which is a large and fast-growing student population in the American higher education system.

Motivating Students in Middle School Physical Education

Sami Yli-Piipari, University of Memphis

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Research has shown that physical education students' perceptions of motivational climate relate to their intrinsic motivation. Specifically, task-involving climate has been found to increase intrinsic motivation, while the role of ego-involving climate has yet to be determined in the physical education context. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to test the role of student perception of class motivational climate in their intrinsic motivation during school physical education.

Method: The sample was composed of 758 adolescents (age range = 12 to 14 years old) from one middle-sized town who were enrolled in eight middle schools in Central Finland. Adolescents' perceptions of task- and ego-involving climate and intrinsic motivation were measured yearly across 3 middle school years. Latent growth models were estimated and a parallel process latent growth-modeling approach was implemented to answer research questions.

Analysis/Results: Preliminary confirmatory factor analyses showed acceptable factorial validity and measurement invariance of the scales. In addition, fit indexes of each latent growth model indicated acceptable data fit. The study showed that ego-involving climate increased (αi = 3.38, αs = .11), while task-involving climate (αi = 3.58, αs = –.03) and intrinsic motivation (αi = 3.15, αs = .02) did not change. Although both task- and ego-involving climates contributed to the initial level of intrinsic motivation (task R ²  = 54%; ego R ²  = 21%), only task-involving climate contributed to development of intrinsic motivation across middle school years (R ²  = 42%).

Conclusions: The findings highlight the importance of task-involving motivational climate as a facilitator of students' intrinsic motivation in physical education.

Fitness, Fatness, and Mental Health in Adolescents

Seok Yoon, Justin Y. Jeon, Yonsei University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship among fitness, fatness, and mental health in adolescents.

Method: A total of 461 adolescents participated in this study. To determine the relationship between fitness and mental health, participants performed a 1-mile walk test, 1-min pushups and sit-ups and were stratified into five groups based on their fitness levels (Level 1, or highest fitness, to Level 5, or lowest fitness). Mental health was determined by life satisfaction, self-efficacy, adult self-report, the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, and the Beck Depression Inventory.

Analysis/Results: The correlation coefficient analysis showed that body mass index (BMI) was inversely correlated with self-efficacy and directly correlated with internalizing and externalizing behavior, anxiety, and depression (p <  .01). After adjusting for fitness, BMI was correlated with total problem and externalizing behavior. Fitness was directly correlated with self-esteem and self-efficacy and was inversely correlated with total problem, internalizing behavior, anxiety, and depression. Participants with a fitness level higher than 3 had a significantly lower self-esteem and self-efficacy and higher anxiety compared with those in Fitness Level 1. In addition, those with a fitness level higher than 4 had a significantly higher depression rate (p <  .01). Total problem and internalizing behaviors were significantly increased in the lowest fitness level.

Conclusions: The current study suggests that promoting weight loss and increased fitness may have beneficial effects on mental health in adolescents.

Young Martial Arts Athletes' Motivation and Their Health-Related Behaviors

Howard Z. Zeng, Lisheng Xie, Wojciech J. Cynarski, University of Rzeszów

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Studies have showed martial arts is a very useful physical education curriculum because of its combat techniques, self-defense skills, and full-range body exercises. When participants reach a certain level of skill, they can obtain a healthier and safer life. Increasingly, benefits on practicing martial arts (e.g., positive response to physical challenge, self-esteem, reductions in anxiety and depression) were also reported, as whole martial-arts practices have provided meaningful and health-related physical exercises for millions of participants (Cai, 2000; Cynarski, 2012; Fuller, 1988). The purposes of this study were to investigate young martial-arts athletes' (YMAA) motivation, practice times, and health-related behaviors in Changzhou, China, and to provide meaningful information for developing quality martial-arts programs and improving the effectiveness of teaching and managing martial-arts programs in their schools.

Method: Participants were 80 YMAA (ages 10–16 ± 1.5; 55 boys and 25 girls) from five different martial-arts programs. Health Behaviours of Martial-Arts Athlete Questionnaire (Cynarski et al, 2011) with 50 items concerning YMAAs' motivation, practice times, diet/nutrition, fitness, traveling, risk, and hygiene behaviors were used for collecting data. Frequency and percentage techniques were used for data analysis.

Analysis/Results: Results/findings were summarized into nine tables that reflected six unique themes including: factors of motivation, times for practicing, fitness, diet/nutrition, traveling, alcohol/drug use, and hygiene behaviors of the YMAA.

Conclusions: Participants' motivation and health-related behaviors were discovered and categorized. Some aspects appear to be done well (e.g., motivation, practice times, and risk behavior), while some aspects need to be improved (e.g., hygiene, nutrition, and fitness). Reasons behind each of these findings are discussed.

Examining Children's Physical Activity Motives, Physical Activity, and General Well-Being

Tao Zhang,^F, John Collins, Katherine T. Thomas,^F, Xiangli Gu, University of North Texas

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Although the positive association of regular physical activity (PA) on well-being has been well documented, limited research has examined PA motives (i.e., enjoyment, competence, appearance, fitness, social interaction) on PA and general well-being in children. Using self-determination theory as a theoretical framework (Ryan & Deci, 2002), this study aimed to fill this gap and explore children's motives linked to PA and general well-being.

Method: Participants were 117 school-aged children (M _age = 10.2 years) enrolled into an afterschool PA program. They completed standardized surveys assessing their motives for PA, self-reported PA, and general well-being.

Analysis/Results: All PA motives (i.e., enjoyment, competence, appearance, fitness, social interaction) were significantly related to one another. Enjoyment, competence, and social interaction were positively associated with PA. General well-being was related to PA and all PA motives. Two regression analyses indicated that social interaction was the only positive predictor of PA (R ²  = 10.4%, β = .32, p <  .01), and enjoyment positively predicted general well-being (R ²  = 10.6%, β = .33, p < .01).

Conclusions: The findings demonstrated that social interaction with other participants was the most important personal factor for children's PA participation. With the increasing levels of physical inactivity in children, enhancing social interaction opportunities is vital to promote children's PA. Given the positive association between PA and well-being, it is crucial to increase children's interest or enjoyment to enhance their well-being. The results provided supportive evidence for the value of personal motives on PA and general well-being in children.

Motivational Predictors of Students' Health-Related Quality of Life

Tao Zhang^F, Xiangli Gu, University of North Texas

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Health-related quality of life (HRQOL) includes domains related to physical and psychosocial functioning. Promoting HRQOL across all life stages is one of the overarching goals of Healthy People 2020 (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2010). Although exercise has been effective in enhancing HRQOL of general adults, little is known about the influence of exercise motivation on college students' HRQOL. Guided by the expectancy-value model (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000) and self-determined theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), this study was designed to explore the influence of motivational constructs on college students' physical and psychosocial functions.

Method: Participants were 325 college students (195 women, 130 men; M _age = 21.4 years) enrolled in physical activity classes in a Southern university. They completed validated surveys assessing their perceptions of motivational constructs (expectancy-related beliefs, task values, self-determined motivation) and HRQOL.

Analysis/Results: Correlational analyses revealed a pattern of significant relationships among the study variables. Two hierarchical regression analyses indicated that expectancy-related beliefs and intrinsic motivation were positive predictors of physical function (R ²  = 10.2%, β = .21, .12; all p <  .05). For psychosocial function, expectancy-related beliefs emerged as a positive predictor, but introjected regulation and external regulation were negative predictors (R ²  = 13.4%; β = .16, –.18, –.15; all p <  .01).

Conclusions: The results indicated that enhancing both competence beliefs and intrinsic motivation is important when targeting college students' physical function. Additionally, low levels of self-determined motivation could negatively influence college students' psychosocial function. The findings have meaningful implications for practitioners to promote college students' HRQOL.

Sociocultural Aspects of Physical ActivityExamining LGBTQ Concerns on a University Campus

Emily K. Beasley, Birgitta L. Baker, Louisiana State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Recently, substantial media attention has been directed toward the victimization and bullying of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) young people. These individuals often experience discrimination, victimization, and even violence based upon their sexual orientation. One possible explanation for such damaging experiences is unsupportive attitudes toward the LGBTQ community. The purpose of this study was to investigate college students' attitudes and access to LGBTQ education on a university campus.

Method: Students (N = 364) enrolled in a large university in the Southeastern United States completed online surveys regarding experiences with discrimination/violence, perceptions of LGBTQ individuals, and access to LGBTQ-related education.

Analysis/Results: Results of a regression analysis indicated that sex/gender, sexual orientation, and age were significant predictors of perceptions of the LGBTQ community. Specifically, women, students who self-identified as LGBTQ, and upperclassmen displayed more positive beliefs. More than half of respondents had witnessed someone experience discrimination (60.78%) or verbal harassment (58.82%) based on his/her actual/perceived sexual orientation—some of which (25%) occurred on a college campus. In addition, almost half of students (48.8%) reported receiving no education regarding LGBTQ issues at their university.

Conclusions: Findings from this study indicate that a large percentage of college students have witnessed some type of victimization related to sexual orientation. In addition, students reported receiving little to no educational information regarding the LGBTQ community on their campus. These findings highlight the importance of providing educational information to students, specifically underclassmen and straight men.

NCAA Black Male Student-Athlete Identity and Academic Outcomes

Albert Y. Bimper, Kansas State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Sport scholars and academic advisors face the premier challenge of enhancing the experiences of Black collegiate student-athletes and understanding the elements influencing their academic performances. Limited research exists investigating the impact of salient psychosocial and culturally relevant variables related to Black student-athletes and their academic outcomes. Prior studies have investigated relationships between Black students' racial identity perceptions and academic outcomes, yet no known research has explored this relationship in high-profile collegiate student-athletes. The purpose of this study was to examine the degree to which athletic and racial identities predict academic outcomes of Black student-athletes participating in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I-FBS (Football Bowl Subdivision) football.

Method: A total of 255 student-athletes participating in NCAA Division I-FBS football completed questionnaires containing items to determine athletic identity perceptions and six subscales of racial identity that operationalize Cross's Nigrescence model.

Analysis/Results: Significant bivariate correlations were found between athletic identity and grade point average (GPA) and between athletic identity and pre-encounter assimilation and miseducation. Using hierarchical multiple regression analysis, findings indicate athletic identity significantly predicted GPA. Racial identity subscales did not emerge as direct predictors, but the model explained 16% of the variance in GPA.

Conclusions: Sport practitioners should be cognizant of the extent to which culturally salient psychosocial elements play on the uniqueness of the Black experience in sport and athlete academic performances. Although racial identity was not a direct predictor of GPA, it plausibly has an indirect effect on Black male student-athletes' academic performances. Future research is needed to further explore the complexity of these relationships.

Soccer for Peace and Understanding Program: Evaluation of Coaching Workshops

Lindsey C. Blom, Lawrence Gerstein, Lawrence Judge, David Pierce, Ball State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The UN Interagency Task Force on Sport has deemed sport is a useful tool in programs fostering development and peace (United Nations, n.d.). These types of programs have been anecdotally shown to foster an improved sense of trust, a sense of community among diverse individuals, and/or prosocial behaviors (e.g., Wells et al., 2005), but they are rarely systematically studied (Spaaij, 2009); therefore, this study evaluated four areas (i.e., participant satisfaction, knowledge, mutual understanding, and application) of Phase I of a soccer for peace and understanding training program in Jordan.

Method: Three 2-day workshops were conducted with 56 male and female Jordanian youth soccer coaches using a “train the trainer” approach designed to educate coaches in how to integrate soccer skills with techniques to build citizenship and peaceful living. Participants completed a knowledge and mutual understanding assessment prior to the workshop and again upon completion along with a satisfaction and application survey.

Analysis/Results: Results indicated: (a) 100% of coaches were satisfied with the workshop; (b) 54% showed increases in soccer-specific knowledge; (c) 23% claimed improvement in knowledge about peaceful living skills; (d) more than 80% reported an increase in a mutual understanding of others; and (e) more than 90% acquired the ability to integrate citizenship and peaceful living skills through soccer.

Conclusions: Overall, Phase I appeared to be effective in achieving most of the stated goals. Future research is needed to further establish the effectiveness of the curriculum. Recommendations for such research and implementing similar programs with diverse populations will be offered.

Development of a Statewide Physical Activity Plan Using Concept Mapping

Sean Bulger, Eloise Elliott, Emily Jones, Sean Fitzpatrick, Dina Jones, Nancy O'Hara Tompkins, West Virginia University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The U.S. National Physical Activity Plan is a broad and comprehensive effort to increase physical activity through policy development and environmental change. The national plan provides a guide for the development of state-level plans appropriate to the unique cultural and contextual variables within each state. The purpose of this study was to determine the conceptual framework for a statewide physical activity plan.

