Adapted Physical Education/Activity
24-hour Activity Balance Framework: Applications for Studying Movement Among Children With Autism
Sean Healy, University of Delaware; Jeanette Garcia, University of Central Florida; Benjamin Brewer, Freda Patterson, University of Delaware
Background/Purpose: This study applied the 24-hour activity balance framework to the study of movement behaviors (i.e., moderate-vigorous physical activity [MVPA], light physical activity [LPA], sedentary behavior [SB], and sleep duration [SD]) in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study aimed to examine (a) the daily composition of 24-hour movement behaviors in children with ASD, (b) the temporal associations between time spent in weekend movement behaviors, and (c) the associations of the time spent in movement behaviors (i.e, MVPA, LPA, SB, and SD) with body mass index (BMI) using compositional analysis (that inherently considers the interdependence between movement behaviors).
Method: Time spent in MVPA, LPA, SB, and SD was measured using ActiGraph devices over a 7-day period in 46 children with ASD (m = 13.36, SD = 3.59). BMI was calculated from measured height and weight. Regression analyses were used to examine the association between movement behaviors on a given day/night with movement behaviors on the subsequent day/night. Compositional means and dispersions (variation matrix) for each of the movement behaviors (MVPA, LPA, SB, and SD) were generated. Compositional analysis was used to estimate how BMI would change by reallocating 30 minutes from one behavior to a second behavior, and by reallocating a total of sixty minutes drawn in equal proportions from three behaviors (i.e. 20 minutes from each behavior) and to a fourth behavior for each possible combination of behaviors.
Analysis/Results: Across the 24-hour day, participants spent 40% (M = 9.6 hours) of their day in LPA, 30.6% (M = 7.34 hours) of the day in SB, 24.9% (M = 5.98 hours) asleep, and 4.5% (M = 64.8 minutes) in MVPA. Increased SB on Saturday was associated with increased SB (p = .002) and decreased light- (p = .002) and MVPA (p = .03) on Sunday. Increased LPA on Saturday was associated with decreased SB (p = .01) and increased LPA (p < .001) and MVPA (p = .01) on Sunday. Regarding compositional analysis findings, reallocating 30 minutes from LPA to SD decreased BMI by .471 kg/m2 (p = .003) and reallocating 30 minutes from MVPA to SD decreased BMI by 0.658 kg/m2 (p = .051). Reallocation of 60 minutes in equal proportions from SB, MVPA, and SD to LPA increased BMI by 0.418 kg/m2 (p = .021), and reallocation of 60 minutes in equal proportions from LPA, MVPA, and SD to SB increased BMI by 0.295 kg/m2 (p = .052). Finally, reallocation of 60 minutes in equal proportions from SB, LPA, and MVPA to SD decreased BMI by −0.845 (p = .001).
Conclusions: This study extends the 24-hour activity balance framework to the study of movement behaviors among children with ASD. The data demonstrate that: (a) children with ASD are most at-risk of having insufficient SD. (b) a temporal patterning exists between movement behaviors; specifically, decreased SB time is associated with increased next-day PA and decreased next-day SB, and (c) reallocation of time between movement behaviors impacts BMI: particularly moving time to SD decreased BMI and moving time to SB or LPA increased BMI.
A Pilot Study of Project SKIP: A Parent-Mediated, Web-Based Motor Skill Intervention for Children With Down Syndrome
Sean Healy, University of Delaware; Amanda Young, Slippery Rock University; Lisa Silliman-French, Texas Womans University; Ali BrianF, University of South Carolina
Background/Purpose: Children with Down syndrome (DS) have pervasive deficits and delays in fundamental motor skills (FMS) and thus the development of effective FMS interventions for this population is critical. In light of the recent COVID-19 pandemic and school closures, students are increasingly receiving educational content online, under the guidance of their parents/guardians. However, the utility of web-based, parent-mediated interventions has not yet been examined for the development of FMS among children with DS. Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study was to examine the feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of a 6-week, parent-mediated, web-based intervention on the object control (OC) skills of children with DS.
Method: A quasi-experimental research design was used to evaluate the feasibility of a motor intervention called Project SKIP (motor Skill Intervention Implemented by Parents). Twenty-four families were enrolled in the study and assigned to an experimental (n = 14) or non-active comparison group (n = 10). The experimental group participated in the 6-week intervention. The intervention, which was delivered via a private Facebook group, was developed based on the tenets of the social cognitive theory. The Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGMD-3; Ulrich, 2019) was used to assess the participants’ OC skills pre- and post-intervention. Moreover, following completion of the intervention, parents in the experimental group completed a questionnaire that evaluated their perceptions of Project SKIP. A one-way ANCOVA using pretest scores as a covariate, was used to determine the main effect of the intervention on OC scores. Moreover, due to the small sample size and low statistical power, two paired sample T-tests were also calculated and compared between groups. Descriptive statistics were presented for questionnaire items to identify the parents’ perceptions of the feasibility of Project SKIP.
Analysis/Results: The sample comprised of 24 families that included a child with DS. Children were 3–7 years old (Mage = 4.92, SD = 1.18). The children in the experimental group had a significantly greater improvement in OC skills, compared to the comparison group, from pre- to posttest, F(1,22) = 3.541, p = .075). Moreover, for the comparison group, there was a strong correlation between pre- and posttest OC scores (r = .792; p = .011) representing no change in the linear relationship. There was a small correlation between pre and post OC scores for the experimental group (r = .330, p = .271), representing a positive change in the linear relationship. Parents perceived Project SKIP to be a highly feasible and effective intervention. All parents reported to be very satisfied or satisfied with their overall experience in the program. Eleven parents (93.6%) indicated that their child’s FMS were influenced a great, good, or moderate amount by participation in the program.
Conclusions: This study provides evidence for the feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of a web-based, parent-mediated intervention to improve OC skills among children with DS. The results may inform researchers and practitioners aiming to implement and assess sustainable and scalable interventions to improve FMS among youth with DS.
Descriptive Analysis of Best Practices in APE Practicum Experiences
Andrea Taliaferro, Junghun Han, Sean M. Bulger, West Virginia University
Background/Purpose: Research has confirmed the effectiveness of Adapted Physical Education (APE) practicum experiences within undergraduate PETE programs in helping teacher candidates develop competencies related to teaching diverse learners. However, a need exists for investigation into how variables that impact attitudinal change and student learning, such as content, quality, and processes, are being implemented. Such evaluation of existing APE practicum experiences will help to ensure consistency in design, scope, and purpose of APE practicum within undergraduate PETE programs. The purpose of this study was to determine how APE practicum experiences within undergraduate PETE programs are conducted across the US, and what essential characteristics and best practices are being implemented.
Method: One hundred faculty members who teach undergraduate APE courses and who direct/oversee APE practicum experiences were identified and invited to participate in this study in February-March 2020. Participants were asked to complete an online survey designed to assess the degree to which best practices were established within quality APE practicum experiences, from “fully in place” to “not in place.” This inventory was comprised of previously validated items. Of the 100 invitations, 2 were non-deliverable and 22 had no read receipt. Fifty-seven surveys were completed for a response rate of 75%.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using SPSS to explore descriptive statistics and frequencies. The following items had a relatively high percentage of respondents indicating they were not in place: A minimum of 30 hours of contact with individuals with disabilities (33.3%), Experience in an inclusive general physical education environment (24.6%), Direct interaction with and observation of practicing APE teachers (22.8%), and Instructional supervision from an APE teacher and/or APE faculty” (14.3%). All programs had the following two items either fully or partially in place: Focus on a greater understanding and appreciation for the disability characteristics, challenges, and abilities discussed in class and Provision of constructive feedback to college students. A one-way ANOVA conducted to compare the effect of contact time on average score indicated a statistically significant difference between groups, F(3,53) = 5.40 p = .003. Post hoc comparisons indicated that the average score for programs requiring 11–20 hours of contact time (M = 3.34, SD = .353) was significantly lower than programs requiring 21–30 hours (M = 3.67, SD = .27) and programs requiring 31 or more hours (M = 3.80, SF = .16).
Conclusions: This research enables the identification of model APE practicum programs as well as recommendations for improved practicum planning, management, instruction, and assessment. Follow up research is warranted to determine the barriers and facilitators to implementation of best practices. Additionally, future research could explore the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic on the provision of quality APE practicum experiences.
Effects of FMS Program on Motor Skill and Socialization in Children With Autism
LiangShan Dong, Yanli Pang, Yu Song, Central China Normal University; Bo ShenF, Wayne State University; Jin Bo, Eastern Michigan University
Background/Purpose: Autism Spectrum Disorders(ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication skills, restricted interests, and stereotyped or repetitive behavior patterns (APA, 2013). Although motor skills disorders are not one of the main characteristics of ASD, it is of great importance not to ignore them due to the high prevalence rates and significant impacts on social development and quality of life (Fournier, et al., 2010; Lai, Lombardo, Baron-Cohen, 2014). Previous studies have suggested that social and motor skills are related(e.g., MacDonald, Lord, & Ulrich, 2014; Liu, Kaarengala, & Litchke, 2019). However, the effects of fundamental motor skill (FMS) intervention on motor skills and social skill have remained largely unexplored in children with ASD, especially in China. The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of FMS program on motor skills and socialization in children with ASD.
Method: Participants were eighteen children (5–10 years) diagnosed with ASD recruited from one autism school in a large metropolitan area of Wuhan in China. The intervention group (n = 8) participated in 10 weeks intervention focusing on FMS and simple games for 1 h each day, 3 days per week, while the comparison group (n = 10) continued their regular physical education class. Children’s pre- and post-assessments of motor skills were collected using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3rd edition (TGMD-3; Ulrich, 2019). For participants in the intervention group only, the Playground Observation of Peer Engagement (POPE; Frankel et al., 2011) was used and focused on six socially interactive states to observe the social behaviors every 2 weeks throughout the intervention. Analyses were conducted using a repeated measures ANOVA design used to assess changes in participant motor skills outcomes from pre to post assessments. A general linear model was used to examine the effect of time on changes in socialization, comparing biweekly observation of social skills in the intervention group.
Analysis/Results: Pretest and posttest data was collected to show how children responded to the intervention. For motor skills, results revealed statistically significant differences between the experimental and control groups in locomotor (F(1, 16) = 4.92, P < .05, partial η2 = 0.24), object control (F(1, 16) = 12.52, P < .001, partial η2 = 0.44), and gross quotient (F(1, 16) = 12.83, P < .01, partial η2 = 0.48). For socialization outcomes measured in the experimental group, results revealed a statistically significant effect of time in solitary (for decreasing minutes) (F(2,9) = 5.23, P < .05) and joint engagement (for increasing minutes) (F(2,9) = 4.52, P < .05). No significant effects of time (for increasing or decreasing minutes) were found in the remaining POPE dependent variables including proximity, parallel aware, parallel play or onlooking.
Conclusions: The results of this study demonstrates the positive effects of a FMS program on improving motor and social skills for children with ASD. Future studies should focus on teaching a wide variety of FMS and creating more social integration environments with different games. More participants and a longer intervention period is needed to confirm the overall effectiveness of FMS based program.
Examining Adapted Physical Education Teachers’ Job Dissatisfaction
Minhyun Kim, Jose A Santiago, Sam Houston State University; Chan Woong Park, University of North Dakota; Boung Jin Kang, Elizabeth City State University
Background/Purpose: Teachers’ job dissatisfaction has received a great amount of attention within the field of education for its significant role in the recruitment and retention of effective teachers (Toropova, Myrberg, & Johansson, 2019). While a substantial amount of attention has been paid to teacher job dissatisfaction in general education, fewer studies have focused on adapted physical education teachers’ dissatisfaction (Ješinová, Spurná, Kudláček, & Sklenaříková, 2014). Adapted Physical Education (APE) teachers’ roles, responsibilities, and working conditions are unique. Given these unique expectations and workplace experiences, it is important to understand what contributes to APE teachers’ job dissatisfaction. Grounded in occupational socialization theory, the purpose of this study was to examine APE teachers’ job dissatisfaction. The following questions guided this study: (a) which social agents make a negative impact on APE teachers’ job dissatisfaction;, (b) what APE teachers’ roles and responsibilities are related to job dissatisfaction;, and (c) what type of working conditions are linked to APE teachers’ job dissatisfaction?
Method: The participants in the present study consisted of three male and nine female APE teachers from the southwest of the United States ranging from 27 to 67 years of age. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with each participant. The interview ranged from 35 to 70 minutes. Interviews were transcribed verbatim for data analysis. The data was analyzed using the procedures outlined by Strauss and Corbin (2014) for open, axial, and selective coding.
Analysis/Results: The following four themes emerged from the analysis: (a) lack of school administration, PE teachers, and APE teachers’ support, (b) feelings of isolation, (c) amount of administrative paper work, and (d) high number of students with disabilities. Participants expressed insufficient support from school administrators and colleagues. In particular, there were mixed feelings about the general PE teachers’ support. This finding suggests that the lack of support from the general PE teachers contributed APE teachers’ job dissatisfaction. APE teachers emphasized that traveling from school to school contributed greatly to feelings of isolation because of the lack of interaction with school teachers and staff members. Completing paper work such as Individual Education Plan (IEP) and assessment was found to be the most time consuming and source of job dissatisfaction. Additionally, as the number of students with disabilities has increased in the schools, APE teachers expressed concerns and dissatisfaction with the high caseloads.
Conclusions: The findings of the current study suggest that APE teachers experience a degree of job dissatisfaction. It is suggested that school administrators foster supportive working environments for APE teachers by listening to their needs, building positive relationships, and providing appropriate instructional and financial resources. In addition, general PE teachers can play a critical role in enhancing the APE teachers’ satisfaction by working closely with and supporting them. It is suggested to find ways to reduce the amount of paper work. Finally, it is critical for APE teachers to be assigned adequate case-loads and contact hours.
Exploring the College Student Experience in Paralympic Skill Lab
Jenna McMahon, Cathy McKayF, James Madison University
Background/Purpose: Colleges and universities are a microcosm of larger society, reflecting many of the same patterns of interaction and social structures, including stereotypes related to disability. Applying intervention programs at the collegiate level to educate, inform perceptions, and advance a culture where individuals of all abilities are celebrated has vast social implications. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore the impact of Paralympic skill lab through writing to engage reflection questions.
Method: Participants were 77 undergraduate students enrolled in a general education lifetime fitness and wellness course (Mage = 19.64; 50.65% male, 79.22% Caucasian) at a university in a Mid-Atlantic state. Participants took part in a Paralympic skill lab education session during a typical class meeting and were asked to complete a ten-item questionnaire at the lab’s conclusion. The questionnaire included six demographic questions and four long-format writing to engage questions which were intended to elicit the participants’ feelings about the experience. After data collection was completed, data were compiled into a spreadsheet, and the first author open-coded the long-format questions. First, the coder assigned a code (i.e., short name) to each response. Responses which spanned several content areas were provided more than one code. Following, codes were reassembled and grouped into broader categories. To finish, codes were reviewed and discussed with the second author, and agreement was reached.