Method: Researchers employed an integrated approach to concept mapping that involved brainstorming, statement analysis and synthesis, sorting and rating of ideas, multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis, and the development and interpretation of multiple maps. These steps were delivered in three phases using a Web-based platform: anonymous brainstorming (n = 154), structuring of ideas by key stakeholders (n = 38), and interpretation of results through participatory decision-making (n = 72). The participants across phases represented all geographic regions and societal sectors including business/industry, education, health care, mass media, nonprofit/volunteer, parks/recreation/fitness/sports, public health, and transportation/land use/community design.

Analysis/Results: Data aggregation and analysis were completed using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis to determine relationships among ideas. A variety of maps were developed to graphically display these relationships. Five priority areas were identified: (a) school-based programs and initiatives, (b) public awareness and social marketing, (c) community engagement and environment, (d) institutional and organizational support, and (e) policy.

Conclusions: The priority areas provided a conceptual framework for plan development and resulted in the generation of sector-specific calls to action, strategies, and tactics that can be used to promote physical activity across the state.

Tailoring a Physical Activity Promotion Program for a Rural Area

Gavin Colquitt, Moya Alfonso, Ashley Walker, Vanessa Dunmore, Georgia Southern University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: VERBTM Summer Scorecard (VSS) has used social marketing to successfully promote physical activity for urban and suburban youth. The purpose of this study was to adapt the program to meet the needs of a minority, rural population.

Method: Qualitative marketing research methods including focus groups were used to gather data from parents (N = 12) and their children (N = 12) in April 2012. A structured, open-ended focus-group guide was developed specific to parents and youth and was based on the social marketing framework. Marketing topics covered included product, price, place, and promotion. Attention was given to testing two previously used versions of the VSS, which is the central component of the program. All focus groups were conducted by a skilled moderator and were audio-recorded and transcribed. Focus-group transcripts were read by the entire team and were coded based on social marketing constructs. Summaries with illustrative quotes were created. All materials (i.e., recruitment flyers, focus-group guides, and consent forms) and methods were approved by the university institutional review board.

Analysis/Results: Coded transcripts were reviewed for emerging themes. Content analysis was conducted within parent groups and youth groups and across groups for comparison purposes. Results suggested the previously used scorecards would not work with African American youth and families in rural Georgia.

Conclusions: What works for one community may not work for another. Qualitative market research enabled the investigators to culturally tailor physical activity interventions prior to implementation, thereby increasing adoption and odds of success with the target audience.

Moral Jogging, Leadership, and Optimism in an Intergenerational Physical Activity Program

Brian Culp, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Arman and Scherer (2002) espouse that service-learning methodology used by universities promotes “moral jogging,” or the ability of future professionals to participate in activities that instill optimism in their career paths. A modern critique of institutions of higher education engaged in this type of work is a lack of authentic assessment, particularly in regards to the civic inclinations, emotional states, advanced duties, and negotiations of those selected as student leaders. This study examines the aforementioned experiences of 12 service-learning leaders (SLLs) in an urban Midwestern intergenerational community-based physical activity (PA) program.

Method: Content analysis was used to explore interviews and open-ended surveys from SLLs during the course of 2 academic years. Constant comparison (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) identified thematic perspectives related to SLLs' dispositions and their responses to critical incidents.

Analysis/Results: Analysis of the data indicates that (a) SLLs need clearer guidelines regarding their roles as leaders, (b) empowerment of SLLs was heavily influenced by experience and site placement, and (c) discourse on equitable practices is needed along with knowledge of the community and a definition of the purpose of service learning specific to the community-based program.

Conclusions: The results of this study identify a need for a strategic and ethical focus on preparing SLLs for the rigors of promoting community-based PA. Of consideration is a new, innovative, and relevant model for SLLs for similar community-based PA programs.

Professional Socialization Experiences of Early Career Urban Physical Educators

Sara B. Flory, University of South Florida

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Early-career teachers face many challenges as they adjust to the demands of full-time teaching and learn about communities where they teach. These challenges increase in urban schools, where students face additional hardships (e.g., poverty, crime). Teaching is a high-turnover profession, with the highest attrition rates in urban schools. Additionally, cultural discrepancies exist between many urban teachers and students, leading to mistrust and disengagement in physical education (PE) and missed opportunities for physical activity. Using theories of occupational socialization and cultural relevance, the purpose of this study was to examine how three teachers' experiences during professional socialization (formal teacher education) influenced their early careers in urban schools.

Method: Data collection occurred for 6 weeks with each teacher via lesson observations and daily in-depth interviews lasting approximately 1 h (n = 54). Data were analyzed using constant comparison. By study design, the teachers had 4 to 6 years of urban school teaching experience but did not grow up in urban communities.

Analysis/Results: The teachers described several factors from their professional socialization experiences that led to successes and struggles as early-career urban physical educators. These factors included lack of diversity in teacher education programs, lack of coursework in sociocultural issues, curricular emphasis on team sports, and varying exposure to urban schools and communities.

Conclusions: The successes and struggles of these teachers emphasize the need for diverse teacher preparation programs that address sociocultural aspects of PE. Further research examining how PE teacher education programs prepare mostly White, middle-class teaching candidates for diverse school contexts seems warranted.

A Qualitative Investigation: A Short-Term Global Experiential Learning Program

Hongwei Guan, Nicholas Quarrier, Yao Li, Ithaca College

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: With the trend of globalization in higher education, many institutions are creating more opportunities for students to study abroad to increase their cultural competence and prepare them to be global citizens. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a short-term study-abroad program designed for college students of health, exercise science, and physical education-related majors.

Method: Participants were 13 undergraduate students who participated in a 2-week short-term study-abroad program in China. Two surveys were collected before and after the program. Students' assigned daily blogs were also included in the analysis. In addition, a graduate student plus an undergraduate student observed the program throughout the course and traveled with the group.

Analysis/Results: Intercultural competence was analyzed to assess how the goals of the study-abroad program were fulfilled. Communication accommodation theory was utilized for the analysis of cultural awareness and student learning. PEST (a communication analysis tool) was used to assess how the study-abroad program may meet its goals in a global environment. SWOT analysis was implemented to assess the strength, weakness, opportunities, and threats to evaluate the operation of the program in detail.

Conclusions: Overall, the China Study-Abroad Program was effective in increasing students' cultural awareness. It offered a great cultural experience for students, and they returned with lifelong memories. Students not only learned a great deal about China, Chinese culture, and traditional Chinese medicine, but they also learned more about themselves. The course before traveling abroad is very important for preparing students for a successful international learning experience.

Investigating Social Support of Professional Volleyball Players on International Teams

Janna Lafountaine, Cindra S. Kamphoff, Minnesota State University–Mankato

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Social support has been shown to be an important aspect in athletes' sport experiences (Rees & Hardy, 2000). This qualitative study describes the type of social support available to American professional volleyball players playing in Switzerland. Rees, Hardy, and Freeman (2007) argued that research on social support and sport is lacking. Additional research is needed to address the unique experience of American athletes playing internationally.

Method: Interviews were conducted in person with 14 American professional volleyball players, and they lasted between 45 and 60 min. The interview questions were adapted from the social support interview guide used by Rees and Hardy (2000). Using interpretative phenomenological analysis techniques, the results represent a combination of the athletes' reflections of their experience and the researcher's interpretation of their comments (Hassell, Sabiston, & Bloom, 2010).

Analysis/Results: The results indicated that parents, family, and friends provided emotional and esteem support via the Internet. Fellow American teammates were also essential and provided emotional and esteem support. Local players from Switzerland provided minimal support related to cultural nuances. The athletes did not mention their coaches in regard to any type of social support.

Conclusions: This research points to the need to help athletes learn how to maximize the social support available and ask for assistance from club personnel when needed. The athletes may need to learn skills, such as improved communication skills, to utilize social support. Cutrona and Russell (1990) stated that it is important for individuals to learn to match their needs to the type of social support available.

Physical Education Teachers' Compliance With Professional Codes of Ethics and Conduct

Stephen Mabagala, University of Dar Es Salaam

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Every profession considers the development and application of a professional code of ethics and conduct (PCEC) as a means of maintaining professional standards. As for the teaching profession, physical education (PE) teachers are supposed to exhibit a high level of professionalism, responsibility, integrity, competence, character, respect, and honesty. Such moral virtues are imperative because PE teachers' work involves close interactions with students. The purpose of this study was to determine the compliance level of PE teachers with the PCEC in Tanzania.

Method: The study utilized descriptive survey design and was conducted in secondary schools and teachers' colleges. Purposive sampling was adopted to select respondents. Participants were 52 PE teachers, 21 heads of institutions, 720 students, and 16 Teachers' Service Department officials.

Analysis/Results: PE teachers complied with the PCEC at a high level (M = 4.11, SD = 0.53). There were no significant differences in compliance across age (p = .868), gender (p = .502), marital status (p = .208), and teaching experience (p = .469). However, significant differences in compliance were observed across educational levels (p = .002) and across institutional variables (p < .05)

Conclusions: PE teachers comply accordingly with PCEC, and the level of education and religiosity influence their compliance level. There is a need to strengthen professional development courses for teachers and to emphasize the teaching of moral and professional ethics in the teacher education program.

St. Augustine's Swimming Pool Incident and the Civil Rights Act

Srecko Mavrek, Angela K. Beale, Adelphi University

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Background/Purpose: St. Augustine was Florida's most popular tourist attraction in 1964. Like many Southern cities at that time, St. Augustine's beaches and pools were segregated. The purpose of this study was to develop a narrative of the events preceding and following the Monson Motel pool incident.

Method: A literature review included International Swimming Hall of Fame publications and related Web sites. Primary and secondary sources of data were analyzed by historiography.

Analysis/Results: In the summer of 1964, St. Augustine became the target for a massive nonviolent civil rights demonstration. When attempts were made to integrate the beaches of Anastasia Island, demonstrators endured abuse, beatings, and verbal assaults by White segregationists without any retaliation. The demonstrations escalated when Martin Luther King, Jr., was arrested for trespassing at the segregated Monson Motel. A few days later, on June 18, 1964, a group of Black and White protesters jumped into the pool at the Monson Motel. In response, the owner of the motel, James Brock, was photographed pouring muriatic acid into the pool to get protesters out. Photographs of this, and of a policeman jumping into the pool to arrest them, were broadcasted around the world and became some of the most famous images of the entire civil rights movement.

Conclusions: Photographs of the swimming pool incident in St. Augustine have been credited with helping persuade undecided legislators to vote in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawing segregation in all public places and facilities. The U.S. Senate passed the act on June 19, 1964.

Swimming and State-Sponsored Doping in Communist East Germany

Srecko Mavrek, Angela K. Beale, Adelphi University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Most researchers believe that doping helped Communist East Germany (GDR) to win a large number of Olympic and world gold medals and records from the late 1960s to 1989. The aim of this research was to examine the influences and consequences of an organized system of doping use on the domination of international swimming by GDR women.

Method: A literature review included journal papers, International Swimming Hall of Fame publications, newspapers, and Web sites. The data were analyzed thematically and were contextualized within the historiographical framework.

Analysis/Results: State Plan 14:25 was a state doctrine controlled by the Stasi (the GDR's secret police) to use steroids to ensure sporting success on an international stage as a way of showing the superiority of the Communist regime. Using doping, GDR women shattered 130 world records (79 of them from 1973 to 1976) and won more than half of all Olympic medals available to them from 1976 to 1988—almost two thirds of all world titles and a staggering 97 out of 104 European crowns in seven championships.

Conclusions: The fall of the GDR and German unification made it possible to discover the truth. In 1991, a group of 20 ex-GDR coaches confirmed that anabolic steroids were used in GDR swimming. No GDR swimmer was ever caught or penalized for doping use. The International Olympic Committee and Federation Internationale de Natation do not punish athletes retroactively without an admission by the athlete. In 2007, Germany finished paying out $4.1 million in compensation to 157 former athletes who were the victims of the systematic doping conducted in the former GDR.

History, Philosophy, and Sociology of Sport Recommendations for PETE

Amanda A. Metcalf, Susan M. Ross, University of Central Missouri

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The 2008 National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) Initial Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) Standards articulate that beginning physical educators should be able to “identify historical, philosophical, and social perspectives (HPS) of physical education issues and legislation.” The purpose of this study was to generate expert consensus regarding the most essential HPS of sport competencies that prospective physical educators need to learn within the PETE curriculum and to determine how HPS of sport content should be delivered to prospective physical educators.

Method: The study employed a two-round, modified Delphi procedure involving the repeated circulation of a questionnaire to a panel of history specialists, philosophy specialists, sociology specialists, teacher educators, and K–12 physical education teachers. Panel members rated an initial list of HPS of sport competencies derived from NASPE Sport Philosophy Academy competencies and a national conference proceedings book published by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance. The second phase of the study involved follow-up interviews to validate and expand on quantitative findings.

Analysis/Results: Expert consensus determined that 27 out of the initial 74 HPS of sport competencies were essential in preparing prospective physical educators. The themes derived from the interviews included: course structure, instructor preference, additional competencies, and a name change from HPS of sport to HPS of physical activity.