Analysis/Results: First, demographic findings were characterized descriptively. Secondly, descriptive statistics (e.g., frequency counts) for the codes created from the four long-format questions were compiled. In total, participants’ responses were coded into 159, 123, 114, and 70 codes for the four long-format questions. The most commonly coded responses to question one (i.e., Can you describe your experiences engaging in the skill lab?) were coded as fun (n = 50), challenging (n = 21) and eye-opening (n = 9). Similarly, would do again (n = 12) and eye-opening (n = 11) were the two most frequently used codes for question two (i.e., Can you describe how you feel about this experience?). For the third question (i.e., How does taking part in the skill lab shape your attitudes or actions toward inclusion, adaptive athletes, and disability sport?), the most frequently used codes were negative assumptions about disability (n = 18), increased respect (n = 8), and would promote (n = 7). For the final question (i.e., Reflect on any a-ha moments that occurred as a result of taking part in the skill lab.), the most common response codes were challenging (n = 22), requires skill (n = 8), and fun (n = 6).
Conclusions: Paralympic sport education experiences executed with contact theory as the theoretical foundation offer an avenue for enlightenment toward disability and inclusion. Writing to engage helps students develop greater control of the concepts, skills, processes, and issues addressed, and deepens the learning from the hands-on educational experience. Future research should extend the use of the skill lab as a teaching and learning tool, to gain a comprehensive understanding of its impact. This includes replicating the research with focus group interviews, and utilizing quantitative pre/post surveys.
High School Students With Disabilities Experiences in Inclusive Physical Education
Lauren Tyndorf, Teachers College, Columbia University; Carrie Safron, Manhattanville College; Stephen SilvermanF, Teachers College, Columbia University
Background/Purpose: Students with disabilities are being placed in educational settings with typically developing students. Such placement can create opportunities for all students to participate and collaborate with each other (McPhail & Freeman, 2005; Prosser & Burke, 2008). It is necessary to ensure that any barriers to full inclusion are identified and removed. Elimination of those barriers would allow for increased participation in physical education and activity (Hitchcock, Meyer, Rose & Jackson, 2002). To adequately identify barriers and other issues faced by students with disabilities, it is necessary to understand their perceptions since they are best able to express their experiences (Yssel, Pak & Berbe 2016). This study added to existing research by gaining an understanding of student perceptions on physical education and their participation in physical activity.
Method: The study included seven students with a variety of disabilities attending one of two suburban high schools in central New Jersey. Data were collected in a number of ways, including through use of observations, interviews, photo elicitation and students’ personal artifacts. Individual data analysis guided later data collection (Jacelon & O’Del, 2005). Observations of various physical education classes were documented through creation of notes, focusing predominantly on the level of student interactions and level of participation. Three in-depth, open-ended interviews were conducted (Schensul & LeCompte, 2012). Visual methods and photographs were utilized in interviews 2 and 3 to help trigger students’ memories regarding physical activity and to elicit additional thoughts and feelings that they held regarding such activity. Multiple analysis techniques were used to achieve a level of credibility, including analysis following initial data collection and inductive and recursive analyses following the conclusion of data collection. Trustworthiness and credibility were assessed through triangulation and peer review.
Analysis/Results: Data analysis resulted in the identification of two general themes.
Students held positive attitudes on physical activity. They recognized the importance of and enjoyed participating in a variety of physical activities. Students also believed that a person with disabilities can participate in physical activities. Most recognized the impact such activity had on a person’s body. All students enjoyed participating as part of a team, enjoying interactions with other students.
Students felt that physical education was “inclusive.” While all participants felt part of the class, they also felt that certain modifications of the class offerings could increase the level of their participation. The provision of additional activities was viewed as providing them with more choice. This was particularly important for two students with physical disabilities who felt there were issues with participating in some activities due to the disability itself.
Conclusions: By recognizing individual differences of students, modifications can be made to a physical education curriculum to reflect the needs and abilities of students with disabilities. Given that no two students are alike, the level of inclusion in the classroom for each student needs to be continually evaluated. Simple placement is not sufficient. This study demonstrates that we can help understand students’ voices to ensure a more inclusive environment exists.
Inclusion in Physical Education Toward Students With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review
Yu Song, Central China Normal University; Bo ShenF, Wayne State University; Yanli Pang, LiangShan Dong, Central China Normal University
Background/Purpose: With the increasing presence of students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in the general physical education (PE), researchers have conducted studies to understand how the students with ASD are perceived and what benefits they can obtain in the inclusive setting. Although the impact of inclusion process on students with disabilities in PE context has been investigated, the findings regarding the students with ASD remain inconclusive. The purpose of this study was to review systematically the empirical studies of inclusion in physical education toward students with ASD.
Method: The literature search was based on the keywords and reference search in the Sports Discus, PubMed, PsycINFO, Science Direct, ERIC, Taylor & Francis Online and Springer Link. Studies must (a) have been published in peer-reviewed journals between January 1988 to July 2020; (b) in English language and for which full text was available; (c) with quantitative data and qualitative data; (d) focus on inclusive PE in school; (e) in which the participants contained more than one autistic children or their stakeholders. To assess methodological quality, two authors examined included literatures according to Adapted Physical Activity Taxonomy (APAT) (Carano, 2014). Information of literatures were coded by author, location, participation information, data source, statistical analysis, theoretical framework, research design, outcome measure and research themes. There was a high inter-rater agreement for the included articles.
Analysis/Results: The initial search identified 398 articles from the databases. After removing duplication and screening against inclusion criteria, we remained 23 articles. Among the included articles, 39% and 30% were conducted from United States and China, respectively; 48% participants were preservice or in-service PE teacher, 44% were students with ASD, only 8% were parents and coordinators. In terms of methodology, 65% were quantitative research and 35% were qualitative research. The purpose of majority (39%) were related to the challenges and experience in inclusive PE from different perceptions (e.g., teachers and parents); 26% investigated the association between pre-service or in-service teacher training and inclusive attitude; 35% focused on the effects of inclusive PE on improvements of social development and motor skill.
Conclusions: Our systematic review revealed that the core symptoms of autistic children bring more difficulties and challenges to the inclusive PE class comparing with other types of disabilities. It is suggested that an effective teacher training help preservice or in-service PE teachers to change their attitudes; class-wide peer tutoring strategies enhance the social development and motor skills of children with ASD. In future study, a multi-perspective mixed research is encouraged to enhance our knowledge of meaningful experience of PE class with the involvement of ASD children. Also, there is a need to increase experimental/quasi experimental design research to develop and validate effective teacher training programs and teaching intervention strategies.
Itinerant Adapted Physical Educator’s Perceptions of Mattering and Relationship Building
K. Andrew RichardsF, Alyssa Trad, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Steven K. Holland, Old Dominion University; Wesley J Wilson, University of Utah; Juliet Stearns, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: While physical education (PE) and adapted physical education (APE) teachers share some common experiences, they also have different responsibilities. At times, APE teachers work with upwards of 100 students, all who have unique needs that are addressed through adaptation (Obrusnikova & Kelly, 2009). Itinerant APE teachers may also feel isolated and as if they don’t fit in anywhere (Hodge & Akuffo, 2007). Their work can become particularly arduous when PE teachers are unsupportive or use exclusionary practices (Haegele & Zhu, 2017). These experiences may make APE teachers feel as if they are unimportant of that they do not matter to those around them (Gaudreault et al., 2018). Framed through role socialization theory (Richards, 2015), the purpose of this study was to understand itinerant APE teachers’ perceptions of mattering and relationship building.
Method: A total of 31 Itinerant APE teachers (22 female, 9 male) were recruited from among those who previously completed an online survey following a sequential exploratory design (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The interview participants taught in schools across all four U.S. Census regions and most identified as Caucasian (90.32%). They had been teaching for 13.90 years (SD = 9.98) and traveled to between two and 25 school buildings (M = 7.35, SD = 4.87). Individual, semi-structured interviews (Patton, 2015) were conducted with the 31 participants over the telephone. All interviews were developed in reference to role socialization theory (Richards, 2015), focused on relationship building and perceived mattering, and lasted for between 45 and 60 minutes.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed by a three-person team following recommendations from Richards and Hemphill (2018) and blending inductive and deductive analysis with the constant comparative method (Patton, 2015). This analysis process resulted in the development of three themes. First, APE teachers rely on an unpredictable system of support in which relationships developed with key stakeholders in individual schools matters and experiences are inconsistent across settings. This was particularly the case when working with PE teachers, whose actions could greatly facilitate or constrain effective APE instruction. Accordingly, relationship development becomes a transactional process whereby participants had to show support if they hoped to receive it in return. The participants believed, nevertheless, that both relationships and knowledge of the field and special education laws could enhance local advocacy efforts and strive toward greater support.
Conclusions: The APE teachers’ advocacy efforts were developed upon a foundation of relationships and supplemented by their ability to passionately and knowledgably communicate about the discipline. The development of these relationships were, nevertheless, challenged by the itinerant nature of their work (Hodge & Akuffo, 2007) and the need to build relationships across multiple school sites, which left some feeling as if they fit in better in some places than others, or that they did not fit in anywhere at all (Richards & Templin, 2011). Further inquiry into the socialization of APE teachers is needed in order to more fully understand how their experiences differ from those of PE teachers, which could inform future teacher education and professional development interventions.
Motor Performance of Children With Down Syndrome Using the TGMD-3
Brock C. McMullen, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse
Background/Purpose: Adapted physical education specialists ensure that students in special education receive objective motor assessment and specially designed instruction aligned with the appropriate IEP content (Adapted Physical Activity Council, 2010). In school districts, APE specialists provide services through direct instruction, team teaching with general physical educators, and/or through consulting with general physical education teachers (Block, 2007). APE specialists provide services from early childhood to adulthood (ages 3–21) in various educational settings or placements and work closely with related service personnel as collaborative motor team participants. One particularly common disability seen in the schools is Down syndrome, which is the most common chromosomal condition diagnosed in the United States occurring in about 1 in every 700 births (CDC, 2019). Children with Down syndrome have delays in the development of fundamental motor skills which will generally require them to be enrolled in specially designed physical education when they begin school. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess children with Down syndrome regarding their levels of motor proficiency in the locomotor and ball skills identified in the Test of Gross Motor Development-3rd Edition (TGMD-3).
Method: Thirteen participants (7 boys, 6 girls) ranging from 5–9 years old with Down syndrome were tested individually using the TGMD-3.
Analysis/Results: Results indicated that the children with Down syndrome were delayed by at least two years behind their same-aged typically developing peers. A one-tailed one-sample t-test was used to compare the overall motor proficiency (calculated by the gross motor index; 158 = maximum attainable score) of each participant to the average gross motor index of the normative sample (99). The difference in the gross motor index of each participant (mean = 56.6) compared to the normative sample was significantly different (p < .001). It was also determined that the rate of growth in motor proficiency for locomotor and ball skills for children with Down syndrome was also less than those rates found in the normative sample of the TGMD-3.
Conclusions: With overall motor performance and the rates of grown slower that that of typically developing peers, this information can be used by parents to advocate for more early intervention programs from adapted physical education teachers so that children with Down syndrome are not as developmentally delayed compared to their same-aged typically developing peers when they start elementary school.
Participation in Different Types of Sports and Physical Activity Among Children With Disabilities: NHANES 2013–2016
MooSong Kim, Northeastern State University; Maria KosmaF, Louisiana State University; Dalhyun H. Moon, California State University East Bay
Background/Purpose: Participating in a variety of physical activities (e.g., team sports, fitness activities, recreational activities, etc.) has unique benefits among children with and without disabilities, including improved social cohesion (i.e., team sports), fitness levels (i.e., fitness activities), and psychological benefits (i.e., recreational activities). In order to understand children with disabilities’ patterns of PA participation, there would be a need for examining different types of PA participation for children with disabilities. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to examine to examine the prevalence of different types of physical activity participation among US children with disabilities.
Method: Based on the 2013–2014 and 2015–2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, types of physical activity over the past week and demographic information was retrieved among 4,414 children between the ages of 5 and 15 years old. There were 508 youth with disabilities (i.e., 61 children with physical disabilities _ locomotor limitation) vs. 447 children with other types of disabilities) and 3,906 youth without disabilities. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression model were used to answer the research questions.
Analysis/Results: The top three physical activity types identified by both children with and without disabilities were team sports (50.4% [95% CI = 47.84–53.01%], fitness activities (48.80% [95% CI = 45.77–51.84%]), and recreational activities (43.21% [95% CI = 40.50–45.92%]. According to logistic regression models, the odds of participating in team sports was significantly lower among children with physical disabilities compared with the odds among other groups. For example, children with other disabilities were 4.47 times as likely to participate in team sports than children with physical disabilities (OR = 4.49; 95% CI, [1.98, 10.20]). Similarly, children without disabilities (OR = 4.83; 95% CI, [2.29, 10.46]) had four times greater odds than children with physical disabilities. Furthermore, the odds of participating in fitness activities among children with other types of disabilities (OR = 2.47, 95% CI [0.93, 6.50]) and children without disabilities (OR = 2.74, 95% CI [1.13, 6.65]) were higher than children with physical disabilities. However, the odds of participating in recreational activities among children with physical disabilities were similar with their counter parts, children with other types of disabilities (OR = 1.11, 95% CI [0.48, 2.52]) and children without disabilities (OR = 1.02, 95% CI [0.46, 2.23]).
Conclusions: According to our study findings, children with physical disabilities might have lower participation in certain types of physical activity such as team sports and fitness activities compared to children without disabilities and children with other types of disabilities. This finding highlighted the importance of offering children with physical disabilities more inclusive instructional strategies and efforts in certain types of physical activities.
Perceived Role Clarity, Ability, and Training Needs of Paraeducators Assisting Students With Disabilities in Physical Education Settings
Tim Swenson, University of Wisconsin-Platteville
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore paraeducators’ roles and competencies in physical education from both the perspectives of paraeducators and physical educators.
Method: Physical educators (n = 118) and paraeducators (n = 87) from one Midwestern state in the United States completed a content-validated survey on the various roles paraeducators typically assume when assisting in physical education classes. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and t tests to identify if differences between physical educators and paraeducators existed.
Analysis/Results: Significant differences in the perceptions of role clarity and role ability between physical educators and paraeducators emerged as key findings in this study. In addition, no significant difference was found between perceived training needs between groups.
Conclusions: Using the results of this study, physical educators and paraeducators can work together to provide the best learning environment possible within physical education for students with disabilities as well as the working environment for both physical educators and paraeducators.
Perspectives of Physical Educators and Adapted Physical Educators on Attempting Inclusive Practice
Wesley J. Wilson, University of Utah; Elizabeth A. Theriot, University of Louisiana-Lafayette; Justin A. HaegeleF, Old Dominion University
Background/Purpose: Inclusive education has become a global area of scholarship, yet research has highlighted challenges with inclusive practices among teachers in integrated physical education contexts (Haegele, 2019), which may often lead to experiences of discrimination and isolation among students with disabilities (Fitzgerald, 2005). These reported negative characteristics of integrated physical education are antithetical to the very idea of inclusion. As such, the purpose of this study was to examine physical education and adapted physical education teachers’ perspectives on how they attempt inclusive practice in integrated physical education from a socialization perspective.
Method: This study was designed around and interpreted through the occupational socialization theory (Lawson, 1983b, 1983a). This theory was used to help explain how socialization processes may have influenced the participants’ perspectives, values, and behaviors toward attempting inclusive practices in their physical education classrooms. Using a qualitative description design (Sandelowski, 2010), 78 teachers (30 physical education, 48 adapted physical education) responded to an open-ended survey item related to their inclusive practice. A three-step thematic analysis plan was adopted, which allowed the researchers to engage in free textual analysis to capture and comment upon data units of interest as they emerged, construct themes summarizing each participant’s experiences, and use constant comparison to facilitate cross-case analysis. Peer debriefing, negative case analysis, and an audit trail were used to enhance data trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Analysis/Results: The analysis resulted in a four-theme structure: (a) we do the best we can, (b) inclusive physical education depends on collaboration, (c) anti-integration philosophy for students with severe disabilities, and (d) inclusive physical education is student need-based. Both physical education and adapted physical education teachers reported trying their best to create an inclusive environment in which integration into physical education made sense, many times despite competing constraints. These constraints included challenges related to class size, inadequate access to support staff, equipment, scheduling, and other low-quality physical education teachers. Participants felt that inclusive physical education was contingent upon active collaboration among physical education and adapted physical education teachers, and other school staff. The teachers also reported that, many times, students with the most severe disabilities were precluded from the integrated setting; if they were integrated, they were there just to be in the same space without receiving instruction, which is reflective of forced integration (Wilson et al., 2020). Both physical education and adapted physical education teachers generally agreed that inclusive physical education was based on their students’ individual needs, with the former focusing on making modifications and the latter extending this thinking to more explicitly emphasize student learning.
Conclusions: This study is one of few recent endeavors that challenges the notion that inclusion is working and calls for a refocusing on building inclusive practices in integrated physical education classes. Teacher education can better prepare preservice physical education and adapted physical education teachers to navigate the sociopolitics of working in public schools and to collaborate effectively with other personnel to meet the needs of students, even those with severe disabilities, in integrated settings.
Reactivity to Accelerometer Measurement Among Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder
Justin A. HaegeleF, Xihe ZhuF, Hunter J. Bennett, Old Dominion University
Background/Purpose: Accelerometers are wearable devices that are commonly used in research examining PA among individuals with ASD. While widely used, there are factors that may influence the validity of objective PA assessment (i.e., accelerometers) that have not been fully explored. One specific concern is reactivity, or the change in behavior due to participants’ awareness that they are being monitored. According to Dössegger and colleagues (2014), a reactivity phenomenon of just 5% on the first or last day of measurement may introduce a relevant bias that can compromise the accuracy of habitual PA monitoring. The purpose of this study was to examine reactivity to accelerometer measurement among adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
Method: A sample of 23 adolescents with ASD (aged 15.00 ± 1.57 years old; 17 boys) wore triaxial accelerometers for at least 8 hours per day for seven consecutive days. Descriptive statistics, including arithmetic means and standard deviations, as well as analysis of covariances with repeated measures (ANCOVAs) were conducted, controlling for participant body mass index and gender.
Analysis/Results: While differences were not statistically significant, they exceed reactivity-based recommendations and have implications for future research with adolescents with ASD. Adolescents with ASD demonstrated 5.54% less light physical activity and 11.94% less moderate-to-vigorous physical activity during the first day in comparison to the five subsequent days. In addition, participants had 9.07% less light physical activity and 6.41% lower step count/wear time ratio during the final day when compared to the prior five days. Further, the inverse reactivity pattern among adolescents with ASD is a unique finding that has important implications for research in this area.
Conclusions: Research examining the reactivity phenomenon has demonstrated that participants without disabilities wearing accelerometers tend to engage in more PA during the first day of wear time than the average of subsequent days. Interestingly, however, the participants in the current study demonstrated an inverse reactivity pattern, where adolescents with ASD engaged in less LPA and MVPA on the first day of measurement. Although the findings of this study are limited in terms of understanding the reasons behind this phenomenon, there are some important research-related implications, particularly in studies comparing PA between adolescents with and without ASD. More specifically, in studies comparing PA levels of those with and without ASD, a diverging reactivity phenomena where participants with ASD engage in less while those without ASD engage in more PA during the first day of measurement can artificially inflate PA differences between groups, if day 1 is included. This finding added support for researchers to either (a) adopt the 1-day familiarization period presented by Dössegger and colleagues (2014) or (b) examine reactivity phenomena between groups during the data analysis process, to ensure that differences between those with and without ASD are not misrepresented due to differences in patterns of reactivity.
Teacher and Staff Perceptions of Inclusive Recreation: A Mixed Method Overview in Arizona Schools
Allison Ross, Kelly Ramella, Kylie Wilson, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: Participation in inclusive recreation throughout the comprehensive school day offers students opportunities to gain valuable physical activity and engage in enjoyable play experiences with peers. The degree which recreation experiences are incorporated throughout the day varies widely across schools. Understanding how teachers and staff value recreation and their confidence in facilitating inclusive recreation experiences can help overcome barriers and promote opportunities for youth.
Method: A concurrent mixed method approach was used to elicit teacher and staff perceptions of the value of recreation, confidence in facilitating recreation experiences, and presence of recreation opportunities at schools from three sources: (1) a statewide survey (n = 178) with convenience sample of members of the group Arizona Health and Physical Education, (2) a survey (n = 26) and (3) five focus group interviews (n = 21) with a convenience sample of K-8 teachers and staff at two schools receiving inclusive recreation programming. This programming included small group play-based learning in the classroom and structured autonomous recreation during recess.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics including mean and/or percentages and standard deviations were used to examine responses to survey questions. Data from interviews were transcribed verbatim and coded in vivo to extract themes. Results of both quantitative and qualitative analyses were used to extract meta-inferences related to the perceived value, level of confidence facilitating, and opportunities for inclusive recreation in schools.
Value. Most teachers felt inclusive recreation was very valuable for student physical (81%), social (77%), and emotional (81%) health, but only 44% of teachers felt play-based learning in the classroom was very valuable.
Confidence. Teachers felt reasonably confident including students with physical (M = 3.20, SD = .69), social (M = 3.05, SD = .83), emotional (M = 3.20, SD = .77), and intellectual (M = 3.25, SD = .72) disabilities in classroom, but less confident leading play-based learning in the classroom (M = 2.60, SD = .88). Barriers to incorporating play-based classroom learning included lack of time, lack of administrative support, large class sizes, and lack of training and lesson ideas.
Opportunities. Most teachers and staff at the program schools felt recreation and play should be offered before (58%) and after (69%) school whereas fewer (23%) felt they should be included during class times. Across the state, most teachers (68%) reported that students receive daily recess and the majority (96%) reported that students with and without disabling conditions participate together. Teachers reported that recess supervision generally does not target the promotion of inclusion (93%) or physical activity (89%). Lack of supervision was seen as problematic (e.g., “we do not have enough adults/supervision at recess”), but recess was viewed as an important outlet as “[kids] need to exercise their creativity” and “[they] spend so much time being taught.”
Conclusions: Inclusive recreation was perceived as valuable, but particularly at recess and before and after school. Opportunities to further integrate inclusive recreation into the school day include increasing awareness of benefits of play and recreation for student health and well-being and offering strategies to incorporate play-based learning and recreation into classroom settings.
Teachers Perceptions on Inclusion in Physical Education in Wisconsin
Alivia Weix, Aaron Hanson, Ruthie Stewart, Carlie Crotteau, Emily K. Martis, Marquell J. Johnson, Saori Braun, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire
Background/Purpose: Due to school budgetary constraints and reductions in physical education offerings, the number of students with disabilities being educated in an inclusive general physical education (GPE) setting continues to increase. The purpose of the research was to examine GPE and adapted physical education (APE) teachers’ perceptions of teaching students with disabilities in the inclusive physical education setting.
Method: Utilizing the state’s Department of Public Instruction directory for licensed public school GPE and APE teachers, 1,691 identified teachers were sent e-mails to participate and complete an online survey. The study was a descriptive study that investigated the associations between the years of teaching experience (novice 0–5 and experienced 6+ years), APE licensure, APE course completion, number of APE workshops attended in the past three years, and APE supports in the profession, and teachers’ perception on inclusion of students with a disability in the physical education setting. Researchers conducted a binomial logistic regression using SPSS version 24.0 software on the six dependent variables (self-efficacy, attitude, social normative behavior, intentions, behavioral belief, and normative belief) to identify the impact of the five independent variables [years of teaching experience (novice 0–5 and experienced 6+ years), APE licensure, APE course completion, number of APE workshops attended in the past three years, and APE supports in the profession]. Each dependent variable survey question utilized a Likert scale and from that scale the average scores were found for each variable. Dependent variables were then dichotomized based on the average scores.
Analysis/Results: The analysis calculated responses from 233 participants (13.78% response rate). APE supports were a significant predictor for the self-efficacy score, attitude score, behavioral belief, and normative belief scores, (p > .05) respectively for all scores. More specifically, those who reported as not receiving any APE supports were less likely to have higher self-efficacy, attitude, behavioral belief, and normative belief scores than those who reported as receiving APE supports within their school or school district. The five predictors did not matter for social normative behavior and intention scores. Experienced teaching was a significant predictor for the self-efficacy score.
Conclusions: APE supports that include collaborative efforts with related service personnel and paraprofessionals, availability of specialized equipment, administrative support, appropriate individualized education plan goals improve physical education teachers’ perceptions of teaching students with disabilities in the inclusive physical education setting.
The Effects of Physical Activity Intervention on Motor Competence in Children With Autism
Yanli Pang, Central China Normal University; Jin Bo, Eastern Michigan University; Bo ShenF, Wayne State University
Background/Purpose: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a pervasive developmental disorder characterized by deficits in social skills, communication and repetitive or restricted interests. To date, several studies have addressed motor impairment of ASD children and recommended to enhance motor competence in early interventions. The current study was to explore the effect of a physical activity intervention on motor competence in children with autism.
Method: A total of 17 children (age range 5–9) with a clinical diagnosis of autism were recruited from a local autism center in Wuhan, China. The experimental group (n = 9) participated in a 9-week intervention consisting of fundamental motor skills instruction for 1 hr/day, 3 days/week, while the control group conducted the traditional physical class. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2 (Movement-ABC-2) was used to assess motor skills at 3 time points: baseline, after the intervention, after 4 weeks of intervention. The Repeated Measures ANOVAs were used to analysis difference in motor outcomes.
Analysis/Results: (1) The total scores of Movement-ABC in the experimental group were significantly higher than the control group (P < .05), as well as aiming and catching, balance subtests. The scores were persist upon follow-up evaluation. (2) There was no statistically significant difference in manual dexterity subtests between experimental and control group after intervention.
Conclusions: Findings support that physical activity intervention based on fundamental motor skills can improve motor competence in children with autism, especially in ball skills and balance. Further research should consider how to the generalize the findings into different contexts and design effective strategies to enhance the efficiency of intervention in this population.
The Impact of Service Learning on Preservice Physical Education Teachers’ Attitude Toward Individuals With Disabilities
Eun Kwon, Texas A&M University-San Antonio
Background/Purpose: The 2018 annual report in the implementation of IDEA reported that 95% of students with disabilities were included in the general education setting. (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019). Since several studies indicated that many general Physical Education (PE) teachers do not feel prepared to include students with disabilities (Vickerman & Coates, 2009), it was questioned whether Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs are providing enough information and hands-on experiences to prepare preservice PE teachers to meet the current inclusion trend. As the success of inclusion may well depend upon the prevailing attitudes of teachers as they interact with students with disabilities (Carroll, Forlin, & Jobling, 2003), different types of instructional components were proposed to be implemented into the PETE curriculum (Kwon, 2018). The purpose of this study is to investigate whether the Service Learning (SL) components in intro Adapted Physical Education/Activity (APE/APA) course of the PETE curriculum would have an impact on the behavior of the preservice PE teachers toward people with disabilities.
Method: The components of SL were identified and developed based on tnansformational learning theory (Mezirow, 1991, 2000) inviting the local community center for people with disabilities and the para-sports organizations to provide capacity, assessment, and reflection for preservice PE teachers. The major components of SL were completing volunteer activities for 6 hours total at two different locations, physical activity programs for individuals with disabilities and para-sports event. These SL components were implemented into EDKN 4xxx Motor Skills for Special Population, a required intro APE/APA course who are majoring PETE program. An instrument, Multidimensional Attitudes Scale toward Persons with Disabilities (MAS) (Findler, Vilchinsky & Werner, 2007), was given to all participants twice before and after participating in the SL activities to measure participants’ level of affect, cognition, and behavior toward people with disabilities. t-test was conducted to reveal the differences in scores of MAS before and after completing the SL components.
Analysis/Results: Total 130 preservice teachers (N = 135) were participated into the study. The ages of participants were M = 22.35, SD = 2.458. The result of t-test indicated that scores has been significantly increased from pretest (Meanpre = 3.15, SDpre = .56) to posttest (Meanpost = 3.62, SDpost = .19; t(134) = 9.432, p < .000). More specifically scores in affect has been significantly increased from pretest (Meanpre = 3.14, SDpre = .39) to posttest (Meanpost = 3.42, SDpost = .19; t(134) = 9.675, p < .000), scores in cognition increased significantly from (Meanpre = 3.04, SDpre = .02, Meanpost = 3.12, SDpost = .25; t(134) = 2.676, p <.000) and behavior increased from (Meanpre = 3.295, SDpre = .35) to (Meanpost = 4.019, SDpostt = .23; t(134) = 4.424, p <.000).
Conclusions: Since preservice PE teachers’ acquired positive attitudes toward people with disabilities could be one of the key factors for successful inclusion (Sharma, & Earle, 2009; Kim, 2011), PETE programs need to be designed to provide different types hands-on experiences in the community throughout the program. The result of this study revealed that implementing SL components could increase preservice PE teachers’ attitudes toward people with disabilities. This study makes a case for implementing SL components as one of the essential experiences in the APE/APA course to increase the level of preparedness of preservice PE teachers toward including students with disabilities.