Conclusions: The findings from this scholarly process represent an important link between the HPS body of knowledge and the goals of PETE and school physical education programs.

Parental Perceptions of Professional Behaviors in Coaching and Teaching

Melissa A. Murray, Linda J. Schoenstedt, Kimberly J. Bodey, Kristen Dieffenbach, West Virginia University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Ethical misdeeds are a common topic in today's social conversation. Forsyth (1980) suggests an individual moral philosophy (IMP) model, which guides ethical decision-making and judgment in the moral realm. Nowhere is ethical behavior more center-stage than in the sport arena. From high-profile recruiting (Yanity & Edmondson, 2011) to advances in sport technology (Loland, 2009) to the mere existence of sport as part of the university system (Feezell, 2009), sport ethics are a hot topic. Recent literature suggests a strong relationship between the coaching and teaching role (Jones, 2006), suggesting that coaches should be held to the same expectations as teachers. The purpose of the present study was to examine differences in parental perceptions of ethically toned behaviors in the teaching and coaching settings.

Method: Parents (n = 210) were asked to complete the Ethics Position Questionnaire and respond to a series of six vignettes reflecting common issues related to specific coaching and teaching situations.

Analysis/Results: Results indicate that the majority of participants (97.6%) could be classified as either situationists (reject moral rules for best possible outcome) or absolutists (conform to moral absolutes) using the IMP model. Results also suggest that parents were more lenient with coaches using harsh language and making decisions based on racial stereotyping than they were with teachers in the same situations.

Conclusions: The present study reflects a novel exploration of how parental perceptions differ regarding the teaching and coaching professions. Results support the need for more coaching education. Further results and implications will be discussed.

Impact of Afterschool Soccer: Students' Perceptions of School Climate

Larry P. Nelson, The University of Texas–Arlington

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Involvement in students' lives after school has been known to be an effective way to increase student attendance, boost school morale, and improve students' perceptions about their school experience. This study examined the impact of a long-awaited afterschool soccer program into a largely Hispanic high-risk urban junior high school.

Method: Participants in the study (N = 53) were students participating in the soccer program for two semesters. Data originated from a survey based on adult support, school effectiveness, peer influence, and social skills. Factor analysis yielded five scale constructs (Optimism, School Climate, Personal Responsibility, Social Support, and Self-Efficacy).

Analysis/Results: A mixed-model repeated-measures analysis was used for this study. A three-factor analysis of covariance (Gender × Ethnicity × Time) was applied to the design to increase the ratio of variance explained by the five scale constructs. Findings showed significant (p < .001) positive changes in students' perceptions across all five constructs as well as improved attendance rates up 5.9%. Reasons given by students for the positive changes included statements like, “If we get into trouble or miss class, the consequence would be we wouldn't get to play on the soccer team, so it's motivation for us to go to class and get good grades”; and “It's a good thing coach comes out and supports us. Coach is a good role model and keeps us away from drugs and the bad stuff.”

Conclusions: Relevant community-based afterschool programs can play a major role in student success in school.

Finishing Times Variation for Cross-Country National Championships by Gender

Kevin Riley Peters, Linda Petlichkoff, Yong Gao^F, Shelley Lucas, Lynda Ransdell^F, Boise State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: In cross-country, women compete over shorter distances than do men, with little justification for this difference. This study assessed gender differences for the spread of finishing times and examined the appropriateness of shorter race distances for women.

Method: Forty-six cross-country national championship data sets (10,788 men; 10,884 women) from the National Collegiate Athletic Association (1999–2011) and National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (2005–2011) were utilized for analyses. Several measures of variation were computed to assess data spread of finishing times (i.e., coefficient of variation [CV], interpercentile ranges [IPR], and rates of separation [RS; IPR divided by the distance of the race]).

Analysis/Results: Independent and dependent t tests revealed significant gender differences on all three variation measures. Men and women differed on CV (M _males = 3.93, SD = 1.04; M _females = 4.84, SD = 1.05, p < .01), as well as each percentile range for IPR and RS. For brevity, one difference is provided for gender differences on IPR and RS. Specifically, men and women differed on IPR 5% to 95% (M _males = 227.27, SD = 68.53; M _females = 207.44, SD = 48.23, p < .01) and RS 5% to 95% (M _males = 24.84, SD = 6.68; M _females = 36.14, SD = 8.56, p < .01). For women, a race distance at 68.6% of the distance of the men could generate equivalent variations between genders.

Conclusions: Finisher times for women's races were more spread out than they were for men's races when adjusted for distance and time. The spread of finishing times may statistically justify shorter distances for women to increase spectator excitement and efficient race management.

Socialization Experiences of Kinesiology Graduate Students of Color

Jared A. Russell, Asherah Blount, Desmond Delk, Auburn University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this phenomenological case-study research was to examine how academic and professional socialization processes contributed to the satisfaction, successes, and failures of graduate students of color (N = 6) at predominantly White institutions of higher education. Of primary importance were the perceived challenges and support mechanisms identified by the participants as being impactful on their matriculation.

Method: Researchers used traditional qualitative data collection and analysis techniques for this study. Specifically, individual semistructured interviews, critical incident reports, and journals were utilized to gain an understanding of the participants' perspectives. Moreover, qualitative data analysis techniques included developing coding categories, analytic induction techniques, and theme development. Social capital theory and a model of graduate student development formed the basic framework for this research.

Analysis/Results: Participants described similar key experiences and factors that impacted their socialization and matriculation. Specifically, emergent themes included: (a) departmental and institutional characteristics, (b) financial considerations, (c) availability of mentors and advocates, (d) utilization of support mechanisms, (e) transitioning into graduate studies, and (f) intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.

Conclusions: In conclusion, it is hoped that the dissemination of these findings will lead to further discussion among graduate program administrators and scholars regarding the proper processes needed to fully support the matriculation of graduate students, particularly those from diverse backgrounds, as they transition into their academic and professional roles. Specifically, processes must be developed, implemented, and evaluated, which will assist graduate students in their academic and professional development as future members of the professoriate and into relevant occupational positions.

Effectively Mentoring Kinesiology Doctoral Students: Perspectives From Mentors and Mentees

Jared A. Russell, Asherah Blount, Michelle Vaughn, Auburn University

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Background/Purpose: Mentorship is a key factor in the overall socialization, retention, and matriculation of kinesiology doctoral graduate students. However, limited research has explored the characteristics and best practices associated with mentoring. This interpretive case study examined the academic and professional mentoring experiences of a group of kinesiology doctoral degree-seeking graduate students (n = 14) and faculty (n = 5) from four Eastern research institutions.

Method: Researchers used traditional qualitative data collection and analysis techniques for this study. Specifically, semistructured interviews, critical incident reports, and journals were utilized to gain an understanding of the participants' perspectives. Moreover, qualitative data analysis techniques included developing coding categories, analytic induction techniques, and theme development. Organizational socialization theory provided a basic framework for this research.

Analysis/Results: Participants described key perspectives regarding the mentoring process and best practices. Specifically, emergent themes included: (a) identifying expectations and needs, (b) choosing to actively engage in the mentoring process, (c) developing a professional relationship, (d) establishing appropriate goals and objectives, and (e) humanizing the process.

Conclusions: In conclusion, this research provides evidence of the shared mentoring perspectives of kinesiology faculty and doctoral graduate students. The dissemination of these findings will lead to further discussion among scholars and administrators regarding the most effective means of facilitating programmatic mentoring processes. It is clear that mentoring is vital to the overall matriculation and postgraduate success of doctoral students. Consequently, future research should examine this process with the intent of assisting doctoral students in their development as future members of the professoriate and into relevant occupational positions.

Moral Reasoning and Adventure-Based Programs: Any Affect?

Carol A. Smith, Elon University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Situational factors are cited as reasons why university students may not act in an ethical or moral manner. When the consequences of “not doing well” were life-altering, students were more likely to change their responses. The nature of adventure-based programs (ABP) seems well suited to positively influence moral and ethical reasoning due to the inclusion of reflection and debriefing. This study investigated the impact of a 14-week ABP on the moral reasoning of university students.

Method: Eighty-six undergraduate students volunteered for this study, which utilized Rest's (1979) Defining Issues Test (DIT). The DIT investigates how individuals arrive at making decisions and formulates a “P” (Principled moral reasoning) score for each subject.

Analysis/Results: The data analysis was a 2 (group) ×  2 (time) analysis of variance utilizing the GLM on PCSAS. The groups were found to be homogeneous at the pretest (ABP = 36.07, control = 33.58, F = 0.05). The control group did not improve from pretest to posttest (posttest = 34.13, F = 0.06). The ABP group did not improve statistically from pretest to posttest (posttest = 40.98, F = 2.75). There was a statistically significant difference on the posttest scores of the ABP participants (40.98) in relation to the control group (34.13; F = 3.84).

Conclusions: It is postulated, due to the significant difference in posttest scores, that the ABP students did enhance their level of moral reasoning. The nature of ABPs seems well suited to positively influence moral and ethical reasoning.

Why Inner-City High Schoolers Voluntarily Attend Afterschool Physical Activity Clubs

Laurel L. Whalen, Nathan A. McCaughtry^F, Alex Garn, Noel Kulik, Kimberly Maljak, Michele Kaseta, Bo Shen^F, Jeffrey J. Martin^F, Wayne State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Urban, minority, low socioeconomic-status, female, and nonathletic youth are highly vulnerable to physical inactivity due partly to scarce opportunities and resources. Some support comprehensive school-based interventions that include engaging afterschool components to increase youth physical activity (PA), yet little is known about whether/why vulnerable urban youth would voluntarily participate. Using social-cognitive theory, this study examined urban high school students' rationale for attending afterschool physical activity clubs (PACs).

Method: PACs were established in 14 inner-city high schools during 2 years. Adult leaders held 938 sessions (averaging 16.5 students) targeting inactive youth with nonsport activities. Two hundred seventy-eight student interviews and 115 field observations were conducted. Data were analyzed using constant comparison and analytic induction, and trustworthiness strategies included prolonged engagement, member checking, and triangulation.

Analysis/Results: Youth identified four reasons for attending PACs, including: social affiliation (to be part of something, relationships with adult leaders, make new friends, socialize with existing friends in positive places); health and performance (get healthy, avoid sedentary behaviors, personal challenge, improve performance in other activities); fun (student-centered, noncompetitive, culturally relevant activities); and to avoid negative influences (unsupervised time, deviant alternatives, family and friend drama).

Conclusions: Despite barriers unique to urban environments, findings suggest that PACs can effectively engage youth traditionally vulnerable to inactivity through afterschool alternatives. Guided by social-cognitive theory, students' reasons for participating in PACs were complex and multifaceted. The sustainability and potential health and social impact of urban PACs will largely hinge on understanding and capitalizing on youth motivation.

Facilitators and Barriers to Physical Activity Participation Among Chinese Women

Zi Yan, Bradley J. Cardinal^F, Oregon State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: This study sought to understand the meanings, facilitators, and barriers of physical activity participation among Chinese female international graduate students enrolled in the American higher education system.

Method: Twenty Chinese female international graduate students (M _age = 27.5 years, SD = 2.1) were recruited and interviewed. A one-on-one semistructured interview method was used. Multiple qualitative research methods were used to ensure trustworthiness of the procedures employed.

Analysis/Results: The general meanings of physical activity included a break from work, a feeling of accomplishment, and a time to be alone. The general facilitators included social influence, physical resources, changing perceptions of femininity, heath improvement, and leisure and social opportunities. The general barriers included a lack of time, a lack of self-efficacy, a lack of social support, feelings of embarrassment, cultural barriers, and a lack of information. Overall, the social influences of American society had a profound impact on the participants in terms of their attitudes toward and participation in physical activity. In addition, American culture also modified many of the participants' perceptions of femininity from traditional values in China, such as “paper thin,” white-skinned, quiet, and inactive women, to “healthy,” “fit,” tanned skin, and an active image. The environmental resources facilitated their behavior but were also somewhat overwhelming for them because they lacked the knowledge and skills necessary to use all of the available resources.

Conclusions: When universities provide physical activity promotion programs for international students, they should consider strategies to protect their emotional responses, decrease their negative feelings, and increase their self-esteem.

Special PopulationsSpatial and Temporal Variability of Gait Parameters in Down Syndrome

Manuela C. Barna, Michael Horvat,^F, Ron V. Croce, University of New Hampshire

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Individuals with Down syndrome usually exhibit deviations in independent walking, caused by delays in motor or sensory functioning, as well as slowness in movements that are often awkward and uncoordinated. The purpose of this study is to compare spatial and temporal gait movement parameters of individuals with Down syndrome and control subjects without disabilities.

Method: Twelve young adults with Down syndrome (aged 18 to 28 years old) and a control group of 12 participants without disabilities were matched according to age and sex. All participants were evaluated on responses to a preferred pace and fast walk with the GAITRite Electronic Walkway. The specific testing protocol was approved by the institutional review board at the University of Georgia.