The Relationship Between Teacher Qualification and Quality of Instruction for Students With Disabilities
Jaehun Jung, Northwestern State University; Layne Case, Sam LoganF, Oregon State University; Joonkoo YunF, East Carolina University
Background/Purpose: As prevalence rates of children served by federally supported special education programs increased from 8.3% to 13.8% between 1976 and 2018, there is a strong likelihood that general physical educators will teach students with disabilities who attend their physical education (PE) classes. Furthermore, considering only 14 states officially recognize Adapted PE (APE) as a separate teaching credential, general physical educators will likely teach students with disabilities in their classroom. However, it is currently unknown if teachers qualified to teach general PE are implementing quality practices for their students with disabilities. Limited information is available regarding the relationship between teacher qualifications and the quality of instructions delivered to students with disabilities within inclusive classes. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to investigate 1) the prevalence of the general physical educators who are delivering appropriate instructions to students with disabilities during their PE classes and 2) the relationships between teachers’ qualifications and quality of instructions for students with disabilities.
Method: The study employed a secondary data analysis using the 2014 School Health Policy and Practice Study data-set. In total, 758 physical educators of the 791 sampled PE classes (93.6%) completed the Physical Education classroom questionnaire. The final analytic sample included 235 physical educators who self-reported they teach students with disabilities. Data regarding teacher qualifications and self-reported use of instructional practices for students with disabilities were extracted. Qualified teachers were defined as those who have under- or graduate-degrees in PE and current state license to teach PE from his/her respective state. Appropriate instructions for students with disabilities were defined as the use of (1) simplified instructional content or variations in the amount of difficulty of the material taught, (2) more skill modeling, practice, or repetition, (3) modified equipment or facilities, (4) modified instructional strategies, (5) modified assessment, and (6) peer teaching or coaching while teaching students with disabilities during their PE classes. Descriptive statistics were calculated, and a binary logistic regression was conducted to examine the likelihood of using quality instructions for students with disabilities among teachers with and without recommended qualifications.
Analysis/Results: Less than half (47.6%; 95% CI [.47, .48]) of general physical educators who teach students with disabilities reported delivery of appropriate instruction to students with disabilities during their PE classes. The odds of delivering appropriate instruction to students with disabilities during PE classes were significantly greater among qualified general physical educators compared to the teachers without qualifications (OR = 1.57, SE = .02, 95% CI [1.51, 1.63]).
Conclusions: Appropriate instruction delivered to students with disabilities during inclusive PE classes should be guaranteed. This study supports that teachers’ qualification affects the quality of instructions delivered to students with disabilities during inclusive PE classes. In addition, it is recommended to hire fully qualified teachers. Lastly, many general physical educators may not be able to provide appropriate instructions, although they are fully qualified under many state regulations. More training on how to deliver high-quality PE to children with disabilities is warranted.
Theory of Planned Behavior to Promote Physical Activity of Adults With Physical Disabilities: Meta-Analytic Structural Equation Modeling
Myung Ha Sur, Deborah Shapiro, Georgia State University
Background/Purpose: The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) can be used to measure intentions of adults with physical disabilities (PD) toward participation in physical activity (PA) to provide information about which aspect of the theory can be a significant predictor for physical activity promotion. In addition, understanding the effect of each component of the TBP can be used to developed intervention strategies to promote PA behavior. Several systematic reviews or meta-analyses have addressed the use of TPB to PA participation of individuals without disabilities. No meta-analysis has been conducted relating to persons with a disability. The purpose of the study was to conduct meta-analysis of constructs of TPB to examine relationships between components of the theory with quantitative perspective.
Method: The databases used to search for relevant studies were CINAHL, ERIC, Medline, Psycinfo, and SPORTDiscus, and Pubmed. The search string utilized was [(“planned behav*” OR “reasoned action”) AND (disab*) AND (sport* OR “physical education” OR “physical activity” OR “exercise*”)]. The eligibility criteria were that research was: (a) original empirical research, (b) peer-reviewed, (c) published in English, (d) based on a TPB or TRA, (e) available with full text, (f) the study was conducted with participants with PD, (g) participants were over 18 years of age, (h) participants answered their PA behavior engagement using either a direct or indirect measure, and (i) quantitative data available for metaanalysis.
Analysis/Results: One-stage meta-analytic structural equation modeling (OSMASEM) was used to analyze data gathered from selected articles. The data were analyzed with random-effects model with correlation matrices. Out of 8 studies identified for inclusion,14 effect sizes were extracted for analysis. The result of Q statistics showed statistically significant value indicating heterogeneity of data (Q (df† = 107) = 287.58, p† < .001), and those of I2 showed low to high heterogeneity throughout relationships (0%—85%). The results of goodnessof- fit showed acceptable level of the model (χ2 = (df =2) = 9.40, p† = .009, RMSEA: 0.04 [95% CI (0.01, 0.08)], SRMR: 0.03, AIC: −129.02, BIC: −85.53). The results of estimated parameters of TPB on PA promotion of adults with PD showed that intention had a moderate effect on PA behavior (β = .3 p† <.001), attitude and perceived behavioral control had small to moderate influence on intention (β = .25, p† < .001, β = .41, p† < .001, respectively). Subjective norm showed non-significant effect on intention (β = .09, p† > .05). Lastly, perceived behavioral control had small effect on PA behavior (β = .13, p† < .001).
Conclusions: Overall, PA intervention using TPB components can be more successful with targeting change of attitude and perceived behavioral control. Through this way, individuals with PD can strengthen their intention toward PA behavior, and this will eventually be led to increased PA. We should be discreet because more accumulated evidence is needed for this population. Since not enough studies are published conducting intervention using TPB, it cannot be a concluded result. Therefore, more intervention studies are needed with adult population with PD using TPB components.
“The Rest of the Time I Would Just Stand There and Look Stupid”: Access in Integrated Physical Education Among Adults With Visual Impairments
Justin A. HaegeleF, Old Dominion University; Nicole Kirk, University of Georgia; Steven K. Holland, Xihe ZhuF, Old Dominion University
Background/Purpose: In recent years, research examining the perspectives of individuals with visual impairments toward the inclusiveness of their experiences in physical education has revealed that feelings associated with inclusion are largely unavailable. Notably, individuals with visual impairments have revealed feelings of frustration and disappointment with being discriminated against by their teachers, who may unknowingly contribute to peers’ understanding of students’ abilities by communicating ideals of inability. To extend this line of inquiry, this study focused on exploring the role that access plays in informing the perceptions of those with visual impairments toward the inclusiveness of their experiences in physical education.
Method: Ten adults with visual impairments were interviewed about their perceptions of their experiences in integrated physical education, and reflective interview notes were recorded. Interviews were conducted via telephone, and were recorded, transcribed, and subjected to thematic analysis.
Analysis/Results: Three cascading themes were constructed based on points of access that were identified as salient across the participants’ reflections: (a) “A lot of times it was in a separate room … because they didn’t want to mess with me”: Accessing physical spaces, (b) “I was with them, but I wasn’t”: Accessing activities within spaces, and (c) “The rest of the time I would just stand there and look stupid”: Accessing meaningful participation.
Conclusions: The cascading themes provide a hierarchy of access points, where individuals must first be provided access to the physical space in which activities occur, then they must be permitted access to activities when in that space, and finally must be provided appropriate accommodations which lead to meaningful participation within those activities. These findings provide support for the assertion that while entry into an integrated space and access to the activities of that space are the first steps toward inclusion, they are not enough to guarantee that students feel included within that space.
Exercise Sciences
Bodyweight Upper-Body Strength Training Improves All Dimensions of Strength
Istvan Kovacs, Austin McClinton, Wenhao LiuF, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: Upper-body strength training that is utilizing the bodyweight as a constant resistance (e.g., pushups, pullups, dips, etc.) is one of the most popular and safe training methods in physical activity settings. This study was designed to extend the understanding of the effect of bodyweight upper-body strength training on the three major manifestations/dimensions of strength: maximal strength, muscular endurance, and muscular power.
Method: A six-week, three-time per week upper-body strength training program was administered to 46 university students (mean age: 21.36 ± 1.67; 28 males, 18 females). Participants had limited experience in resistance training, and were randomly assigned to a muscular endurance group (ME) or a muscular power group (MP), with each group having 14 males and 9 females. In each training session, ME performed six sets of regular push-ups with high repetitions (10–20 for females, 15–25 for males) repetitions, and MP did six sets of ballistic plyometric push-ups with low repetitions (4–6 for females, 4–8 for males) repetitions at maximum velocity. There was no maximal strength training group because that type of training requires heavier resistance than the bodyweight. Pre- and posttests were administered immediately before and after the training program respectively for the three dimensions of strength: 1RM bench press (1RM) for maximal strength, maximum number of push-up repetitions (PU) for muscular endurance, and four consecutive ballistic push-ups (BAL) for average flight height to measure muscular power. Flight height was calculated from the flight time provided by a contact mat. The pretest results and posttest results were compared for the entire sample and within each group.
Analysis/Results: Paired-samples t-tests indicated significant improvements in all three tests (p < .05) for the entire participant sample. 1RM improved from 165.7 ± 80.6 lbs. to 176.8 ± 82.7 lbs., PU improved from 25.2 ± 13.5 to 28.6 ± 9.9, and BAL from 6.6 ± 2.7 in. to 7.5 ± 2.3 in. With respect to the comparisons within each group, ME group improved significantly in all three dimensions of strength: 1RM from 167.3 ± 88.3 to 176.5 ± 87.8 lbs., PU from 23.7 ± 13.1 to 26.6 ± 10.9, and BAL from 6.6 ± 3.6 to 7.3 ± 2.9. Similarly, MP group improved significantly in all three dimensions too: 1RM from 164.4 ± 75.6 to 177.1 ± 80.2 lbs., in PU from 26.6 ± 13.3 to 30.1 ± 8.9, and in BAL from 6.5 ± 1.8 to 7.6 ± 1.7 in.
Conclusions: While the two push-up training programs have different emphases, both use bodyweight as resistance and produce approximately the same results in developing all the three dimensions of strength. This may be related to the transfer effect among the dimensions of strength, as well as critical adaptations in neuromotor functioning in the early stages of resistance training among novice trainees.
Measurement & Evaluation
A Content Analysis of Qualitative Research in the JTPE From 2009–2019
Shelby E. Ison, K. Andrew R. RichardsF, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Michael A. Hemphill, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Thomas J. TemplinF, University of Michigan
Background/Purpose: Qualitative research methods provides researchers with a set of tools that facilitate the gathering of rich, descriptive information into participants’ lived experiences and subjectivities (Templin & Richards, 2018). The physical education literature has seen an increase in qualitative research published in the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education (JTPE), one of the field’s flagship journals. Between 1988 and 1997, 43% of articles in the JTPE included qualitative research (Byra & Cog Karp, 2000). A follow up review of the JTPE between 1998 and 2008 found that number increase to 52% (Hemphill et al., 2012). The purpose of this study was to examine the status of qualitative research between 2009 and 2019.
Method: All articles published in the JTPE between 2009 (volume 28, issue 1) and 2019 (volume 38, issue 4) were reviewed. Following criteria established by Hemphill and colleagues (2012), inclusion criteria specified that articles contained a qualitative component and reported primary results. Each article was screened by three research team members. A Qualtrics survey was created to record information from each article that was determined to employ at least one qualitative data collection or analysis technique. Survey questions were chosen based on those used in previous research (Byra & Goc Karp, 2000; Hemphill et al., 2012; Silverman & Manson, 2003; Ward & Ko, 2006). To examine intercoder reliability, 20% of the included articles were coded by a second analyst. Intercoder agreement surpassed the recommended 80% threshold.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics including frequencies and percentages. While qualitative research continues to be a predominant method of inquiry published in JTPE between 2009 and 2019, its relative prevalence has decreased from 52.15% of the total published articles in a previous 10 year review (Hemphill et al., 2012) to 41.78% in the current review. Of the qualitative articles, 33.89% used mixed methods. The most common qualitative data collection strategy was interviewing (133 studies; 84%). Students were participants in only 24% of the studies including a qualitative component, and only 37% of qualitative and mixed methods studies reported participants’ ethnicity. A total of 257 authors contributed to qualitative data published in the JTPE, which represents an increase from the 164 authors in the last 10 year review period (Hemphill et al., 2012). There existed a relatively equal representation of male and female authorship (female = 122; male = 134).
Conclusions: While the number of articles in the JTPE containing qualitative methods has increased over the past 10 years (Hemphill et al., 2012), the percentage of articles containing qualitative methods has decreased. Interviewing continues to be the primary qualitative data collection method, which highlights the more traditional approach to qualitative research that continue to be published in the JTPE. There was also a decrease in the number of articles which utilize youth as participants in qualitative research (Hemphill et al., 2012). Future researchers may consider utilizing more innovative and diverse qualitative methods (Sparkes & Smith, 2014) while developing studies that prioritize students’ voices (Dyson, 2016).
A Large Population-Based Study on the Prevalence of Incorrect Lower Limb Posture Among Children in China
Yueling Jiang, Guangxi Sports College; Ye Xu, Guangxi Institute of Sports Science; Qiong Wang, Guangxi Sports College; Xiaolu Liu, Eastern New Mexico University; Yun Huang, Guangxi Sports College
Background/Purpose: Incorrect lower limb postures (LLP) can cause body posture failures and health problems in children. Common LLP deviations such as leg length discrepancy (LLD), bowlegs, and knock-knees result in symptoms such as arthritis and joint muscle imbalance. However, there is a lack of large-scale research investigating LLP in children. This study examined the prevalence of incorrect LLP among children in China.
Method: A quantitative research method was applied with 2538 children, ages ranged from 3 to 6 years old with 57% of males. A common body postural assessment was conducted among children regarding incorrect LLP (i.e., LLD, bowlegs, and knock-knees). Age was recoded as a categorical variable with four groups: 3-year old group (N = 228), 4-year old group (N = 686), 5-year old group (N = 970), and 6-year old group (N = 654).
Analysis/Results: Chi-square test by using SPSS 26.0 was used to analyze the data. In terms of LLD, the percentage was the highest in the 6-year old group (43.9%), and the lowest in the 3-year old group (24.1%). There was a significant LLD difference between 3-year old and 4-year old age groups (x2 =15.663, P < .001). A significant difference was also found between 5-year old group and 6-year old group (x2 = 9.937, P < .01). No significant difference was found between 4-year old and 5-year old age groups (x2 =3.772, P = .058). Regarding bowlegs, the percentages in 3-year old, 4-year old, 5-year old, and 6-year old age groups were 1.3%, 1.9%, 5.5%, and 6.0%, respectively. There was a significant difference between 4-year old and 5-year old age groups (x2 =13.374, P < .001). No significant difference was found either between 3-year old and 4-year old groups (x2 =0.334, P = .773) or between 5-year old and 6-year old groups (x2 =0.182, P = .663). Concerning knock-knees, the highest percentage was in the 3-year old age group (3.5%), and 6-year old age group had the lowest percentage (1.4%). No significant difference was found among any of these age groups [x2 (3–4) = 0.326, P = .651; x2 (4–5) = 1.537, P = .239; x2 (5–6) = 0.549, P = .555].
Conclusions: Overall, there is a relationship between age and incorrect LLP among children in China. The LLD or knock-knees percentage is decreasing with age, while the bowlegs percentage is rising with age. Moreover, the percentage of LLD in children is higher than bowlegs and knock-knees. More research should be conducted on the relationship between age and incorrect LLP among children.
A Validation Study of the PE-Metric Assessment Rubrics for Assessing Children’s Manipulative Skill Competency
Jun Chen, Xiaozan Wang, Shijun Wu, Minmin Cheng, Shirui Hou, East China Normal University; Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan
Background/Purpose: This study examined the validity and reliability of the PE-Metric Assessment Rubrics for assessing children’s manipulative skill competency in soccer and basketball dribbling, passing, and receiving skills among 4th-grade students.
Method: Participants were fourth-grade students enrolled in six elementary schools. After two pairs of research assistants received 4-hour training in learning and practicing of coding four students’ performance in soccer and basketball skills using the PE Metric Assessment Rubrics, the inter-rater reliability reached ≥80% between the two coders for coding each of the four students’ soccer and basketball skills. Then, two research assistants used the PE Metrics Assessment Rubrics to assess 535 fourth-grade students’ soccer skill competency through coding each video-recorded students’ performance in soccer dribbling, passing, and receiving skills on a 0–4 rating scale with 3 representing a “Competent Level” and the coding protocols. Also, the other two research assistants used the PE Metrics Assessment Rubrics to assess 819 fourth-grade students’ basketball skill competency through watching each video-recorded students’ performance in basketball dribbling, passing, and receiving skills on the 0–4 rating scale with 3 representing a “Competent Level” and the coding protocols. To examine the reliability of each assessment rubrics, we calculated Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the total scale of soccer and basketball skill assessment rubrics, respectively, and Pearson correlations coefficients for the three essential dimensions and total scale of the soccer and basketball skill assessment rubrics. To analyze the construct validity of the soccer and basketball skill assessment rubrics, we conducted exploratory factor analysis (EFA).
Analysis/Results: Cronbach alpha coefficients was .879 for the total scale of the soccer skill test and .922 for the total score of basketball skill test. Pearson correlation coefficients between the three essential dimensions of soccer and basketball skill assessments indicated that associations between dribbling and passing, dribbling and receiving, passing and receiving was significantly correlated with each other on soccer test (r = .631, r = .630, and r = .857) and on basketball test (r = .765, r = .799, and r = .829) at p < .01 level. Further, dribbling, passing, and receiving was strongly correlated with the total score of soccer (r = .819, r = .929, and r = .933) and of basketball (r = .917, r = .929, and r = .944) at p < .01 level. For the soccer skill assessment rubrics, the results of EFA showed that one factor consisting of three items (essential dimensions) explained 80.562% of the variance with factor loadings, ranging from .828 to .931. Regarding the basketball skill assessment rubrics, the results of EFA showed that one factor consisting of three items explained 86.516% of the variance with factor loadings, ranging from .918 to .943.
Conclusions: The PE-Metric Assessment Rubrics was a valid and reliable assessment tools for assessing the manipulative skill competency in soccer and basketball skills among 4th-grade students aged 9–11 years.
American Preservice Physical Education Teacher Attitudes Toward Health-Related Fitness Testing
Xiaolu Liu, Eastern New Mexico University; Xiaofen D. KeatingF, The University of Texas at Austin
Background/Purpose: Preservice physical education teachers (PPETs) will need to implement health-related fitness testing (HRFT) in the future. Thus, understanding their attitudes toward HRFT is important because teacher attitudes can affect their teaching behaviors. However, research on PPET attitudes toward HRFT is scarce. This study explored the differences in American PPET attitudes by gender, ethnicity, previous experience with fitness tests, and year in university.
Method: A cross-sectional design was applied, and a survey method was used to collect data. Specifically, a Qualtrics survey link was published on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (Mturk) to recruit PPETs. The restrictions of this task on Mturk were workers who are identified as PPETs resident in the US only. As a result, a total of 501 PPETs (M age = 28.12 ± 7.34) with 56% males from 31 states were included in this study. The percentages of Caucasian, Asian American, African American, Native American, and Hispanic/Latino were 40.9%, 17.4%, 15.2%, 11.4%, and 10.4%, respectively. 45.5% of them were seniors, and 65.1% of them had enjoyable previous experience with fitness tests.
Analysis/Results: Data screening was conducted prior to data analysis. A four-way ANOVA was performed to test differences in overall attitudes. The results presented that American PPETs had slightly overall attitudes toward HRFT (M = 5.08, SD = 0.90) in general. Year in university and previous experience with fitness tests had a significant main effect on PPETs’ overall attitudes. Specifically, seniors had a significantly higher overall attitude score than sophomores (p = .049). PPETs who had enjoyable experience with fitness tests had a significantly higher attitude score than those who had negative previous experience [F(6,404) = 19.85, p < .001]. A four-way MANOVA was conducted to investigate differences in the three attitude subdomains (e.g., enjoyment of fitness tests, belief in the importance of fitness tests, belief in the usefulness of fitness testing results) by teacher characteristics. Specifically, ethnicity had a significant effect on the enjoyment of fitness tests [Wilk’s Lambda = .931, F(7,494) = 1.681, p = .028], and Caucasians had a significant lower score than Native Americans (p = .035). Year in university had a significant effect on the belief of the importance of fitness tests [Wilk’s Lambda = .955, F(4,484) = 1.834, p = .039], and seniors had a significant higher score than sophomores (p = .007). Previous experience with fitness tests had a significant effect on all three subdomains of attitudes [Wilk’s Lambda = .600, F(6,410) = 12.508, p < .001, and PPETs who had enjoyable previous experiences with fitness tests had significant higher scores in all three attitude subdomains than those who had negative experiences (p < .001). Gender had no significant effect on all aspects of attitudes.
Conclusions: Overall, American PPETs had slightly overall attitudes toward HRFT, which needs more attention regarding their professional preparation for HRFT. K-12 PE programs should find effective strategies to ensure students have enjoyable experiences with fitness tests. More studies should be conducted in gender and ethnicity differences.
Development and Validation of Preservice Physical Education Teacher Technology Attitudes
Ashley Phelps, University of New Mexico; Xiaofen D. KeatingF, University of Texas at Austin
Background/Purpose: To better gauge attitudes toward technology use in physical education, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) was adopted, adapted, and refined from the field of Information Systems to better explore and understand attitudes toward technology use in physical education. From a preservice physical education teacher (PPET) perspective, the TAM was used as a conceptual framework to guide the development of a scale measuring PPET attitudes toward technology use in physical education. The purposes of the current study were to: (a) develop a survey (PPET Attitudes Toward Technology Use; PPET ATTU) that measures attitudes toward technology use in physical education using a modified version of the TAM, (b) evaluate the content validity of the survey items, and (c) construct, convergent, and divergent validity and reliability of the newly constructed instrument.
Method: Four stages were involved in the development of the instrument. Stage 1 focused on item development in which items were developed and refined in English, and then translated into Chinese. Stage 2 was on content validity. During this stage, 10 technology experts in physical education teacher education were asked to establish the content validity of the PPET ATTU. Stage 3 was devoted to pilot testing the instrument by sending the PPET ATTU to 20 randomly selected PETE program coordinators in the United States. Similarly, the Chinese version of the survey was sent to two PETE program coordinators in China. Stage 4 was final field testing and took place with 828 American (n = 472) and Chinese (n = 356) PPETs.
Analysis/Results: An EFA was conducted on a subsample of 135 PPETs (n = 39 American PPETs; n = 96 Chinese PPETs). All individual items loaded significantly onto each of their constructs (i.e., perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and feelings toward technology). The x2 goodness-of-fit statistic for perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use was significant, x2(4) = 398.33, p <.001 and x2 goodness-of-fit statistic for feelings toward technology use was also significant, x2(10) = 355.01, p < .001. The chi-square model fit is very sensitive to sample size and complex models, therefore a series of other global fit indices were also used to evaluate the fit. Upon running a CFA, the hypothesized model was a good fit for the data, x2(101) = 179.51, p < .001, NNFI = .95, CFI = .96, SRMR = .05, RMSEA = .07 (90% CI [.057, .094], p = .012). The squared correlations of each construct were smaller than the AVE of the comparable construct. Discriminant validity was also supported as the correlation between factors fell below the specified .80 level. All constructs were correlated with the strongest correlation being between perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use (≥ |.50|). The reliability of each subdomain and the overall instrument were also acceptable (> .90).
Conclusions: The PPET ATTU demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity. There are three subdomains for a total of 16 items. This reliable and valid instrument can be used in both Chinese and English populations, providing a tool to compare PPETs’ ATTU.
Development and Validation of the Youth Physical Activity Attitude Scale (YPAAS)
Kelly L. Simonton, University of Memphis; Kevin J. MercierF, Adelphi University; Erin E. CenteioF, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa; Jeanne Barcelona, Wayne State University; Sharon R. Phillips, Hofstra University; Alex C. GarnF, Louisiana State University
Background/Purpose: Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs (CSPAP) are recommended to help students adopt daily physical activity (PA) behaviors by building knowledge, skills, and confidence regarding PA (CDC, 2013). One psychological factor essential to PA intention and behavior is attitude (Azjen, 1991). However, PA attitude has often been conceptualized as PE, sport, or fitness attitude. While PA is related to each of these areas, PA opportunities in programs like CSPAP can look much different. In addition, several perspectives on measuring PA attitude have been presented including a one-dimensional (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2005) approach, a positive-negative dual-component approach (Nelson, Benson, & Jensen, 2010), as well as affective-cognitive dual component approach (Subramaniam & Silverman, 2000). The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a less restricting and easier to understand, youth physical activity attitude scale (YPAAS) focused on CSPAP program experiences, that encompassed a dual- component perspective (affective-cognitive & positive-negative).
Method: Two samples of students (sample 1, n = 3,188; sample 2 n = 679) in grades 4–8 (51% female) across three school districts in two states, completed a 16-item instrument designed to measure attitudes toward PA. The original tool consisted of 8 cognitive and 8 affective items (11 positive and 5 negative items).
Analysis/Results: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (EFA & CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used for construct validity of the YPASS. Sample 1, was randomly split into two subsamples to cross-validate the measure. In subsample 1 (n = 1570), an EFA using robust maximum likelihood procedures and geomin rotation revealed a two-factor solution, (χ2 (53) = 180.745, CFI = .986, RMSEA = .039, SRMR = .026), that represented positive and negative attitudes. Three of the 16-items produced low primary factor loadings/high cross-loadings and were dropped. In subsample 2 (n = 1618), CFA confirmed the 13-item solution (positive and negative factors; χ2 (64) = 248.067, CFI = .983, RMSEA = .042; SRMR = .033). One additional item was removed following a methods effect analysis. Standardized factor loadings ranged from .53—.74 (r = −.57). Using invariance and MIMIC modeling, the final 12-item tool (7 positive and 5 negative items) were tested for gender and grade biases. No indicator or factor bias was found for gender during invariance testing, and grade acted as a covariate for negative attitudes only (β = .184, p < .05). SEM (Sample 2; n = 679) further confirmed the measure and tested positive and negative attitudes as predictors of PA intention and behavior (χ2 (161) = 302.910, CFI = .951, RMSEA = .036, SRMR = .049). Only positive attitude predicted intention (β = .538) and behavior (β = .423). Overall, 28% of the variance for PA intention and 18% of PA behavior was accounted for.
Conclusions: The YPAAS produced valid and reliable scores highlighting a positive-negative dual-component scale of youths’ attitudes toward PA. The resulting factors align with new literature recognizing negative attitudes, as a related but distinct construct to positive attitude, as opposed to a one-dimensional structure. This measure provides an efficient tool that may aid in understanding PA attitudes as they relate to CSPAP programs. Future studies should utilize the YPAAS to further validate the measure across diverse samples.
Misclassifications of BMI Assessment Used in the National Youth Fitness Test Battery in Chinese College Students
Xiaofen D. KeatingF, The University of Texas at Austin; Rachyl Jane Stephenson, Unviersity of Wisconsin-La Crosse; Michael Gary Hodges, William Paterson University; Jianmin GuanF, University of Texas-San Antonio; Li ChenF, Delaware State University; Xin Zhang, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Background/Purpose: For decades, the National Youth Fitness Test Battery has been employed in China’s educational setting to promote fitness related behaviors and monitor student fitness. Because there are different tests for examining body mass index (BMI), aerobic fitness, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility with different measurement units, the raw data for each test are converted into a 100-point scale so that an average score for the overall fitness test can be given. The passing score is 60 while 80 and 100 are considered “good” and “excellent.” As such, the widely used four categories (i.e., underweight, acceptable weight, overweight, and obese) are converted into three scores only (i.e., 60, 80, and 100). Specifically, the current BMI scoring method assigns 60 points for obese (i.e., BMI ≥ 28), 80 points for both overweight (i.e., 24.0 ≤ BMI ≤27.0), and underweight (i.e., BMI < 17.8 for males, and BMI < 17.1 for females), and 100 points for acceptable weight (i.e., 17.9 ≤ BMI ≤ 23.9). Researchers have discovered that using such scoring method, no students were being identified as having weight problems as a score of 60 is a passing value. This study aimed to examine the decision validity for BMI differences among Chinese college students using the 100-point scale.
Method: Participants (n = 18,435) were selected from seven universities in China. There were 43.7% females and 7.2% minority students. The percentage of BMI misclassifications was calculated using the four cutoff values recommended by the Chinese government.Chi-square test was used to examine BMI percentage differences among gender and race using the four categories. Adjusted standardized residuals was used to identify where differences were. An adjusted significant level at an alpha = .05/8 = .006 because two eight comparisons were conducted by gender and race, separately. As such, p < .006 was considered significant with the degree of freedom of Chi-square test at 3.
Analysis/Results: The overall percentage of BMI misclassification of college students was 25.6%. The percentage of males and females whose BMI was unacceptable was 31.7% and 19.1%, respectively. Chi-square test [3) = 498.1, p < .001] indicated a significant BMI percentage differences by gender. Specifically, more males were in the categories of overweight and obese than females. Race difference was also significant [3) = 25.6, p < .001]. However, the difference was discovered to be caused only by the more percentage of minority students in the group with acceptable weight while no differences were found in the other three BMI groups.