Analysis/Results: Spatial outcomes included step and stride length, step and stride width, toe-in/toe-out, and base of support. Temporal outcomes included step time, velocity, single- and double-leg support time, stance, and swing time. There were significant group differences for step length, step width, stride length, and velocity in the preferred walk condition. Significant group differences for step length, step width, and stride length were observed in the fast walk condition. Percentage differences also indicated lower scores for all spatial and temporal variables in relation to the control group.

Conclusions: The ability to control gait movements appears to reflect earlier movement experiences, so it may be possible to use variable sensory feedback and specific training to modify and adjust movement responses and improve gait performance in Down syndrome.

Comparison of Fitness Performance Between Children With and Without Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Andrew M. Colombo-Dougovito, Western Michigan University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: This study compared and examined the physical fitness levels of elementary school-aged children with and without attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It was hypothesized that students with ADHD were much more active in their everyday lives, thus leading to having higher physical fitness levels than those of their peers.

Methods

The participants of this study included 51 elementary school-age students between the ages of 7 and 10 years. Participants received measures on seven test items selected from the President's Physical Fitness Challenge given twice throughout the 2010–2011 school year; tests included the curl-up, pushup, pull-up, flexed-arm hang, sit and reach, endurance run, and shuttle run.

Analysis/Results: To examine differences between groups, simple multivariate analysis of variance and an analysis of variance were utilized to analyze the differences between students with and without ADHD throughout the seven test items. Results from these examinations showed very little difference between the two groups: Children with ADHD (M _curl-up =  31.56, M _pushup =  27.26, M _{shuttlerun =}  13.1, and M _{endurancerun =}  4:54) and children without ADHD (M _curl-up =  27.62, M _pushup =  16.73, M _{shuttlerun =}  13.24, and M _{endurancerun =}  5:27) demonstrated very similar outputs with very little variance.

Conclusions: Participants with ADHD perform equally with their normal-developing peers on physical fitness assessments, demonstrating that ADHD has a limited effect on improving or decreasing physical fitness levels.

Service Learning Through Special Olympics: Examining Impacts Upon Student Volunteers

Michael J. Diacin, Jennifer L. VanSickle, University of Indianapolis

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Service learning is a form of experiential education where learning occurs as students work with others and reflect upon their experiences, resulting in a deeper understanding of themselves as well as enhancing their skills in working with a special needs population (Buswell & Leriou, 2007). Service-learning experiences can shift students' attitudes toward people with disabilities (Curran, 1998; Greene, 1998; Smith, 2003). However, none of these studies was conducted within the context of special-event volunteering. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact upon and benefits received by students who volunteered to assist intellectually disabled athletes during the Special Olympics World Summer Games.

Method: Eighteen undergraduate students participated in this experience. Data were collected through reflective journals composed during and shortly after completion of this experience. Eight open-ended questions were constructed to assist in completing the journal. Grounded theory served as the framework to collect, analyze, and interpret the data.

Analysis/Results: Three themes emerged: increased comfort/reduced awkwardness with intellectually disabled individuals, clarification of career choice, and an increased sensitivity toward individuals with intellectual disabilities. Student volunteers became increasingly comfortable with intellectually disabled individuals and realized working with this population was an appealing career path. Also, participants became more cognizant of stereotypes and attitudes directed toward intellectually disabled individuals.

Conclusions: Service-learning opportunities provide significant positive outcomes. For college students in particular, it could serve as an experience that shapes an eventual career path. It is hoped the experiences of these students could interest others in assisting intellectually disabled individuals.

On-the-Job Training: Physical Education Teachers' Perspectives on Learning to Teach

Suzanna Rocco Dillon, Kevin Tepper, Timothy D. Davis, State University of New York–Cortland

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine physical educators' perspectives on learning to teach students with disabilities (SWD) in general physical education (GPE).

Method: Interpretive, qualitative methods were used to examine GPE teachers' experiences prior to, during, and following their teacher education program, and to understand how these experiences relate to their learning to teach SWD. Using an interview guide and extensive probing, semistructured interviews were conducted with 10 physical educators from the Midwestern United States. Data were analyzed inductively using constant comparison with trustworthiness sought through member checks, researcher triangulation, researcher journals, and peer debriefers.

Analysis/Results: In general, the physical educators perceived learning how to teach SWD “on the job” rather than through preprofessional or professional socialization experiences. Four themes emerged explaining the teachers' perceptions of how they learned to teach SWD. First, the teachers' preprofessional socialization, although devoid of experiences with SWD, did not negatively or positively impact their career decision. Second, the teachers' professional socialization emphasized other aspects of teaching GPE with little to no attention to teaching SWD. Third, the teachers experienced reality shock during their early teaching experiences with SWD in their GPE classes. Teachers perceived these early experiences to be significant in shaping their current teaching behaviors. Finally, with no available assistance from an adapted physical education specialist, the teachers perceived feelings of isolation.

Conclusions: From the perspectives shared, GPE teachers' learning of how to teach SWD appears to occur primarily outside of their teacher education program and without support from other educators/specialists.

Physical Activity Barriers for Adults With Brain Injury: Qualitative Inquiry

Simon Driver, Megan C. Self, University of North Texas

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a serious public health issue that presents specialists with a challenge to implement evidence-based interventions that improve health. One intervention that has been demonstrated to improve health is physical activity (PA). However, individuals with a TBI are largely inactive and do not meet the recommended guidelines of 150 min/week. Therefore, the purpose is to complete focus groups of three to five individuals with a TBI who are enrolled in a comprehensive rehabilitation program to understand the barriers faced to being physically active so that strategies can be put in place to help individuals overcome the barriers.

Method: Seventeen participants completed a focus group to discuss the barriers faced to PA participation. A phenomenological approach was adopted and trustworthiness was established through investigator triangulation. A cross-case analysis was completed to identify themes and conceptual patterns.

Analysis/Results: The main themes that emerged included: (a) the identification of specific personal and environmental barriers, (b) role of the disability as a barrier, and (c) strategies to overcome barriers.

Conclusions: Individuals with a brain injury report a variety of personal and environmental barriers such as, “Right now, my barrier is my injury, but in the past, it was transportation.” PA specialists can use the results to create effective programs that help individuals strategize to overcome the barriers faced to facilitate the adoption and maintenance of PA behaviors.

Physiological Measures During Treadmill Testing in Youth With Down Syndrome

Philip Esposito, Dale A. Ulrich^F, University of Michigan

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Presently, many researchers are objectively measuring physical activity via accelerometry. Accelerometers produce unitless data counts and are coupled with physiological information related to intensity of physical activity. Many of these physiological criteria are based on well-established exercise responses derived from typically developed populations. The purpose of this study was to examine the physiological responses to physical activity in youth with and without Down syndrome (DS) during a submaximal treadmill task.

Method: Fifty-three participants (27 with DS, 26 controls) between the ages of 9 and 18 years old participated in a graded submaximal treadmill task. Participants walked at 2.5 miles per hour, and every 3 min, the incline increased 2.5°. Respiratory gases along with heart rate were collected on a breath-by-breath basis.

Analysis/Results: All participants engaged in identical protocols. Participants with DS were found to have lower peak oxygen consumption (VO₂) values (p < .01) and lower peak VO₂ values corrected for lean body mass (p < .05). Participants with DS also performed at a higher level of their maximum percent heart rate (p < .01) and had greater peak respiratory exchange ratios (p < .01).

Conclusions: There is physiological evidence that participants with DS experienced the task differently, although both groups were given identical tasks. Participants with DS were exerting themselves more to complete the task compared with their peers. Applying information derived from typically developed individuals is likely to result in invalid data. With an increased interest in objectively measuring physical activity, it is necessary to understand the unique physiological responses to physical activity in this population.

Exergames to Engage Youth With Visual Impairments in Physical Activity

John T. Foley^F, Barbara A. Gasperetti, Cathy M. MacDonald, Stephen P. Yang, Lauren Lieberman, State University of New York–Brockport

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Participation in physical activity can lead to better health, more social interaction, and better physical coordination for youth with visual impairment. However, these youth tend to lead a more sedentary lifestyle compared with their peers without a disability because they experience additional barriers to physical activity such as overprotection and low motivation. One method to overcome the barriers to physical activity is the use of exergames, interactive electronic video games that use a physical activity as input. The purpose of this study is to determine if exergames are a practical method to engage youth with a visual impairment in physical activity.

Method: Twenty-four youth with a wide spectrum of visual impairments ranging from B1 to B3 classification participated in this study. Youth played Dance Dance Revolution (DDR) and EyeToy Kinetic at their leisure and tried them as many times as desired during a 1-week period. Individual experiences were captured using semistructured interviews that were transcribed verbatim by a two researchers.

Analysis/Results: Participants expressed positive feelings toward playing the exergames. Thematic analysis revealed several themes reflecting usability, social inclusion, and feelings of competence.

Conclusions: Youth with a visual impairment successfully engaged in being physically active using the two exergames DDR and EyeToy Kinetic. Additionally, participants expressed positive feelings towards exergaming indicating that commercially available game systems could be a valuable tool for children with visual impairments to enhance participation in physical activity.

Physical Activity in Youth With Down Syndrome and Autism Spectrum Disorder

Irully Jeong, Dale A. Ulrich^F, University of Michigan

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Few studies have paid attention to identifying physical activity (PA) in youth with disabilities using objective measures. This study aimed to compare PA patterns between youth with Down syndrome (DS) and youth with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and to estimate the minimum number of monitoring days and hours needed for both groups using the PA data measured by accelerometers.

Method: A total of 43 youth with DS (M _age = 12.7 years) and 64 youth with ASD (M _age = 12.4 years) participated in this study, and each participant was asked to wear an accelerometer on the ankle for a consecutive 7 days and 10 h a day. Independent t tests were used to examine group differences in total activity counts and time spent in PA levels, and EduG 6.0 was used to estimate the minimum number of monitoring days and hours in both groups.

Analysis/Results: No significant differences were observed for total activity counts between the DS and ASD groups. However, we found youth with DS spent more time in light PA, while youth with ASD spent more time in moderate-to-vigorous PA. In addition, 3 days and 13 h were needed for youth with DS, and 3 days and 8 h were needed for youth with ASD to obtain reliable PA estimates.

Conclusions: Youth with ASD failed to show significantly higher PA counts than did youth with DS, and both groups needed fewer numbers of monitoring days to obtain reliable PA estimates compared with a nondisabled peer group. These findings may have important implications for subject compliance and overall research cost.

An Integrative Framework: Physical Activity Predictors in Inclusive Physical Education

Jooyeon Jin, Joonkoo Yun^F, Oregon State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Physical education is considered to be critical in promoting students' physical activity (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2012), but many adolescents with and without disabilities are inactive during physical education (Pan et al., 2011). The mechanism of physical activity behavior should be thoroughly understood to effectively promote students' physical activity. The purpose of this study was to investigate the utility of an integrative theoretical framework to predict intentions and physical activity behavior of adolescents with and without disabilities in middle school inclusive physical education settings.

Method: A total of 577 participants, including 24 adolescents with disabilities, were recruited from eight middle schools in Korea. In a prospective design, the participants' psychosocial constructs (attitudes, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, barrier efficacy, task efficacy, goal intention, and implementation intention) and physical activity data were collected by survey questionnaires and electronic pedometers, respectively.

Analysis/Results: Multilevel structural equation modeling using maximum likelihood estimation with robust standard error correction revealed that students' attitudes, subjective norms, and barrier efficacy significantly predict students' goal intentions (R ²  = .68, p <  .001). Students' implementation intentions and task efficacy were significant predictors of physical activity behavior (R ²  = .13, p <  .001). In addition, implementation intentions completely mediated the relationship between goal intentions and physical activity behavior (beta = .12, p <  .001).

Conclusions: Findings suggest that the integrative framework provides a systematic account in the understanding of students' physical activity behavior in physical education settings. Future studies should consider the psychosocial factors to effectively develop instructional strategies that promote physical activity of adolescents with and without disabilities in physical education classes.

Are Children With Autism Less Active Than Children Without Autism?

Courtney Johnson, Joonkoo Yun^F, Oregon State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Many believe that children with disabilities are less physically active than their counterparts. However, current literature examining the physical activity (PA) of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) compared with children without ASD suggests conflicting results. These inconclusive results may be due to failure of selecting an appropriate matching group. The current literature suggests that a child's environment is a significant influencing factor of the overall PA levels. Also, parents have a significant influence on the PA of their children. The purpose of this study was to examine the PA of children with ASD by matching groups based on similar environments and parental influences.

Method: PA of 16 children (eight pairs of siblings) with and without ASD was examined by using accelerometers to evaluate time spent in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and total amount of PA and to determine if children with ASD met the current Centers for Disease Control and Prevention PA recommendation less often than their siblings did.

Analysis/Results: The results of one-way multivariate analysis of covariance indicated no significant differences on time spent in MVPA and total amount of PA, Wilks's λ = .87 (p>.05), partial η² = 1.30. The results of logistic regression analysis also indicated that there were no differences between children with and without ASD in meeting the current PA recommendation.

Conclusions: The results suggest that children with ASD were no less active than their counterparts, but they are not meeting the current PA recommendation. This study also suggests that it may not be the disability that limits the PA, but instead, the environmental factors may influence the activity level.

Understanding the Sport Commitment of Wheelchair Basketball Athletes

Joshua Lavigne, Scott A. Forrester, Brock University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Using the sport commitment model (Scanlan et al., 1993), the purpose of this study was to identify the antecedents of sport commitment for individuals playing wheelchair basketball.

Method: Wheelchair basketball athletes were recruited using snowball sampling, and the Scanlan collaborative interview method (SCIM; Scanlan et al., 2003a) was used to collect data from individual interviews. The SCIM allows for a collaborative effort of both the player and the researcher, who in partnership capture the player's personal picture of commitment on a collaborative interview board, which is in turn related to the current and potential new sources of commitment predicted by the theory (Scanlan et al., 2003).

Analysis/Results: A total of eight players, five men and three women, ranging from 27 to 42 years in age, having played wheelchair basketball between 3 and 14 years, took part in the study. There were five different disabilities among the eight participants including: cerebral palsy, spinal cord injuries, spina bifida, dystonia, multiple sclerosis, and polio. Analysis of the collaborative interview boards identified sport enjoyment as the top predictor of sport commitment, followed by social support and involvement opportunities. The transcripts from the individual interviews yielded the same top two predictors of commitment in the same order, but they were followed by perceived ability.

Conclusions: The sport commitment model (Scanlan et al., 1993) appears to be useful in understanding the factors that contribute to the sport commitment of individuals playing wheelchair basketball. However, there are some unique factors relating to perceived ability with this sample.

Stereotypic Behaviors of Children With Autism During Gross Motor Activities

Jihyun Lee, David L. Porretta, The Ohio State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) typically exhibit stereotypic behaviors (SB). Although various gross motor activities (e.g., jogging) have been used to decrease SB (Petrus et al., 2008), evidence is lacking regarding their effect when performed in different settings. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of motor activities performed in two settings (gymnasium/pool) on SB in children with ASD. The theoretical underpinning for this study was framed within a behavioral perspective.

Method: Participants were two boys with ASD (8 years old) who exhibited SB. An alternating treatment design was used to compare SB exhibited during activities in both gymnasium and pool settings. A momentary time-sampling procedure was used. Following baseline (no structured motor activities), participants were alternately placed in either a gymnasium or pool setting in which structured motor activities were performed. All sessions were videotaped.

Analysis/Results: The percentage of time exhibiting SB was calculated. Interobserver agreement and treatment fidelity were established (93.5% and 95%, respectively) on 20% of randomly selected sessions. There were marked SB decreases for both participants across both settings. On average, when compared with baseline, Participant A exhibited SB decreases of 24.4% (baseline, 34.3%; treatment, 9.9%) and 11.7% (baseline, 17.9%; treatment, 6.2%) for gymnasium and pool settings, respectively. On average, when compared with baseline, Participant B exhibited SB decreases of 35.6% (baseline, 49.1%; treatment, 13.5%) and 26.4% (baseline, 37.5%; treatment, 11.1%) for the gymnasium and pool settings, respectively.

Conclusions: Findings can be of help to practitioners when programming activities for children with ASD.

Aerobic Capacity in Children With Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Tim Martinson, Stephen A. Butterfield^F, Craig A. Mason, Robert A. Lehnhard, University of Maine

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Accurate assessment of children's aerobic capacity is a priority for most physical educators. In light of federal legislation, gross motor and physical fitness assessment of children with special needs takes on added importance. During physical activity, children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are often challenged by coordination problems and specific deficits in cognitive function, including information encoding and retrieval. The purpose of this study was to examine aerobic capacity of children with ADHD. It was hypothesized that children diagnosed with ADHD would demonstrate lower levels of aerobic capacity than would children without ADHD.

Method: The design was repeated-measures. Eight hundred ninety-two middle school children ages 11 to 14 years old, including 55 children with ADHD, participated. While controlling for age, sex, sports participation, and body mass index (BMI), children were tested on the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) three times (in September, December, and April). Procedures specified in the FITNESSGRAM test manual were explicitly adhered to.

Analysis/Results: Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was applied to analyze the data. HLM models individual variation in growth and permits hypothesis testing of potential growth correlates. As hypothesized, children with ADHD performed 8.6 fewer laps at intercept (baseline) than did healthy children without ADHD, t(878) = –6.207, p < .001. However, no significant differences emerged for time (slope). Also, no significant interactions were found for ADHD with age, sex, sports participation, or BMI.

Conclusions: A diagnosis of ADHD, independent of selected predictor variables, explained lower PACER performance. Further studies should examine strategies to help children with ADHD perform optimally on the PACER.

Neighborhood Transformation: Participatory Photo Mapping, At-Risk Youth, and Physical Activity

Karen Meaney^F, Jo An, M. Zimmermann, Gloria Martinez-Ramos, Yungmei Lu, Jungfang Chen, The Texas State University–San Marcos

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Children from low-income, minority families often reside in neighborhoods that limit their opportunities to participate in physical activity due to environmental factors (e.g., restricted access to recreational facilities, limited outdoor play space; Stevens, 2009). Using a social-cognitive (Bandura, 1986) framework, this investigation explored low-income children's and adults' perceptions of environmental barriers to their participation in physical activity.

Method: Children (N = 38; 31 Hispanic, 4 African American, 2 Caucasian) and adults (N = 21; 17 Hispanic, 4 Caucasian) living at or below the federal poverty level who resided in public housing complexes in a city in Central Texas volunteered to participate. The participants engaged in all aspects of participatory photo mapping (PPM). PPM is an innovative participatory research technique that incorporates narrative interviewing with digital photography and mapping, then culminates in the development of an action plan identifying the participants' goals for their community (Dennis et al., 2009).

Analysis/Results: PPM results revealed that adults identified safety concerns (i.e., lighting, signage, sidewalks, crosswalks), whereas the youth identified lack of equipment and outdoor play spaces as major obstacles to children's participation in neighborhood physical activity. An action plan was developed and presented to the city council. In response to the action plan, the city installed additional lighting, crosswalks, and signage in the community. In addition, a proposal was funded ($177,000) to install recreational equipment, water fountains, and green space at the neighborhood park.

Conclusions: PPM empowered participants to engage in neighborhood transformation to promote physical activity. PPM is a valuable methodology in community-based participatory studies.

Physical Activity by and for Individuals With Autism: Cross-Group Comparisons

Kristi Sayers Menear, William Neumeier, Lisle Hites, Joe Carter, Brooke Stephens, Triumph Services, Inc.

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The percentage of Alabamians living with disabilities is higher than the national average per capita. Additionally, individuals with an autism spectrum disorder (IWASD) are, in general, not physically active at the frequency and intensity recommended for optimal health. This study collected responses of IWASD living in Alabama and their network of support providers regarding participation in physical activities by IWASD.

Method: Investigators captured survey responses from multiple perspectives, including: (a) IWASD (n = 57), (b) activity providers (n = 21), (c) non-physical activity service providers (n = 41), and (d) caregivers (n = 82). Survey data included demographic information; specific ASD diagnosis; type, frequency, mode, and duration of physical activities; sources of encouragement; challenges to participation; and nature of physical activity.

Analysis/Results: IWASD and their caregivers identified preferences for types, duration, and sources of encouragement for physical activities. Walking and swimming were preferred activities, but they were not participated in more than 3 days/week or for more than 30 min per session. Teachers were primary sources of encouragement. Common barriers were access, availability, sensory issues, and motivation. IWASD expressed moderate interest in increasing physical activity. Providers expressed concern regarding inactivity or lack of activity by IWASD and a preference to see increased levels of activity participation among this population.

Conclusions: The collected information provides current perspectives of physical activity by IWASD in one state and their network of support providers. These data can be used in designing future physical activity programs in the home or community and exercise research interventions for IWASD.

Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity: A Quality Indicator?

Jennifer Morgan, Dalhyun Moon, Jooyeon Jin, Cheng Cheng Jia, Joonkoo Yun^F, Oregon State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) has been considered a critical indicator to evaluate the effectiveness of structured physical activity (PA) programs, such as community-based PA programs (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2008). However, MVPA may not provide adequate information for children with disabilities because they have different PA patterns. According to Lee (2003), students' achievement in structured programs is significantly influenced by how much they are appropriately engaged in the lessons. If there is a positive relationship between MVPA and engagement, the time spent in MPVA could be used as a good indicator of the program effectiveness for children with disabilities. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between MVPA and engagement of children with disabilities in a community-based PA program.

Method: Twenty-seven children with disabilities enrolled in a community-based PA program participated in this study. Participants' MVPA was measured by accelerometers, and time spent in MVPA was estimated using cut points established by Evenson et al. (2008). Participants' engagement time was directly observed by researchers using a momentary sampling method.

Analysis/Results: Multiple regressions were conducted with age, gender, and disabilities as covariates. The results indicated that participants' time spent in MVPA is not related to engagement, β = .33, p = .16. Total amount of PA was also not related to participants' engagement in the structured program, β = .22, p = .34.

Conclusions: Study findings suggest that time spent in MVPA may not be a sufficient indicator to evaluate the effectiveness of structured PA programs.

Achievement Goals and Intentions of Students in Inclusive Physical Education

Iva Obrusnikova^F, Suzanna Rocco Dillon, Wayne State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Research on the inclusion of students with physical disabilities in general physical education (GPE) documents occurrences of social isolation and limited social interactions, negative affect perceived by students with disabilities, and lack of appropriate accommodations being made by physical educators (Block & Obrusnikova, 2007). Given the critical role that the social environment plays in successful inclusion in GPE, a close examination of the factors influencing the beliefs and intentions of students without disabilities to socially interact with their peers with a physical disability in GPE is warranted. Therefore, the study investigated beliefs and physical education goals associated with intentions of students without disabilities to play with a hypothetical peer with a physical disability in GPE.

Method: The Children's Intentions to Play With Peers With Disabilities in Middle School Physical Education (CBIPPD–MPE) and the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Scale-9 were administered to a convenience sample of 359 middle school-aged children, ages 11 to 13 years old, from the Midwestern United States.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics were completed to summarize the students' demographic information, achievement goals, beliefs, and intentions. Correlational analyses revealed that behavioral beliefs (rs = .64), normative beliefs (rs = .52), control beliefs (rs = .51), and task-involved goals (rs = .43) were significantly and positively correlated with intention (p < .01). Ego-involved goals had the lowest and not insignificant correlation with intention, as well as with the other variables.

Conclusions: The findings offer empirical support for consideration of the achievement goal theory in the CBIPPD–MPE model.

Swimming Pool Accessibility: A University- and Community-Based Fitness Center Analysis

Jeffrey Petersen, Cindy Piletic, Lawrence W. Judge, Janet K. Wigglesworth, Western Illinois University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Swimming pools form an integral component of comprehensive fitness centers, and it is important that these aquatic facilities are accessible to all users. This study assessed swimming pool facility accessibility according to Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) guidelines based upon a standardized site survey tool.

Method: Site visits were conducted within a randomly stratified sample of 121 community-based and university-based fitness facilities across eight Midwestern and Southwestern states. The 37 items from Section L of the Accessibility Instruments Measuring Fitness and Recreation Environments survey examined pool accessibility based upon a scaled summary score of the survey items for each pool facility.

Analysis/Results: A 3 × 2 analysis of variance (facility age, facility type) revealed significant differences in mean pool accessibility for facility age, F(2, 115) = 4.18, p = .018, and for Age × Type interaction, F(2, 115) = 3.55, p = .032. The significant main effects of facility age were further analyzed by Bonferroni adjusted pairwise comparisons. University pools constructed post-ADA (M = 50.34, SE = 3.22) were significantly more accessible than pre-ADA (M = 40.26, SE = 3.36, p = .007), and they were also significantly more accessible than university-based pools built pre-ADA but renovated post-ADA (M = 42.47, SE = 2.68, p = .012). No main effects were determined for facility type (community-based to university-based).

Conclusions: These results demonstrate relative levels of general ADA compliance for swimming pools and provide initial descriptive and analytical data useful for improving accessibility for pools within fitness center settings.

Activity Participation Among Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorders

E. Andrew Pitchford, Megan MacDonald, Janet L. Hauck, Dale A. Ulrich^F, University of Michigan

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Diverse and regular participation in activities can promote social engagement and health in youths with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The purpose of this study was to describe the frequency and regularity of participation in activities among youths with ASD.

Method: Participants included 71 youths with ASD (M _age = 12.40 years; 23% girls). We measured frequency and regularity of activities using the Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment. We also measured additional demographics and covariates, including accelerometer physical activity (PA; moderate-to-vigorous physical activity [MVPA]).