Conclusions: Using the BMI 100-point scoring method, 25.6% of participants were not identified as having a weight problem. Using the current 100-point scoring method can mislead students and instructors, undermining the primary purpose of implementing youth fitness tests in educational settings.
Multi-Trait Analyses of Physical Activity Emotions and Affect in College Students
Timothy Michael Dasinger, University of Tennessee-Martin; Kelly L. Simonton, University of Memphis; Alex C. GarnF, Louisiana State University
Background/Purpose: Despite the known benefits of physical activity (PA), college students experience a disproportionate decline in PA (Bray & Born, 2004; Kwan et al., 2012). Several psychological factors including affect and emotions, have been identified to affect this decline. Research shows that positive affect leads to increased motivation and PA. However, emotions may provide more nuance to understanding PA experiences. The generalizability of affect may omit essential activation tendencies that specific emotions capture, and measurement tools need to be evaluated to determine if differences exist. The purpose of this study was to investigate potential measurement overlap between affect and emotions and relations with PA factors.
Method: College students (N = 519; 63% Male; 59% White/Caucasian) from the US completed the survey which assessed student emotions toward PA (enjoyment, relief, anger, & boredom; Simonton, Garn, Mercier, 2018), and positive and negative affect (Thompson, 2007; Watson, Clark, & Tallegen, 1988). Students also reported their PA self-efficacy (Resnick & Jenkins, 2000) along with moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and sedentary behavior (Chu et al., 2015).
Analysis/Results: Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted for emotions and positive and negative affect to evaluate factor structure and measurement overlap. Results showed acceptable model fit (χ2 (283) = 727.913, CFI = .928, RMSEA = .055, SRMR = .041), and latent factor indicators loadings (> .40). Enjoyment and boredom shared a high correlation (r = −.680), along with enjoyment and positive affect (r = .682), and boredom with anger (r = .664). Next, structural modeling was used to evaluate the predictive tendencies among PA emotions and affect to PA, sedentary time, and self-efficacy. Model fit results were acceptable, χ2 (367) = 911.648, CFI = .917, RMSEA = .054, SRMR = .044; however, high correlations among factors were still present. Gender was tested as a covariate, and results showed that males reported higher levels of enjoyment whereas females reported higher levels of boredom and relief. Enjoyment (β = .503), boredom (β = .148), and relief (β = −.106) were significant predictors of MVPA but positive and negative affect were not. For sedentary time, neither emotions nor affect were related. Last, regarding self-efficacy, enjoyment (β = .464), relief (β = −.152), anger (β = −.215), positive affect (β = .042), and negative affect (β = .159) were all predictors.
Conclusions: Measuring PA affect and emotions is essential to understanding PA in young adults. These findings demonstrate that measuring positive and negative affect is simpler and a more efficient approach. Measuring specific emotions is more complex and difficult to measure accurately given the highly correlational relationships. However, the positive activating and negative activating nature of the affect measure is limiting and may leave out motivational tendencies tied to positive and negating deactivating experiences.
Normalized Calf Circumference Identifies Low Muscle Mass in Older Women
Pedro Pugliesi Abdalla, Marcio Fernando Tasinafo Junior, Thiago Cândido Alves, Ana Claudia Rossini Venturini, José Augusto Gonçalves Marini, Universidade de São Paulo; Sophia Sui, Deakin University; André Pereira dos Santos, Universidade de São Paulo; Anderson dos Santos Carvalho, Universidade Paulista—UNIP; Vitor Antônio Assis Alves Siqueira, Universidade de São Paulo; Nilo C. Ramos, Coastal Carolina University; Dalmo Roberto Lopes Machado, Universidade de São Paulo
Background/Purpose: Functional limitation is a result of sarcopenia and is associated with loss of skeletal muscle mass (SMM) that affects mainly older women, with a 60% higher prevalence compared to men of the same age (Diz et al., 2017). Sarcopenia is diagnosed using SMM defined-thresholds and the appendicular skeletal muscle mass (ASM) derived from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in the form of an index (ASM·height−2) is the most used parameter to identify low muscle mass (Cruz-Jentoft et al., 2019). The use of calf circumference (CC) is a viable alternative for sarcopenia diagnosis when SMM equipment is not available due to cost, mainly in low and middle-income countries (Cruz-Jentoft et al., 2019). Most studies indicate the dependent variable ASM·height−2 to propose cut points of CC in absolute form. However, ASM·height−2 is not associated with clinically relevant outcomes in older adults, such as functional limitation (mobility limitation), falls, fractures and mortality (Bhasin et al., 2020). Furthermore, the cut points from absolute CC values are unsuitable for older women with smaller body size and absolute CC values have a U-shaped relationship with functional limitation (mobility limitation; Usai, Lai and Chang, 2012). Normalizing the CC with an anthropometric parameter could characterize a linear relationship with mobility. The purpose of this study was to stablish cut points for the normalized CC to identify low SMM in older women based on functional limitation (mobility limitation).
Method: Reference values of CC from 78 young women (ages 18–30 years) were taken to establish the cut points (−2SD) of low SMM for 67 older women (60 years of age or older). The functional limitation (≤400 m) of the older women was identified in a six-minute walk test. CC was analyzed in an absolute and normalized way (CC·body mass−1, CC·height−2 and CC·BMI−1). The diagnostic capacity of each CC expression was assessed by Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, considering functional limitation as the standard.
Analysis/Results: Young women (23.9 [3.4] years) had all variables (height, CC·body mass−1, CC·height−2 and CC·BMI−1) with higher values compared to older women (69.8 [6.0] years), except age, body mass, BMI and absolute CC, which were higher in the older group. Twenty-six older women (38.8%) presented functional limitation. The cut points of CCs and AUC were, respectively: CC (≤28.5 cm; .62 [CI = .867; .968]); CC·body mass−1 (≤ .40 cm·kg−1; .63 [CI = .867; .968]); CC·height−2 (≤8.52 cm·m−2; .55 [CI = .867; .968]) and CC·BMI−1 (≤1.10 cm·kg−1·m−2; .73 [CI = .867; .968]). Only CC normalized by BMI achieved desirable accuracy (AUC>.70) to distinguish functional limitation with adequate values of sensitivity (84.6%) and specificity (53.7%).
Conclusions: The results from this study support the use of CC normalized by BMI to identify low SMM in the expression of functional limitation in older women. Administration of this procedure in clinical environments makes it possible to predict the risk of sarcopenia when sophisticated methods for determining SMM are not available.
Revision and Comparison of EMI-2 for Korean and American College Students
Sae-Hyung Kim, Chungbuk National University; Dongwook Cho, Alcorn State University
Background/Purpose: As there has been a rapid increase in the number of international students in the U.S., the importance of healthy lifestyles through exercise, sport participation, and recreation activities has received significant attention. Among many instruments, the Exercise Motivation Inventory-2 (EMI-2) scale has been widely utilized to survey participants’ exercise motivations (Markland & Ingledew, 1997). However, there have been limited published research designed to determine the EMI-2 is appropriated to use for colleges students. There have been even fewer studies to compare the EMI-2 between Korean and American college students. Furthermore, the purpose of this study was to revise and compare EMI-2 scale between Korean and American college students by utilizing the Rasch rating scale model (RSM). The Rasch RSM calibration was applied to examine: (1) rating scale fit, (2) unidimensionality, (3) differential item functioning (DIF), and (4) item fit.
Method: The EMI-2 scale was administered to 379 Korean college students (KCS) and 373 American college students (ACS). The Rasch measurement computer program, Winsteps 4.5.2, was used to analyze the data. 1) The rating scale fit was determined by step calibration index that increased step by step. (2) The unidimensionality of scale was determined by item separation index (≥2.00) and item reliability index (≥0.80). (3) The DIF was applied to examine the variation between gender using DIF contrast index fit statistics (≥0.43). (4) Item fit was determined by Infit and Outfit index fit statistics (≥0.50 and ≤1.50).
Analysis/Results: The results provided that the six-point Likert scale was appropriated to the KCS. However, five-point Likert scale was more appropriated survey methodology for the EMI-2 scale than a six-point Likert-scale to the ACS. The 51-item had item separation index (KCS = 8.94; ACS = 9.89) and item reliability statistic (KCS = 0.99; ACS = 0.99) provided evidence that the items had unidimensionality. Three of 51 items were selected as the DIF between gender, and five items had over standard item fit in the KCS. Four of 51 items were selected as the DIF between gender, and five items had over standard item fit in the ACS. Furthermore, the results indicated that 43 items were finally selected the EMI-2 for the KCS, and 42 items were finally selected the EMI-2 for the ACS.
Conclusions: Based on the results of Rasch RSM calibration, this study suggests the EMI-2 scale with 43-item and six-point Likert scale for college students in Korea and 42-item and five-point Likert scale for college students in the U.S. This revision and comparison of EMI-2 scale can be utilized to assess the exercise motivations inventory and provide health information to college students in the Korea and U.S. In addition, the newly constructed the EMI-2 for college students in the two country should be validated to another sample to increase external validity.
Scale Adaptions in Exercise and Sport Sciences Research
Minsoo KangF, Heontae Kim, Seungho Ryu, Myungjin Jung, University of Mississippi
Background/Purpose: The use of well-constructed and -validated measures is required for high-quality research. When describing measures, researchers often report having adapted a scale, indicating that they revised something about the scale. Although such adaptations appear frequently and can raise concerns about validity and reliability, there has been little discussion of this practice in our field. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify the current status of scale adaptations in the field of exercise and sport sciences.
Method: We examined each article published in Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (RQES) over a recent 10-year period (2010–2019). We reviewed the descriptions of all scales and coded a scale as “adapted” only when the author(s) reported having revised a scale in their studies. After studies were identified as “adapted” in at least one of the scales, we examined (1) the frequency with which researchers are adapting scales, (2) study area which adapted studies are in (e.g., psychology, pedagogy, measurement and evaluation), (3) types of scale adaptations that authors are reporting (e.g., number of items, item alterations, scales from measures: administered only some scales of a measure), and (4) extent to which authors are providing evidence to support the validity and reliability of adapted scales, and (5) types of validity and reliability tests used. Descriptive statistics were conducted based on both study and scale numbers.
Analysis/Results: The search yielded 780 articles. After screening, 104 articles which used one or more scales were reviewed in full (a total of 263 scales). Among them, a total of 29 studies (28%) adapted the scales, and 53 scales (20%) were reported as adapted. The scale adaption was most frequently occurred in Psychology (69% of all 29 studies; 74% of all 53 scales) area, followed by Pedagogy (28% studies; 25% scales) and Measurement and Evaluation (3% studies; 2% scales) areas. For types of adaptation, item alterations (e.g., changed the item context) was the most frequently used type of adaptation (72% studies; 77% scales), followed by item numbers (e.g., shortened the scale and added new items; 21% studies; 11% scales), and scales from measures (3% studies; 2% scales). Reliability was examined in 14 studies (48%) and in 33 scales (62%), and validity was examined in 11 studies (38%) and in 17 scales (32%). The most frequently used type of reliability and validity were internal consistency/composite reliability (93% of 14 studies; 97% of 33 scales) and construct validity (73% of 11 studies; 76% of 17 scales), respectively.
Conclusions: Scale adaptation appears to be a frequent practice. Even though a number of researchers adapted scales for their research, many of them used the adapted scales without much consideration for the reliability and validity of the scales, indicating that many studies are based on data from scales with unknown levels of reliability and validity. Researchers should be aware of the current practice of scale adaptations in the field, and efforts need to be made to provide evidence to support the validity and reliability of the adapted scales.
The Association Between Competence and First-Year Employment in Physical Education
YuChun Chen, Louisiana Tech University
Background/Purpose: According to SHAPE America (2017), preservice teachers should be able to demonstrate competence in six standards by the time they graduate from a PETE program. Limited research has been conducted to explore preservice teachers’ competence and/or their first-year employment. The purpose of the study was to examine the association between preservice teachers’ competence and their first-year job attainment in PE.
Method: Participants were 31 preservice teachers who completed their undergraduate degrees in the PETE program at a southeastern university in the US between the 2015–16 and 2018–19 academic years. Their content knowledge in Kinesiology subdisciplines and health-related areas was evaluated by the GPA in nine Kinesiology content area courses. Their content knowledge in sports/physical activities and sport-related skill proficiency were evaluated by the GPA in three teacher-education activity classes. Their pedagogical content knowledge was evaluated by the GPA in seven methods courses and student-teaching. Their fitness proficiency was evaluated by their performance in five Fitnessgram testing items (i.e., PACER, curl-up, 90° push-up, back-saver sit and reach test, and BMI from height and weight measurements). Lastly, their first-year employment was collected via e-mails and phone calls.
Analysis/Results: GPAs were calculated by dividing the total amount of grade points earned by the total amount of credit hours attempted. The fitness proficiency was determined by the number of “passing” fitness measures, comparing to the Fitnessgram standards for individuals who are 17 years and older. Test scores that fell within the healthy fitness zone were considered passing. Three levels were identified: “excellent” (passed all measures), “acceptable” (passed three or four measures), and “unacceptable” (passed two measures or less). Lastly, whether or not obtaining a PE teaching position upon graduation was marked as “yes” or “no.” The three continuous and one categorical data (i.e., independent variables) were analyzed to identify any significant relationship with the dependent variable (1 = employed in PE, 0 = not employed in PE) using a multiple logistic regression and Fisher’s exact test. The participants had the highest GPA in pedagogical content knowledge (3.55), followed by content knowledge in sports/physical activities and skill proficiency (3.53) and content knowledge in Kinesiology courses (3.11). There was an overall passing rate of 71% for the participants who demonstrated “excellent” and “acceptable” fitness proficiency. More than half of the participants (58.1%) became full-time PE teachers at K-12 school settings. Lastly, the participants’ content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and their fitness and skill proficiency had no significant effect on their first-year job attainment in PE.
Conclusions: This study was limited to the small sample size, the use of Fitnessgram as the assessment battery, and the title of the position defined. Future research could (a) collect a larger sample size with more than one PETE program across the US or internationally, (b) administer a fitness test that has nationally criterion-referenced standards for college students, (c) define the position in a broader term such as “physical educator,” and (d) collect qualitative data to discover the various reasons whether or not they became physical educators.
Trend Analysis of Home-Based Physical Activity Research Using Text Mining
Kwanghee Lee, The University of Mississippi; Jaemyung Kim, Oregon State University; Chang-Hwan Choi, Miyoung LeeF, Kookmin University; Minsoo KangF, The University of Mississippi
Background/Purpose: Analyzing research trends helps identify major changes and trends of research over time and determining future research directions. However, there is a little trend research on Home-based Physical Activity Research (HPAR) despite its growing popularity under the circumstances caused by COVID-19. Therefore, the purpose of this study was, using text mining, to explore the trends of HPAR by analyzing published papers’ titles and their keywords from 1990 to 2019.