Analysis/Results: Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics of frequency and regularity of activities, Pearson correlations, and analysis of variance. Youths with ASD participated on average in 26.21 (6.79) activities during 4 months with an average regularity of 2.70 (0.75), indicating participation of once per month. Common activities included watching TV/movies (95.3%), playing computer/video games (93.3%), playing with things/toys (91%), and doing chores (87.2%). These activities had regular participation of multiple times per week. Among physical activities, only swimming (89.7%), walking/hiking (77.5%), playing on equipment (75.3%), and individual PA (58.4%) were done by more than half of the sample. However, regular participation was only one to two times per month. We found statistically significant correlations and differences between activity regularity and age, and MVPA and age (r ≥ .31, F ≥ 7.7, p < .05).

Conclusions: Although MVPA was relatively high, based on accelerometry, the reported regularity of participation in PA was very low. Most youths with ASD participated in predominantly sedentary activities, in particular screen-time activities. Future research and interventions should promote both diverse and regular participation of activities to support health outcomes and social engagement.

Improving Social Skills of Elementary Children With Special Needs

Amaury Samalot-Rivera, Paul T. Stuhr, Esther M. Ortiz-Stuhr, Takahiro Sato, Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Adventure-based learning (ABL) is a type of curriculum that uses teambuilding activities to promote social skills (Cosgriff, 2000). The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of ABL instruction on the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of appropriate behaviors of elementary students with special needs during physical education class.

Method: The Sunday afternoon drive model (Sutherland, 2011) and an ABL student outcome model (Stuhr et al., 2012) helped guide the applied behavior analysis research. A multiple baseline across-participants design was used (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 1987). The institutional review board-approved study included an elementary physical educator who was trained and then taught a 10-session ABL unit to her fifth-grade students. Data from three target students and their teacher were collected through videotaping during physical education class. Visual analysis of the target behaviors was performed using a graphical representation of the data.

Analysis/Results: Data analysis consisted of a trend analysis, which allows one to inspect each student's behavioral trends. In addition, mean scores and ranges as well as mean increases and decreases of appropriate and inappropriate behaviors during physical education class were presented. Results of this study demonstrated that ABL instruction was an effective strategy to develop appropriate sport and game behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones for elementary fifth-grade students during physical education class.

Conclusions: ABL instruction curriculum should be used in physical education class from early ages to develop a solid base of social development and appropriate behavior during physical education and sports (Samalot-Rivera & Porretta, 2012).

Kinesiology Students' Perceptions Toward Adapted Physical Education Service Learning

Jose A. Santiago, Emily A. Roper, Sam Houston State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: A growing amount of research has focused on the educational and attitudinal benefits associated with integration of service learning in adapted physical education (APE) coursework (Sherrill, 2004). Providing students the opportunity to obtain direct experience teaching and working with students with disabilities has the potential to enhance their understanding of and sensitivity to individuals with disabilities. According to contact theory (Allport, 1954), positive attitudinal change can result from direct interactions between students with and without disabilities. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively examine kinesiology undergraduate students' perceptions of an APE service-learning experience.

Method: Six female and three male undergraduate kinesiology students participated in two focus groups interviews after the completion of an APE course. The focus-group interview questions focused on the participants' attitudes toward individuals with disabilities and how their attitudes were affected by participation in the service-learning project.

Analysis/Results: Interview data were transcribed verbatim and inductively analyzed following procedures outlined by Strauss and Corbin (1998). The following five themes emerged from the interviews: (a) initial fears and apprehensions, (b) perceptions of ability of children with disabilities, (c) attitudinal change, and (d) recommendations for future service-learning experiences within APE.

Conclusions: Based on the findings, service learning, when planned and structured, is an appropriate teaching method to use in APE courses to promote contact between individuals with and without disabilities. Such contact, when positive, has the potential to promote attitudinal change and increase sensitivity toward individuals with disabilities.

Investigating Preservice Teacher Self-Efficacy Through Adapted Physical Education Professional Preparation

Andrea Taliaferro, Lindsay Brooke, Kristi Satzer, West Virginia University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Considering that physical educators' attitudes toward teaching students with disabilities are related to professional preparation (Block & Rizzo, 1995), physical education teacher education programs must be proactive in preparing preservice teachers for inclusion (DePauw & Goc Karp, 1994). Research has found increased favorable attitudes of preservice physical educators resulting from coursework and practicum experiences (Folsom-Meek at al., 2000; Hodge & Jansma, 1998, 1999); however, no research to date has investigated this using the framework of self-efficacy theory. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of participation in an adapted physical education (APE) course and practicum on preservice physical educators' self-efficacy beliefs toward teaching students with disabilities.

Method: Thirty preservice physical educators enrolled in undergraduate APE courses were surveyed three times. Participants completed both the Situational-Specific Self-Efficacy for Physical Education Teacher Education Majors Scale, which included Intellectual Disability (ID), Physical Disability (PD), and Visual Impairment (VI) subscales, and the Physical Educators Self-Efficacy Toward Including Students With Disabilities-Autism instrument.

Analysis/Results: Four separate repeated-measures analyses of variance revealed that participants' self-efficacy beliefs significantly improved across all disability types: ID, F(2, 28) = 30.194, p < .001, ηρ² = .510; PD, F(2, 27) = 29.49, p < .001, ηρ² = .513; VI, F(2, 27) = 27.0, p < .001, ηρ² = .542; autism, F(2, 28) = 31.26, p < .001, ηρ² = .51. Follow-up tests indicated that scores in all subscales, with the exception of VI, significantly increased across each time interval.

Conclusions: Consistent with prior research, results indicated that coursework and practicum experiences can positively influence preservice physical educators' beliefs toward inclusion. Further research should explore the effects of practicum type on self-efficacy beliefs.

Barriers and Affordances for Physical Activity Among Individuals Experiencing Spasticity

Viviene A. Temple, Jill Dobrinsky, Jasmine Kim, Iris Loots, Kim Choy, Brayley Chow, Caroline Quartly, James Dunnett, Alexis Hampshire, Sandra Hundza, University of Victoria

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Spasticity is a disabling neuromuscular condition resulting from an upper motor neuron lesion within the central nervous system. This study describes affordances for, and barriers to, participation in physical activity among individuals experiencing chronic lower-limb spasticity.

Method: Thirty-four ambulatory and medically stable individuals (19–78 years of age; 17 men) receiving services from a spasticity clinic were recruited. Clinical diagnoses were: stroke (n = 15), multiple sclerosis (n = 11), incomplete spinal cord injury (n = 4), and cerebral palsy (n = 4). During semistructured interviews, participants discussed how their condition and their social and physical context influenced participation in physical activity. The interview transcripts were coded using a template of codes aligned with constructs of the model of functioning and disability (World Health Organization, 2001), specifically products and technology; natural and human-made environment; support and relationships; attitudes; and services, systems, and polices.

Analysis/Results: Participants largely described inactive lifestyles and levels of physical activity that were lower now than in the past. However, several participants had found new ways of being active (e.g., participating in aquatic therapy instead of swimming laps). The natural and human-made environment (including climate) as well as services and systems were the major categories of barriers to physical activity, whereas products and technology (particularly for mobility), along with support and relationships, were major sources of affordances.

Conclusions: Barriers and affordances to participation largely resulted from interactions between the individual's condition and their context. Products and technologies and social support, in particular, afforded participants a “safety net” that alleviated some concerns about being active.

The Impact of Visual Impairment on Gross Motor Skill Performance

Matthias O. Wagner, Pamela S. Haibach, Tristan G. Pierce, Lauren J. Lieberman, State University of New York–Brockport

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Previous research indicates that children with visual impairment (VI) are behind in gross motor skill development in comparison with their non-VI peers (Houwen, Visscher, Lemmink, & Hartman, 2009), but it also indicates that “[...] less than 50% of the studies established adequate reliability [...] and none of the studies established validity for instruments” (p. 489). The aim of this study was to determine the impact of VI on gross motor skill performance in school-aged children by use of a reliable and valid instrument. It was assumed that children with VI show developmental delays in comparison with their non-VI peers.

Method: A total of 100 children with VI (M _age = 9.97 years; SD = 1.62; 61% boys) representing three different levels of impairment (B3 = legally blind; B2 = travel vision; B1 = blind) as well as 28 non-VI controls (CG) with similar demographics were studied. The test used was the Test of Gross Motor Development–II, which is well established in non-VI children and was also found to be reliable and valid in children with VI (Houwen, Hartman, Jonker, & Visscher, 2010).

Analysis/Results: T tests for independent samples were calculated, and the error probability was set to alpha = .05 (one-tailed testing; Bonferroni-Holm corrected). CG children showed (a) better locomotor skills than B3 (p < .01), B2 (p < .01), and B1 (p < .01) children, and (b) better object-control skills than B2 (p < .01) and B1 (p < .01) children, whereas CG and B3 children did not significantly differ.

Conclusions: Our results speak for the assumption that children with VI are behind their non-VI peers in gross motor skill development.

SPORT MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATIONThe Perceptions and Needs of Sport Management Students

Steve Chen, Heather R. Adams-Blair, Adora Miller, Morehead State University

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Background/Purpose: This study investigated the academic and career interest of sport management students from two regional state institutions. The goals were to identify future sport industry prospects' perceptions and needs to properly instruct, advise, and prepare them for obtaining a career in sport business.

Method: Two hundred and twenty-one undergraduate and graduate students completed a 43-item questionnaire based on the studies of Lewis and Quarterman (2006) and others. The contents covered: (a) demographic information, (b) career and sport interest, (c) sport-viewing habits, (d) preferable work setting, (e) preferable developed content knowledge, and (f) self-perceived traits. Reliability tests and retests were performed for reliability of the instrument and participants' responses.

Analysis/Results: Students are more interested in working for professional franchises or intercollegiate athletics. They also desire to learn more communication and marketing skills. The stepwise regression analysis indicated that participants' rating in a preferable sport career can be best predicted by “preferable developed content knowledge” and “love for sports.” Both ratings in “preferable work setting” and “love for sports” can effectively predict participants' “academic and career interest.”

Conclusions: The findings support the general notion that sport jobs are commonly filled by sport lovers and enthusiasts. The findings also intrigue the researchers to address issues such as: (a) the lack of diversity and global awareness, (b) limited perspective and understanding about career choices, and (c) recruitment and development of future female students.

Factor Structure of the Chinese Service Quality Assessment Scale

Siu-Yin Cheung^F, Eddie T.C. Lam^F, Jia-wen Shao, Jennifer Yuen-ming Mak^F, Marshall University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The quality of service has been the major subject of interest for business and academia. The aims of this study were to investigate the service quality of fitness clubs in Hong Kong and Guangzhou and to examine the underlying factor structure of the Service Quality Assessment Scale (SQAS; Lam, Zhang, & Jensen, 2005) in the Chinese context.

Method: The research was conducted at two fitness centers located each in Hong Kong and Guangzhou. The SQAS–C consisted of questions related to expectation on a fitness club's services and facilities, customers' satisfaction level, and demographic information.

Analysis/Results: Participants were male (N = 81) and female (N = 90) club members from Hong Kong (50.9%) and Guangzhou (49.1%). Using the alpha extraction method in exploratory factor analysis, six factors were identified. Sixteen items had a loading less than.30 or loaded on more than one factor and were discarded. After this refinement, the SQAS–C included 26 items: staff (4 items), program (3 items), locker (3 items), physical facility (5 items), workout facility (3 items), and child care (6 items), which explained 52.84% of the total variance. Cronbach's alphas for the factors were .718, .652, .687, .778, .700, and .848, respectively. Overall, members had high expectations on “safety in locker room” and “shower cleanliness” and were unsatisfied with “individualized attention from instructors” and “availability of parking.”.

Conclusions: The SQAS–C (shortened version) could be applied in the Chinese context. Meanwhile, this study provides specific information for management to improve service quality in the fitness clubs and to design appropriate marketing strategies for the target markets.

Sport Transformation and the King III Report on Good Governance

Anneliese E. Goslin, Darlene A. Kluka, ^F, Barry University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Transformation of South African sport is a key priority in national policy, yet ineffective governance practices have limited its success. Transformation strategies by national sport bodies (NSBs) face challenges to redress historic imbalances in surface-level transformation benchmarks, such as team racial composition, gender equity, and sport facilities, and deep-level benchmarks like changes in attitude and values. South Africa's increasingly regulated sport landscape, linked with professionalization of sport, impacts good governance. The revised Code of and Report on Governance Principles for South Africa (King III) provides a baseline of good governance for NSBs. Although King III has no legal backing, all entities in South Africa are encouraged to apply its principles. It places responsibility on NSBs to integrate principles of good governance into transformation strategies. This qualitative research aimed to explore compliance with benchmarks of nine governance principles of King III when applied to gender equity as a deep-level dimension of transformation in South African sport.

Method: Eighteen chairs of NSBs were included in a purposive sample. Data were collected through in-depth semistructured interviews and were analyzed using deductive content analysis.

Analysis/Results: Results uncovered alarming negative attitudes and lack of accountability and sustainability of transformation strategies on gender equity as well as lack of understanding of good governance principles.

Conclusions: Knowledge of governance principles is fundamental for sustainable surface-level and deep-level transformation of gender equity in South African sport. Sustainability of transformation strategies appears to be at risk if the present condition remains in effect.

Scoreboard Buzzers and the Potential for Noise-Induced Hearing Loss

Margaret Holder, Kayla Peak, Joe Gillespie, Jeff Burnett, Fort Hays State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) develops slowly over a long period of time as the result of exposure to continuous or intermittent loud noises. According to the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), NIHL occurs above the 85-dB level. The purpose of this study was to determine if the buzzers on gymnasium scoreboards emit sound pressure that exceeds the NIDCD recommendation of > 85 dB.

Method: Decibel readings from scoreboards in 26 Texas high school gyms were tested using a sound-level meter. Descriptive statistics were calculated for the decibel level in each gym. To determine significance, the researcher administered a one-sample t test at a probability level of.05 by comparing the overall gym mean with the NIDCD recommendation of > 85 dB.

Analysis/Results: The average mean for the 26 gymnasium scoreboards was 96.46 dB. A one-way analysis of variance with repeated measures was administered to seven sites in each gym. There were no significant differences, F(7, 175) = 1.754, p ≥ .100, between the performance variables of multiple site measurements and the average for each gym. A one-tailed test revealed that the decibel levels of the gymnasium scoreboard buzzers were significantly higher than the NIDCD recommendation of > 85 dB, t(25) = 20.84, p < .05.

Conclusions: The buzzer on gymnasium scoreboards, which sound repeatedly throughout games and practices, produces decibel levels that are hazardous to coaches' and players' hearing. Based on the research findings, this athletic environment has the potential to cause NIHL in those who are repeatedly exposed to this form of noise pollution.

Sign on the Dotted Line: An Analysis of College-Choice Factors, Landon T. Huffman, University of Tennessee-Knoxville

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Background/Purpose: It is critically important that collegiate coaches and athletic administrators are aware of student-athletes' college-choice factors so that staff can better attract and serve their student-athletes. Moreover, it is mutually beneficial if the school, athletic staff, and the student-athlete(s) are a perceived fit for one another. Thus, the purpose of this exploratory study was to examine and compare the most influential college-choice factors of current National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I FBS (Football Bowl Subdivision) football players (n = 77) with the perceptions of their coaches and football support (n = 20) at a Southeastern university.

Method: A modified version of the Student-Athlete College-Choice Profile was used to survey participants to collect data for this study. Descriptive statistics were utilized to analyze differences between the degrees of influence of the individual college-choice factors.

Analysis/Results: The results illustrated a disparity between the most influential college-choice factors of athletes and the staff's perceptions of those most influential factors. The staff perceived that 9 of the top 10 factors were athletically related, but in reality, the top 2 factors for athletes were “opportunity to begin a good career other than professional football” and “total academic value of the college's degree.”

Conclusions: In today's competitive intercollegiate athletic environment, it is vital that collegiate coaches and athletic administrators use the results of this study to more efficiently recruit student-athletes who are a perceived fit for their sport program, athletic department, and university. Athletic personnel should also strive to foster the academic pursuits and expectations of their student-athletes.

Impact of Athletic Apparel Company Funding on Grassroots Basketball

Matthew Keefe, Kayla Peak, Steve Simpson, Tarleton State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The world of grassroots basketball was revolutionized in the period from 2003 to 2008. The financial involvement from athletic apparel companies created an environment of extreme competition for young, talented teenage athletes. The purpose of the study was to evaluate and analyze the motivation, reasoning, and action behind athletic apparel company funding grassroots basketball. The efforts of Nike, Adidas, and Reebok and the resultant effects on athletes within the grassroots basketball community received paramount attention.

Method: The researcher developed a narrative highlighted by a dual focus of methodology. Although the study was intensely historical in nature, the research was also presented within a philosophical context.

Analysis/Results: As Nike, Adidas, and Reebok began to affiliate themselves with high school athletic programs and Amateur Athletic Union teams that offered the highest level of talent in grassroots basketball, a revolutionary business model and marketing strategy was born. Players, parents, and coaches were convinced that the only way to gain attention was through competition year-round. Specifically, the study focused on the following athletes: LeBron James, Sebastian Telfair, Kevin Love, Ovington J'Anthony (OJ) Mayo, Renardo Sidney, Justin Jennifer, as well as executive businessman John (Sonny) Vaccaro.

Conclusions: The study of athletic apparel company funding on grassroots basketball from 2003 to 2008 highlighted the unique nature of the industry and the overall involvement of the parties who propelled the relationship. The business decisions made by Nike, Adidas, and Reebok to promote corporate brand through the game of basketball were not only effective, but also revolutionary.

Promotional Strategies After the Reorganization: The Case of the AFL

Eddie T.C. Lam^F, Siu-Yin Cheung^F, Demetrius W. Pearson, Sungwon Bae, William Paterson University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: According to Mullin, Hardy, and Sutton (2007), promotion is one of the major elements in the marketing mix and it is designed to stimulate consumers' interest in the product or event. The purpose of this study was to identify those promotional activities that were most appealing to the spectators and that motivated them to attend arena football games after the reorganization of the Arena Football League.

Method: The Spectator Motivation Inventory (Lam, 2008) was administrated to spectators (N = 595) of an arena football team in the Midwestern region in 2010. Random stratified and cluster-sampling techniques were used so that different sections of the arena would be covered. Spectators were asked to rate the importance of the promotional activities that would increase their home-game attendance on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = not important, and 7 = very important).

Analysis/Results: Based on the overall mean scores of the 12 promotional activities, spectators rated “giveaways” and “TV advertising” as well as “good public relations” as the most important factors that would influence their decisions in attending home games, whereas “e-mail offer” and “direct mail” had the lowest rankings. These high-ranking factors also showed a significant (p < .05) positive relationship with future home-game attendance.

Conclusions: Consistent with previous research, these results showed that such promotional activities as giveaways, advertising, publicity, and sales promotion had strong impacts on spectators' decisions to attend home arena football games. This study provided valuable strategies for marketers in promoting future home-game attendance.

Volunteer Motivations at a Mega Sporting Event

Jennifer L. VanSickle, Michael J. Diacin, University of Indianapolis

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Volunteers play a crucial role in successfully staging special sporting events (Twynam, Farrell, & Johnston, 2002/2003). Mega events, like the Olympic Games, FIFA World Cup, and NFL Super Bowl would not be feasible without volunteers who assist with security, technical support, supervision, and event organization (Green & Chalip, 1998; Twynam et al., 2002/2003). Many studies have investigated special event volunteers, but the motives of volunteers who have served at mega events have received little attention. The purpose of this research was to determine the motivations of mega sporting-event volunteers.

Method: 2,506 (31%) of the 8,000 volunteers who assisted with the implementation of the 2012 Super Bowl completed an online, modified version of the Volunteer Motivations Scale for International Sporting Events (Bang & Ross, 2009).

Analysis/Results: A principal component analysis, with a Varimax rotation, revealed four factors of mega sport volunteerism: (a) purposive (to help others, make the event a success, create a better society, display pride in the community); (b) solidarity (develop working relationships with others, resume enhancement, gain practical experience, gain career experience); (c) personal growth (feel needed, feel important, feel better about oneself); and (d) love of sport (like sports, like football).

Conclusions: These results show the multifaceted nature of motives for volunteering for mega sporting events. Given the enormous financial commitment and reliance upon human resources needed to host mega sporting events, organizers must understand volunteer motives to develop effective recruiting activities as well as retain volunteers for the duration of the event.

Exploring Physical Activity and Social Capital in the Context of Parks

Birgitta Baker, Aaron W. Clopton^F, University of Kansas

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Using a framework of social anchor theory, this study examined relationships among park use, social capital, community identity, and physical activity. Social capital has been linked to variety of positive outcomes including community engagement and lower crime rates, and physical activity has been linked to lower levels of chronic diseases. Both have been linked to better mental health outcomes. Concern about both diminishing social capital and low levels of physical activity exists. Literature regarding the relationships among park use, social capital, and physical activity is lacking. Therefore, whether similar park environments promote both social capital and physical activity is unknown. This study used quantitative and qualitative methods to examine social capital and physical activity in park users.

Method: Participants were recruited using an intercept method in two parks in a midsized Southern city and completed questionnaires regarding demographics, social capital, community identity, and physical activity and a brief semistructured interview.

Analysis/Results: Interviews were transcribed verbatim, and open and axial coding was used to identify themes in the qualitative data, which included the social and physical activity value of parks. Results of regression analyses indicated that different park features attracted different types of users.

Conclusions: Results of this study indicate that parks are important venues for both building social capital and promoting physical activity. Park planners should take into account the differential role of features in promoting physical activity and social capital.

Trunk Control in Recreational Athletes Varies With Baseline Neurocognitive Performance

Daniel Herman, Jeffrey Barth, University of Virginia

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Background/Purpose: Neurocognitive performance may influence lower-extremity injury risk by affecting neuromuscular performance. We hypothesize that athletes with low neurocognitive performance will have significantly larger trunk angular displacements during a trunk stability task compared with athletes with high neurocognitive performance.

Method: One hundred eight recreationally active athletes were screened using the Concussion Resolution Index (CRI). Subjects above the 80th percentile in one score and with two scores no lower than the 60th percentile were included in the higher-performers (HP) group (9 men, 10 women). Subjects with one subtest score below the 40th percentile and with two scores no higher than the 70th percentile, or with at least two scores below the 30th percentile, were included in the low-performers (LP) group (8 men, 10 women). These subjects completed a trunk stability task measuring trunk angular displacement in flexion, lateral bending, and extension as per Zazulak et al. (2007). Comparisons were made using an independent-samples t test with alpha set at p = .05.

Analysis/Results: The LP group demonstrated significantly lower CRI scores in all domains compared with the HP group (p <  .001). The LP group demonstrated significantly greater trunk angular displacements in flexion (9.2 ± 4.0o vs. 4.5 ± 2.0o; p < .001), lateral bending (6.1 ± 2.5o vs. 3.3 ± 1.5o; p < .001), and extension (7.1 ± 2.5o vs. 3.5 ± 1.7o; p < .001).

Conclusions: Poor neurocognitive performance may increase the risk for lower-extremity athletic injuries through poor neuromuscular performance. These findings may have implications regarding the use of neurocognitive screening tests for injury risk stratification at baseline and after concussion injuries.

Women in Positions of Power Within U.S. High School Sports

Cindra S. Kamphoff, Nicole LaVoi, University of Minnesota

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this research project was to obtain and analyze national data to include in what we hope will become a groundbreaking, longitudinal report detailing the representation of women in positions of power within high school sports in the United States. Our project is inspired by the seminal, longitudinal work of Vivian Acosta and Jean Carpenter, who have compiled a biennial report that documents women in positions of power within collegiate sports.

Method: Using a national database from Clell Wade National Coaches Directory, our goal was to initiate a baseline account of gendered leadership trends in high school sports. We examined if women experience tokenism (i.e., they represent less than 15% of all positions of power), marginalization (i.e., coach or administer less socially desirable, minor sports), and homologous reproduction (i.e., the dominant group reproduces and maintains power by hiring others with similar characteristics; Kanter, 1977).

Analysis/Results: Using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Version 20), the number and percentage of women in positions of power by sport, sex of athlete, and state of residence were calculated. We also determined if women experienced tokenism and marginalization, and if homologous reproduction was apparent. The full national report is available free of charge at: http://www.womensportresearch.org

Conclusions: Documenting female employment patterns within high school sports should be continued as it is an important first step in combating sexism and discrimination, eliminating barriers and devising supports for women, as well creating awareness and social change.

Transformative Physical Education Professional Development: Views From Facilitators and Teachers

Kevin Patton^F, Melissa Parker^F, University of Northern Colorado

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: There is growing recognition of the importance of providing teachers with professional development (PD) opportunities where learning is aligned, coherent, and sustained (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Therefore, to be successful, PD must take into consideration how teachers learn and must be intentionally designed to enhance and foster that learning.

Method: The purpose of this study was to examine the conceptions of physical education PD viewed as successful by both facilitators (N = 14) and participating teachers (N = 103). Data sources included: (a) formal and informal interviews with facilitators and participants, (b) field notes from observations of teacher development sessions, and (c) artifacts.

Analysis/Results: Responses to individual interview questions were analyzed using open and axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Results indicated that facilitators viewed success as focusing on teacher capacity building. Likewise teachers who had experienced carefully facilitated and sustained PD, where they were viewed as learners and active seekers of knowledge, going beyond the simple acquisition of new ideas and skills, felt empowered. Participants highlighted experiences that were transformative and provided voice, ownership, and empowerment while focusing on student learning.

Conclusions: Overall these results provide insight into views of the pedagogy of PD and the context in which it is most successful. Findings further discount the notion that ‘one-size-fits-all,’ one-shot PD is beneficial to teachers. Results indicate a picture of PD requiring facilitators to adopt more encompassing goals and to take greater responsibility for the outcomes of their efforts (Stein et al., 1999).