Method: A total of 473 HPAR studies in the Web of Science databases from 1990 to 2019 were collected. Terms such as “home-based physical activity,” “home-based exercise,” and “home-based workout” were included in query terms. Text data were converted to the corpus to create Document Term Matrix and preprocessed with stop words removal. The research trends were explored based on four methods: (a) frequency analysis of words used in papers’ titles from 1990 to 2019, (b) chi-square goodness of fit test on the frequency of papers over 10-year intervals (1990–1999, 2000–2009, 2010–2019), (c) Fisher’s exact test on the proportion of papers by three age groups (older adults, adults, children and adolescents) and six health outcomes selected by WHO (cardiorespiratory health, metabolic health, musculoskeletal health, cancer, functional health and prevention of falls, depression) over 10-year intervals, (d) Social Network Analysis (SNA) with the research titles in the past 30 years to identify word association network and degree centrality, a standardized score calculated based on the number of connections of each word. Data analysis was conducted using R (version 4.0.0), SPSS (version 25.0), and Node XL.
Analysis/Results: Frequency analysis with a total of 1053 words in the past 30 years indicated that the top five frequently found ones were program (199), randomized controlled trial (167), older adults (96), cancer (60), and intervention (52). From 2010 to 2019, 368 papers were published, which was greater than 13 in 1990–1999 and 92 in 2000–2009 (ϰ2 (2) = 440.68, p < .001). The proportion of older adults (73.7%) was relatively high, compared to adults (12.0%) and children & adolescents (14.4%) in the past 30 years, showing non-significant differences over 10-year intervals (p = .47). Significant differences were observed in the proportion of each health outcome over 10-year intervals (p < .05). There was an increase in cancer from 2000–2009 (14.0%) to 2010–2019 (24.5%), and a decrease in cardiorespiratory health from 2000–2009 (43.9%) to 2010–2019 (33.5%). The result of SNA based on research titles from 1990 to 2019 showed the network in which words with high degree centrality such as program (0.56), older adults (0.29), and cancer (0.20) served as a link connected to other words.
Conclusions: The text-based trend analysis results indicated that the publications related to HPAR have increased considerably over the past 30 years. Researchers have largely focused on older adults’ population in HPAR. There has been a growing interest in cancer-related research over the years. Text mining with the application of SNA can be a useful way of comprehending research trends.
Motivation & Psychology
Pokémon Go Players’ Motivation, Behavior, and Perception of Health
Yoonsin Oh, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire; Jung Eun Lee, University of Minnesota Duluth
Background/Purpose: The Pokémon Go has been a popular augmented reality game since it came out on July 6th, 2016. Previous research studies have shown that playing Pokémon Go increases individuals’ physical activity levels, but playtime lasts for only 4–6 weeks on average. Therefore, this study investigated Pokémon Go players to determine why some people stopped playing the game and why some people still continue to play. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively examine the play behaviors, motivation, and health perception of Pokémon Go players.
Method: A total of 23 participants (Mage = 22.4, SD = ± 6.2;14 males) were randomly recruited by snowball and purposive sampling from a community in a Mid-western urban area. Inclusion criteria for participation in the study were: (1) Adults aged 18 and older; and (2) have played the game for at least 4 consecutive weeks. A semi-structured interview was conducted inquiring on participants’ motivation, behavior, perception related to playing Pokémon Go. Qualitative analysis methods using categorization based on grounded theory was used. The interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Researchers reviewed the transcriptions to develop emergent themes. After a team analysis for triangulation, the researchers came to an agreement on the common themes and drew conclusions from the themes.
Analysis/Results: Fourteen participants identified themselves as active players at the time of the data collection and reported a positive physical health experience with Pokémon Go. These players discussed using the game as a way to be physically active by walking more and spending time outside. The common themes relating to physical health were “reasons for getting outside,” “increases in walking,” and “using this game to work out.” Participants who reported a positive emotional health experience described using Pokémon Go as a form of stress relief and providing a sense of community. Participants used Pokémon Go as a tool to be social with friends and family and reported having more positive experiences when they were playing with others. They also noted that it is a way to meet others with shared interests. Perceived barriers for continued playing this game were diminished social support, boredom due to lack of updates to the game, and being too busy to play it.
Conclusions: Social interaction is a key for augmented reality exergamers to sustain playing. Participants who were still playing at the time reported that they enjoyed playing with others and using the game to hang out with their friends. Results suggest that Pokémon Go positively affected physical health and emotional health by providing motivation to get outside and exercise. Findings suggest that Pokémon Go provides a viable, fun and accessible venue to promote physical and psychosocial health. Future study is warranted on investigating means to address the perceived barriers of continued use of the game to motivate people to sustain a healthy lifestyle.
Caring Climate’s Relationships With Student Emotions and Engagement in Physical Education
Kelly L. Simonton, University of Memphis; Alex C. GarnF, Louisiana State University; Nick Scott Washburn, Western Washington University
Background/Purpose: Student engagement in physical education (PE) promotes attainment of the national standard outcomes (SHAPE, 2013). The socioemotional climate within classrooms may influence students’ engagement (Reyes et al., 2012). PE classes that are warm, close, and supportive, comprise a “caring” climate (Newton et al., 2007), which has been considered foundational to student engagement (Hellison, 2003). Student emotions are considered prerequisites for engagement and may link the caring climate-engagement relationship. Drawing from Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions (Pekrun, 2006), contextual factors (e.g., socioemotional climate) are thought to be predictors of student emotion (Frenzel, Pekrun, & Goetz, 2007; Pekrun, 2006). Three such emotions that may be particularly relevant in PE are enjoyment, boredom, and shame (Fry & Gano-Overway, 2010; King & Gaerlan, 2014; Simonton & Garn, 2019). Though previous research has established connections between caring climate with enjoyment and boredom in physical activity settings, shame has received less attention (Hogue et al., 2018). With performance being so public in PE, some students may feel less likely to experience shame in a caring climate and, as a result, be more inclined to engage in class. However, overall, there is limited research exploring relationships among caring climate, emotions, and engagement in PE (Gano-Overway, 2013). Therefore, this study investigated the relationships among students’ perceptions of a caring climate, enjoyment, boredom, shame, and engagement in PE. Specifically, we hypothesized that indirect positive relations from caring climate to engagement would be found via enjoyment and negatively through boredom and shame.
Method: High school students (N = 638, 55% female, M age = 15.46 (1.03)) from the Northwest and Southeastern US (12 teachers, 37 PE classes) completed a self-report questionnaire assessing their perceptions of a caring climate (Newland et al., 2017), experiences of enjoyment, boredom, and shame (Simonton et al., 2018), and engagement (Reeve, 2013) in class.
Analysis/Results: Structural equation modeling largely supported the hypothesized relationships and demonstrated adequate fit (Rχ2 (142) = 433.99, p < .01, CFI = .95, TLI = .94, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .04) and accounted for 73% of engagement variance. Caring climate related to engagement directly (β = .21), and indirectly through enjoyment (β = .46) and boredom (β = −.44). Caring climate also related to shame (β = −.31), while shame related to engagement (β = .12).
Conclusions: The findings of this study suggest that a caring climate relates to student emotions and engagement in PE. Moreover, these results support the value of the affective dimension of class climates. Teacher preparation programs and in-service professional development should emphasize developing and implementing caring climate pedagogy skills including attending to student needs, listening, and showing acceptance while also supporting interests. These teaching steps are likely to facilitate engagement and antecedents of student enjoyment while reducing boredom and shame. Special consideration should be given to student-centered practices that prompt emotional well-being to properly engage students in learning.
Cross-Cultural Studies of Motivation in Physical Education: A Systematic Review
Xinyang Lu, Bo ShenF, Wayne State University
Background/Purpose: With the belief that culture and value play a central role in motivation, researchers have conducted studies to investigate whether or not motivational constructs that originated primarily through western beliefs could be applied or generalized to different cultural contexts. In physical education, a number of theoretical frameworks have received cross-cultural attention. However, the findings regarding the role of culture played remain inconclusive. A systematic review on this topic is needed. The purpose of this study was to synthesize the characteristics of cross-cultural studies of motivation in physical education.
Method: The literature search was based on the keywords and reference search in Web of Science, ERIC, PsycINFO, PubMed, Physical Education Index. Studies must (a) focus on achievement motivation; (b) be relevant to k-12 physical education (not athletics, recess, or after school programs); (c) address cross-cultural comparison with at least two nations/culture; (d) have been published between January 2000 and December 2020 to reflect recent motivation research; (e) be written in English. Two authors conducted a standardized data extraction with coding for demographics, methodological and outcome variables independently. Theme identification and narrative summarization were established through discussion. We calculated frequencies and percentages for each coding category via Microsoft Excel. There was a high (98.5%) inter-rater agreement for the included articles.
Analysis/Results: The initial search identified 380 articles from the databases. After removing duplication and screening against inclusion criteria, we remained 21 articles. Among the included articles, 48% were conducted within European countries (e.g., Eastern vs. Western Europe), 38% between European and Asian countries, and 14% between American and Asian countries, with over 75% participants being recruited in high schools. The purposes of majority (65%) were to examine cross-cultural validation of motivation instruments and invariance of motivational models, with Self-Determination Theory as the most applied theoretical framework (71%). In terms of methodology, 78% were cross-sectional and 22% prospective designed with structural equation modeling as the most popular analyzing tool (85%). However, there was no experimental design, which imposes limits on inferences of causality. Although many studies (80%) supported the generalizability of motivational constructs across culture, their magnitudes and effects on learning outcomes (e.g., class engagement, learning, and intentions) were fluctuated significantly between individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
Conclusions: With globalization and increasing diversity across the world, it is important to enhance the awareness and understanding of motivational characteristics from a social-cultural perspective. Our systematic review confirms that cultural values moderate the influence of motivational constructs on learning outcomes in physical education. Nevertheless, we argued that construct equivalence of motivation and comparability of environment and context across culture must be taken into consideration in future studies. Also, we suggest that random stratified sampling and objective assessment of cultural values be conducted to promote the quality of cross-cultural studies in the field.
Discriminant Analysis: Can Perceived Barriers to PA Differentiate Exercise Levels?
Wenhao LiuF, Istvan Kovacs, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: While it is well known that barriers to physical activity (PA) are associated with exercise levels, it is not clear what dimensions best represent different barriers to PA and how accurately perceived PA barriers can differentiate exercise levels. With discriminant analysis, this study was intended to explore these unclear aspects.
Method: Barriers to Being Active Quiz (CDC, 1999) was administered to 156 university students (mean age: 21.19 ± 1.69; 74 females) in the US, and seven PA-barrier variables were derived from the Quiz: lack of time, social influence, lack of energy, lack of willpower, fear of injury, lack of skill, and lack of resources. Participants’ exercise stages or levels were assessed with Exercise Stages of Change survey (Marcus & Forsyth, 2009), which classified participants into five exercise stages: Stage 1 (Precontemplation), no exercise and no intention to change; Stage 2 (Contemplation), no exercise but considering a change; Stage 3 (Preparation), having some change/exercise; Stage 4 (Action), performing regular exercise recently or currently and meeting the Federal Physical Activity Guidelines (FPAG); and Stage 5 (Maintenance), performing regular exercise habitually and meeting FPAG. Using the seven PA-barrier variables as predictors, discriminant analysis was run to (a) identify discriminant functions (DF) or dimensions representing the predictors, and (b) assess how accurately the predictors would correctly classify the exercise stages/levels in participants. Further, kappa was computed to assess classification accuracy as well for correcting chance agreement.
Analysis/Results: Twenty-eight participants were identified in exercise Stage 2 and Stage 3 respectively, 43 in Stage 4, 57 in Stage 5, and no one in Stage 1. “Willpower” was identified as the only significant DF or dimension of the seven predictors due to its largest absolute values in DF coefficient (.81) and discriminant loading (.91), and significant tests showed Λ = .50, χ2(21) = 103.73, and p < .001. Further, the eigenvalue of this significant DF (i.e., willpower) was .83, and its % of variance was 90.2, accounting for 90.2% of the discriminating ability of all the predictors. As for classification accuracy, 57.1% (16 out of 28), 17.9% (5 out of 28), 51.2% (22 out of 43), 78.9% (45 out of 57), and 56.4% (88 out of 156) of the participants were correctly classified in Stage 2, Stage 3, Stage 4, Stage 5, and all Stages, respectively. Additionally, a kappa value of .39 was produced, showing a fair or moderate agreement in terms of classification.
Conclusions: While there are seven predictors derived from Barriers to Being Active Quiz, willpower is the only significant dimension (i.e., DF) representing these predictors and occupies approximately 90% of the total discriminating ability in differentiating exercise levels. This finding can be taken into account in PA intervention for young adults. The predictors, as a whole, demonstrate a moderate overall classification function, with the highest classification accuracy in Stage 5 (78.9%) and the lowest in Stage 3 (17.9%).
Ego Orientation in Black and Hispanic Girls’ SBYD Peer Experiences
Nneka A Arinze, The University of Connecticut
Background/Purpose: Sport-Based Youth Development (SBYD programs provide a means to increase the physical activity opportunities for Black and Hispanic adolescent girls. Supportive environments are crucial to the framework. This includes not only the relationships among adult leaders and youth participants within programs but also the overall program climate. Studies indicate that ego-oriented climates may lead to more negative peer experiences, while mastery climates have a positive influence. However, studies have not demonstrated how these climates directly impact the experiences of participants qualitatively, especially Black and Hispanic adolescent girls.
Research has focused on the importance of adult-youth relationships, but there is little written regarding the nature of peer experiences within these spaces, particularly among Black and Hispanic adolescent girls. Further, more needs to be known about how peer experiences and engagement within programs are shaped by program climate. The purpose of this presentation is to explore the findings of a study regarding the experiences of Black and Hispanic adolescent girls in a SBYD program, particularly highlighting the role of climate.
Method: This abstract is drawn from a larger case study of a school-based SBYD program. Participants were the members and adult leaders involved in the program. Of the ten 8th grade girls who participated in the program, six (6) assented to participate in this research study. All of the adult leaders (7) consented to participate in some capacity. The data for this work is drawn from the observations of the program and interviews with the adolescent members and adult leaders. Observation field notes and interview transcripts were coded inductively and analyzed using thematic analysis.
Analysis/Results: The overarching theme of the data analysis was ego orientation or a focus on winning and the effects of that mentality. This was demonstrated in the girls’ play behaviors and their surrounding games, including rule infringement and verbal aggression. Rule infringement included times girls actively violated the rules of the game to benefit themselves or their team. Verbal aggression included accusations of cheating, arguments during play, and targeted verbal attacks against other players. These instances led to a decrease in group cohesion and disengagement from activities.