Classroom Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and Fourth-Grade Students' Selective Attention

Michalis Stylianou, Kent Lorenz, Pamela Hodges Kulinna^F, Shannon Moore, David Erickson, Arizona State University

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Background/Purpose: Physical activity (PA) and cardiovascular fitness (PF) have been shown to be positively related to children's cognitive functioning. There is, however, a need to further explore these relationships. Therefore, this study's purpose was to investigate potential relationships between: (a) a 10-min classroom PA break and selective attention, and (b) PF and selective attention, within a sample of fourth-grade students.

Method: A randomized, controlled, within-subject, cross-over design was employed; participants (N = 81; 40 girls; age = 9.4 ± 0.49 years; 78% Caucasian; from two schools in the Southwestern United States) received both the control (10-min reading session) and treatment (10-min PA break) conditions in a randomly assigned order. PA (steps and moderate-to-vigorous PA [MVPA]) during both conditions was monitored via accelerometers. Selective attention was assessed at pretest and after the control/treatment sessions with the d2 test of attention (Brickenkamp & Zillmer, 1998). PF was assessed during physical education using FITNESSGRAM (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run, pushups, curl-ups, sit-and-reach, trunk lift, body mass index).

Analysis/Results: Independent t tests revealed no significant group differences at pretest. A linear mixed-models analysis indicated no sequence effect but a significant treatment effect: concentration performance, F(1, 80) = 88.9, p <  .001,  ≤ b2 = .53. Descriptive statistics indicated that during the PA break, students accumulated a mean of 941.64 steps (SD = 134.82) and 4 min and 23 s of MVPA (SD = 52 s). Regression analyses indicated that muscular fitness scores predicted a small proportion of the variance in concentration performance (R ² = .25, p = .02) posttest scores.

Conclusions: Findings indicate that classroom PA can improve students' selective attention and significantly contribute to increasing their PA levels. Also, findings suggest that muscular fitness might be associated with improved cognitive functioning.

COPD Affects Variability in Spatiotemporal Gait Patterns

Jennifer Yentes, Stephen I. Rennard and Nicholas Stergiou, University of Nebraska–Omaha

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exhibit abnormalities in structure and function of skeletal muscle tissue. It is currently unknown if this leads to breakdown in functional mobility (gait).

Method: Seven patients with COPD and three controls walked at a self-selected speed on a treadmill for 3 min. The central tendency (standard deviation, coefficient of variation) and regularity (approximate entropy) of step width, length, time, swing time, and stance-time time series were calculated and compared to those of controls using independent t tests. The patients with COPD also walked on the treadmill at +10% and +20% of their self-selected speed with similar data reduction and processing and were compared using dependent t tests.

Analysis/Results: Patients with COPD significantly decreased (p = .017) step-width standard deviation and significantly decreased (p <  .001) regularity in step length as compared with controls. The standard deviation of swing time was significantly increased in the slower walking conditions (–20%, p = .035; − 10%, p = .009) as was the coefficient of variation at the − 10% speed for swing time and step time (p = .038 and p = .011, respectively). The greatest speed perturbations (–20%, p = .016;+20%, p = .004) resulted in significant increases in regularity for step length. Slower walking speeds resulted in significant decreases in regularity for swing time (–20%, p = .033; − 10%, p = .031).

Conclusions: Patients with COPD will alter spatiotemporal gait patterns, and further, their steps are more irregular as compared with controls. This could be of interest as patients with COPD are at greater risk for falls and altered gait variability has been associated with fall risk. Patients with COPD are sensitive to speed perturbations and potentially could be used in rehabilitation.

Research Consortium Grant Findings

Exploring Physical Activity and Social Capital in the Context of Parks

Birgitta Baker, Louisiana State University; and Aaron W. Clopton,^F University of Kansas

([email protected])

Background/PurposeUsing a framework of social anchor theory, this study examined relationships among park use, social capital, community identity, and physical activity. Social capital has been linked to variety of positive outcomes including community engagement and lower crime rates, and physical activity has been linked to lower levels of chronic diseases. Both have been linked to better mental health outcomes. Concern about both diminishing social capital and low levels of physical activity exists. Literature regarding the relationships among park use, social capital, and physical activity is lacking. Therefore, whether similar park environments promote both social capital and physical activity is unknown. This study used quantitative and qualitative methods to examine social capital and physical activity in park users.

MethodParticipants were recruited using an intercept method in two parks in a midsized Southern city and completed questionnaires regarding demographics, social capital, community identity, and physical activity and a brief semistructured interview.

Analysis/ResultsInterviews were transcribed verbatim, and open and axial coding was used to identify themes in the qualitative data, which included the social and physical activity value of parks. Results of regression analyses indicated that different park features attracted different types of users.

ConclusionsResults of this study indicate that parks are important venues for both building social capital and promoting physical activity. Park planners should take into account the differential role of features in promoting physical activity and social capital.

Trunk Control in Recreational Athletes Varies With Baseline Neurocognitive Performance

Daniel Herman, University of Florida; and Jeffrey Barth, University of Virginia

([email protected])

Background/PurposeNeurocognitive performance may influence lower-extremity injury risk by affecting neuromuscular performance. We hypothesize that athletes with low neurocognitive performance will have significantly larger trunk angular displacements during a trunk stability task compared with athletes with high neurocognitive performance.

MethodOne hundred eight recreationally active athletes were screened using the Concussion Resolution Index (CRI). Subjects above the 80th percentile in one score and with two scores no lower than the 60th percentile were included in the higher-performers (HP) group (9 men, 10 women). Subjects with one subtest score below the 40th percentile and with two scores no higher than the 70th percentile, or with at least two scores below the 30th percentile, were included in the low-performers (LP) group (8 men, 10 women). These subjects completed a trunk stability task measuring trunk angular displacement in flexion, lateral bending, and extension as per Zazulak et al. (2007). Comparisons were made using an independent-samples t test with alpha set at p = .05.

Analysis/ResultsThe LP group demonstrated significantly lower CRI scores in all domains compared with the HP group (p <  .001). The LP group demonstrated significantly greater trunk angular displacements in flexion (9.2 ± 4.0o vs. 4.5 ± 2.0o; p < .001), lateral bending (6.1 ± 2.5o vs. 3.3 ± 1.5o; p < .001), and extension (7.1 ± 2.5o vs. 3.5 ± 1.7o; p < .001).

ConclusionsPoor neurocognitive performance may increase the risk for lower-extremity athletic injuries through poor neuromuscular performance. These findings may have implications regarding the use of neurocognitive screening tests for injury risk stratification at baseline and after concussion injuries.

Women in Positions of Power Within U.S. High School Sports

Cindra S. Kamphoff, Minnesota State University-Mankato; and Nicole LaVoi, University of Minnesota

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThe purpose of this research project was to obtain and analyze national data to include in what we hope will become a groundbreaking, longitudinal report detailing the representation of women in positions of power within high school sports in the United States. Our project is inspired by the seminal, longitudinal work of Vivian Acosta and Jean Carpenter, who have compiled a biennial report that documents women in positions of power within collegiate sports.

MethodUsing a national database from Clell Wade National Coaches Directory, our goal was to initiate a baseline account of gendered leadership trends in high school sports. We examined if women experience tokenism (i.e., they represent less than 15% of all positions of power), marginalization (i.e., coach or administer less socially desirable, minor sports), and homologous reproduction (i.e., the dominant group reproduces and maintains power by hiring others with similar characteristics; Kanter, 1977).

Analysis/ResultsUsing the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Version 20), the number and percentage of women in positions of power by sport, sex of athlete, and state of residence were calculated. We also determined if women experienced tokenism and marginalization, and if homologous reproduction was apparent. The full national report is available free of charge at: http://www.womensportresearch.org

ConclusionsDocumenting female employment patterns within high school sports should be continued as it is an important first step in combating sexism and discrimination, eliminating barriers and devising supports for women, as well creating awareness and social change.

Transformative Physical Education Professional Development: Views From Facilitators and Teachers

Kevin Patton,^F California State University-Chico; and Melissa Parker,^F University of Northern Colorado

([email protected])

Background/PurposeThere is growing recognition of the importance of providing teachers with professional development (PD) opportunities where learning is aligned, coherent, and sustained (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Therefore, to be successful, PD must take into consideration how teachers learn and must be intentionally designed to enhance and foster that learning.

MethodThe purpose of this study was to examine the conceptions of physical education PD viewed as successful by both facilitators (N = 14) and participating teachers (N = 103). Data sources included: (a) formal and informal interviews with facilitators and participants, (b) field notes from observations of teacher development sessions, and (c) artifacts.

Analysis/ResultsResponses to individual interview questions were analyzed using open and axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Results indicated that facilitators viewed success as focusing on teacher capacity building. Likewise teachers who had experienced carefully facilitated and sustained PD, where they were viewed as learners and active seekers of knowledge, going beyond the simple acquisition of new ideas and skills, felt empowered. Participants highlighted experiences that were transformative and provided voice, ownership, and empowerment while focusing on student learning.

ConclusionsOverall these results provide insight into views of the pedagogy of PD and the context in which it is most successful. Findings further discount the notion that ‘one-size-fits-all,’ one-shot PD is beneficial to teachers. Results indicate a picture of PD requiring facilitators to adopt more encompassing goals and to take greater responsibility for the outcomes of their efforts (Stein et al., 1999).

Classroom Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and Fourth-Grade Students' Selective Attention

Michalis Stylianou, Kent Lorenz, Pamela Hodges Kulinna,^F Shannon Moore, and David Erickson, Arizona State University

([email protected])

Background/PurposePhysical activity (PA) and cardiovascular fitness (PF) have been shown to be positively related to children's cognitive functioning. There is, however, a need to further explore these relationships. Therefore, this study's purpose was to investigate potential relationships between: (a) a 10-min classroom PA break and selective attention, and (b) PF and selective attention, within a sample of fourth-grade students.

MethodA randomized, controlled, within-subject, cross-over design was employed; participants (N = 81; 40 girls; age = 9.4 ± 0.49 years; 78% Caucasian; from two schools in the Southwestern United States) received both the control (10-min reading session) and treatment (10-min PA break) conditions in a randomly assigned order. PA (steps and moderate-to-vigorous PA [MVPA]) during both conditions was monitored via accelerometers. Selective attention was assessed at pretest and after the control/treatment sessions with the d2 test of attention (Brickenkamp & Zillmer, 1998). PF was assessed during physical education using FITNESSGRAM (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run, pushups, curl-ups, sit-and-reach, trunk lift, body mass index).

Analysis/ResultsIndependent t tests revealed no significant group differences at pretest. A linear mixed-models analysis indicated no sequence effect but a significant treatment effect: concentration performance, F(1, 80) = 88.9, p <  .001,  ≤ b2 = .53. Descriptive statistics indicated that during the PA break, students accumulated a mean of 941.64 steps (SD = 134.82) and 4 min and 23 s of MVPA (SD = 52 s). Regression analyses indicated that muscular fitness scores predicted a small proportion of the variance in concentration performance (R ² = .25, p = .02) posttest scores.

ConclusionsFindings indicate that classroom PA can improve students' selective attention and significantly contribute to increasing their PA levels. Also, findings suggest that muscular fitness might be associated with improved cognitive functioning.

COPD Affects Variability in Spatiotemporal Gait Patterns

Jennifer Yentes, Stephen I. Rennard and Nicholas Stergiou, University of Nebraska–Omaha

([email protected])

Background/PurposePatients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exhibit abnormalities in structure and function of skeletal muscle tissue. It is currently unknown if this leads to breakdown in functional mobility (gait).

MethodSeven patients with COPD and three controls walked at a self-selected speed on a treadmill for 3 min. The central tendency (standard deviation, coefficient of variation) and regularity (approximate entropy) of step width, length, time, swing time, and stance-time time series were calculated and compared to those of controls using independent t tests. The patients with COPD also walked on the treadmill at +10% and +20% of their self-selected speed with similar data reduction and processing and were compared using dependent t tests.

Analysis/ResultsPatients with COPD significantly decreased (p = .017) step-width standard deviation and significantly decreased (p <  .001) regularity in step length as compared with controls. The standard deviation of swing time was significantly increased in the slower walking conditions (–20%, p = .035; − 10%, p = .009) as was the coefficient of variation at the − 10% speed for swing time and step time (p = .038 and p = .011, respectively). The greatest speed perturbations (–20%, p = .016;+20%, p = .004) resulted in significant increases in regularity for step length. Slower walking speeds resulted in significant decreases in regularity for swing time (–20%, p = .033; − 10%, p = .031).

ConclusionsPatients with COPD will alter spatiotemporal gait patterns, and further, their steps are more irregular as compared with controls. This could be of interest as patients with COPD are at greater risk for falls and altered gait variability has been associated with fall risk. Patients with COPD are sensitive to speed perturbations and potentially could be used in rehabilitation.