Leaders intentionally planned competitive activities in order to increase the girls’ engagement in physical activity. However, the competitive climate fostered an environment where the girls treated each other poorly and compromised ethics in pursuit of a win. Throughout the course of the observation period, leaders began to program more collaborative activities during sessions which then led to more positive group experiences.
Conclusions: The current study provides qualitative evidence that ego-oriented climates may be connected to the development of negative peer experiences within the SBYD setting, such as more arguing, cheating, and verbal aggression. Competitive environments can increase participants’ enjoyment of the activity, but leaders should be mindful that ego-oriented climates may lead to negative peer experiences among participants. In striving to increase Black and Hispanic adolescent girls activity involvement, leaders should promote collaboration and mastery focus to decrease negative peer interactions and provide positive peer experiences.
Exercise Engagement and Perceived Barriers to Physical Activity
Wenhao LiuF, Istvan Kovacs, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: While it is well accepted that perceived barriers to physical activity (PA) may contribute to people’s PA or exercise levels, more data are needed to better understand how people in different exercise stages or levels would perceive barriers to PA differently. This study was intended to examine how university students in different exercise stages or levels would perceive barriers to PA differently.
Method: Participants were 194 university students (mean age: 21.11 ± 1.59; 91 females) in the US. Barriers to Active Quiz (CDC, 1999) was administered to participants and seven PA-barrier variables were derived from the Quiz: lack of time, social influence, lack of energy, lack of willpower, fear of injury, lack of skill, and lack of resources. Participants’ exercise stages or levels were assessed with Exercise Stages of Change survey (Marcus & Forsyth, 2009), which classified participants into five exercise stages: Stage 1 (Precontemplation), no exercise and no intention to change; Stage 2 (Contemplation), no exercise but considering a change; Stage 3 (Preparation), having some change/exercise; Stage 4 (Action), performing regular exercise recently or currently (less than six months) and meeting the Federal Physical Activity Guidelines (FPAG); and Stage 5 (Maintenance), performing regular exercise habitually (six months or more) and meeting FPAG. One-way MANOVA was used to examine how participants in different exercise stages/levels would perceive barriers to PA differently.
Analysis/Results: Fifty-six participants (28 Females) were identified in Stage 2 or Stage 3, representing low exercise stages (LES); 63 (29 females) in Stage 4; 75 (34 females) in Stage 5; and no one in Stage 1. The omnibus MANOVA F test was significant, with F(14, 370) = 8.12, p = .001, and ƞ2 = .24. The follow-up pairwise comparisons showed significant differences (p values: .000 to .043) in the following six perceived barriers to PA in favor of higher exercise stages. Lack of time: Stage 5 (2.15 ± 2.12) vs. LES (4.43 ± 2.39), Stage 4 (3.00 ± 1.93) vs. LES, and Stage 5 vs. Stage 4. Social influence: Stage 5 (1.40 ± 1.78) vs. LES (3.45 ± 2.07), and Stage 4 (2.08 ± 1.63) vs. LES. Lack of energy: Stage 5 (2.11 ± 1.73) vs. LES (4.34 ± 2.01), Stage 4 (3.19 ± 1.82) vs. LES, and Stage 5 vs. Stage 4. Lack of willpower: Stage 5 (1.44 ± 1.84) vs. LES (5.25 ± 2.32), Stage 4 (3.25 ± 2.34) vs. LES, and Stage 5 vs. Stage 4. Lack of skill: Stage 5 (.27 ± .64) vs. LES (1.32 ± 1.98), and Stage 4 (.38 ± .77) vs. LES. Finally, lack of resources: Stage 5 (.93 ± 1.27) vs. LES (1.86 ± 1.60), and Stage 5 vs. Stage 4 (1.77 ± 1.75).
Conclusions: Among university students, those in high exercise stages (Stages 4 and 5) have significantly lower perceived barriers to PA than those in low exercise stages (Stages 2 and 3) in six out of the seven barriers. In addition, Stage-5 individuals demonstrate significantly lower perceived barriers to PA than Stage-4 individuals in four barriers. While both Stage-5 individuals and Stage-4 individuals meet FPAG, the latter reaches FPAG less than six months, and seems still have more barriers to overcome compared with the former.
Factors Influencing Preservice Teachers’ Perceptions of Early Field Experiences
Nick Scott Washburn, Western Washington University; Karen Lux GaudreaultF, University of New Mexico
Background/Purpose: Providing preservice teachers with opportunities to practice implementing in actual schools many teaching techniques learned in methods classes, early field experiences constitute a crucial component of physical education teacher education (PETE) programs (Dodds, 1989; Stran & Curtner-Smith, 2009). Little is known, however, about the factors at play that influence future teachers’ perceptions of these experiences in physical education at a crucial time of development, much less at the secondary level. Grounded in self-determination theory’s tenet that the social context influences the extent to which individuals experience satisfaction of the innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness and, thus, volitional behavior (Ryan & Deci, 2017), this study sought to unearth the factors a group of preservice physical education teachers reported as influencing the quality of their early field experiences at the secondary level.
Method: Participants included thirteen preservice teachers having completed two eight-week early field experiences, one at the middle school level and one at the high school level. Qualitative data were obtained from the following sources: weekly student reflections, individual semi-structured interviews, and stimulated recall. Data were analyzed inductively to identify common sources of influence, and deductively to establish relationships to the three psychological needs. Efforts to maintain trustworthiness included constant comparison, member checks, and triangulation.
Analysis/Results: The most prominent factors emerging from the data as impacting these preservice teachers’ experiences in the field were (1) the cooperating teacher, (2) the students, and (3) the program’s dual emphasis on the technical and affective dimensions of teaching. By far, the cooperating teacher was the most influential factor in the social context of early field experiences on the preservice teachers. They had a direct impact on the preservice teachers’ perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Through their response to the preservice teachers’ instruction, the students influenced the preservice teachers’ perceptions of competence and relatedness. Finally, the program in which these students were enrolled emphasized the importance of mastering the techniques of effectively leading classes in physical education, as well as honing the disposition of a compassionate professional. This emphasis contributed to the participants’ competence, enabling them to critically reflect on practices witness in the field.
Conclusions: In general, these results lend credence to the importance of placing students in schools for early field experiences that support a PETE program’s philosophy on teaching. Cooperating teachers can support preservice teachers’ psychological needs by providing them with a sense of choice in what they teach, observing and critiquing their instruction, and generally communicating a sense of concern for their development. School PE programs in which students are managed well before preservice teachers’ arrival is also key in supporting their sense of competence and relatedness. Finally, a program with a shared technical culture focused on mastering the technique of teaching and the demeanor of a teacher equipped these participants with a clear frame of reference for critiquing the appropriateness of field-based experiences. Implications for PETE programs as it pertains to identifying quality field placements will be discussed.
Individual Differences on Affective-Cognitive Structure of Attitude Toward Physical Education
Yubing Wang, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater; Nikki Hollett, Auburn University
Background/Purpose: Students tend to have different beliefs and feelings on physical education (PE). Attitude toward PE, as a scholarly construct, captures the evaluative implications of people’s beliefs and feelings on PE. In multicomponent model of attitude, these are called the cognitive and affective component of attitude. Some studies have reported that PE was rated as being the most liked but least valued subject in school, while some qualitative studies have shown that some students think PE is both important and enjoyable and some others report that PE is boring but useful. These findings seem to imply that students tend to hold different affective-cognitive structures of attitude toward PE. In other words, some students’ affective and cognitive attitude toward PE may be consistent with each other, while others may hold ambivalent attitudes toward PE. One purpose of this study was to determine to what extent students differ in their cognitive and affective attitudes to PE. Although many studies have examined students’ cognitive beliefs and affect on PE, it is still unclear about the relative contributions of cognitive and affective attitudes on global attitude toward PE. Another purpose of this study was to determine to what extent cognitive and affective attitude toward PE contribute to global attitude toward PE. Answering these questions can not only further our understandings about the content and structure of students’ attitude toward PE, but also lay foundations for PE attitude change interventions.
Method: A total of 90 colleges students participated in this study. Three variables, the global, affective, and cognitive attitude toward PE, were measured using 9-point semantic differential scales. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was conducted with affective and cognitive attitudes as profile indicators to determine individual different on Affective-Cognitive Structure of Attitude toward Physical Education. Multiple regression was conducted to determine the relative contributions of cognitive and affective attitude on global attitude toward PE.
Analysis/Results: The three semantic differential scales showed acceptable discriminant validity and internal reliability. LPA showed that the 4-profile solution was the best solution. These four profiles were Positive profile (highly positive for both affective and cognitive attitude, n = 67, 74%), Negative profile (highly negative for both affective and cognitive attitude, n = 2, 2%), Ambivalent profile (highly positive for cognitive attitude and highly negative for affective attitude, n = 4, 4%), and Neutral profile (neutral for both cognitive and affective attitude, n = 17, 19%). Multiple regression analysis results showed that cognitive attitude (β = .61, p < .01) had larger contributions than affective attitude (β = .36, p < .01) to global attitude toward PE (R2 = .79).
Conclusions: College students tend to have four profiles in terms of their cognitive and affective attitude toward PE. Most students (74%) hold positive beliefs and feeling on PE; some (19%) students hold neutral beliefs and feeling on PE. Few students tend to hold ambivalent (4%) and negative (2%) attitudes toward PE. Cognitive attitude tends to have stronger effect than affective attitude on global attitude toward PE. This implies that interventions focusing on cognitive beliefs may be more effective than focusing on affective feelings in changing global attitude toward PE
Influence of Motivation, Eating Pathology, and Gender on Exercise Dependence
Sarah Blackstone, James Madison University; Lynn Herrmann, Northern Illinois University
Background/Purpose: Despite the numerous benefits of exercise, there has been a growing interest in maladaptive behaviors associated with exercise that may be exacerbated by society’s focus on the benefits. One concern is exercise dependence, conceptualized as maladaptive patterns of exercise that manifest as cognitive, psychosocial and physiologic symptoms. Self-determination theory (SDT) has been applied to understand motives associated with exercise dependence. The theory postulates that more self-determined forms of motivations lead to more positive engagement in a behavior (e.g., healthy exercise). However, exercise dependence literature often shows introjected and integrated regulations are strong, positive predictors of dependence, even though these are more self-determined forms of motivation. Therefore, other motivational factors may influence exercise dependence, including unhealthy motivations associated with eating pathology. The relationship between exercise motives, eating pathology and exercise dependence has not been closely examined, despite established associations between eating pathology and maladaptive exercise. Further, there are discrepancies in the literature regarding differences in gender and exercise motives, as they relate to dependence. The purpose of this study was to examine how behavioral regulations toward exercise and eating pathology affect exercise dependence as a function gender. This has implications for how exercise dependence is conceptualized and discussed.
Method: University students completed an anonymous online survey with validated measures for exercise dependence (EDS-21), eating pathology (EPSI) and exercise motivations (BREQ-4). The BREQ-4 is based on SDT, conceptualizing motivation on a continuum from amotivation to intrinsic motivation. Participants were classified as at-risk for exercise dependence or not at-risk based on the EDS-21 scoring criteria.
Analysis/Results: Binary logistic regressions were conducted for males (n = 70) and females (n = 337) to determine the impact of exercise motivations and eating pathology on risk of exercise dependence. Both models were significant, accounting for 55% of the variance in ED risk in females and 60% in males. In males, behavioral regulations were not significantly associated with risk of ED; food restriction was the only indicator of eating pathology that was significant (OR = 1.41). In females, identified (OR = 1.48) and integrated (OR =1.45) motivations were significant predictors of ED risk while controlling for eating pathology. Body dissatisfaction was significantly linked with risk of ED (OR =1.14).
Conclusions: Integrated and identified motivation were the strongest predictors of risk for exercise dependence in females, but not males when controlling for eating pathology. The mechanisms by which eating pathology influence ED risk may differ by gender. Males with restrictive behaviors appear to be more at risk, while body dissatisfaction, linked with several manifestations of eating pathology, was a significant predictor of risk in females. Further, integrated motivation, which is typically thought of as positive, was linked with greater risk in females, suggesting this form of motivation may not always have positive outcomes. Future research can examine differences in behavioral identification and integration (e.g., harmonious vs. compulsive) as it relates to exercise dependence in the context of eating pathology and gender.
Measuring Situational Interest in Physical Education: A New Scale
Hongying Wang, Shanghai University of Sports; Bo ShenF, Wayne State University; Jin Bo, Eastern Michigan University
Background/Purpose: As the momentary appealing effect emerging in response to features in the environment, situational interest (SI) tends to be shared among students and possesses strong potential for physical educators to elicit. Interest theorists differentiate two forms of SI: triggered-SI (the affective experiences associated with the environment) and maintained-SI (a meaningful connection with the content including both feeling and value components). Chen et al. (2001) developed a SI scale primarily addressing affective/feeling-related beliefs but not capturing value-related aspects. Using the SI structure as theoretical framework, we designed this study to develop and validate a new SI measure in physical education (PE).
Method: There were two waves of data collection. In wave one, 432 students (age range = 15–18 years, mean age = 16.3 years) from two high schools in Shanghai, China completed a designed 16-item SI Inventory adapted from Linnenbrink-Garcia et al. (2010) measuring triggered SI (e.g., My PE is entertaining), maintained SI-feeling (e.g., I am excited about what we learned), and maintained SI-value (what we learned is important). The content validity and language usage were examined by a panel of six professionals. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to examine the designed construct. In wave two, 412 students (age range = 15–18 years, mean age = 16.5 years) from two other high schools completed a revised/refined 16-item SI inventory and in-class engagement scale. Confirmatory factor analysis and correlation were conducted.
Analysis/Results: To examine the structure of the SI, we performed an exploratory factor analysis with the data in wave one. The three factors with eigen values greater than or close to one accounted for a substantial portion (78.2%) of the total item variance. However, there were two items excluded due to cross-loading. We performed a confirmatory factor analysis with the remaining 14 items. Results of the CFA yielded the satisfied fit indices: CFI = .96, SRMR = .04, and RMSEA = .06. We used data in wave wo to replicate the former CFA to examine the underlying factor structure with revised and refined items. Results revealed that the data fit in the model adequately, CFI = .95, SRMR = .06, and RMSEA = .06. We then assessed correlations among the SI factors and in-class engagement. There were significant correlation coefficients (r > .30), which support the predictive validity of the inventory.
Conclusions: The findings lend evidence to the conceptual validation of the three-factor structure of SI in physical education. It provides preliminary support to the underlying mechanism from short and temporary interest to long-term sustainable motivation. This effort will enrich the understanding of interest-based motivation theory and extend its efficacy in physical education.
Six Physical Education Teacher Candidates and Their Motivation to Teach Physical Education
Rebecca Wylie, Haichun SunF, University of South Florida
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of the motivating factors of Physical Education Teacher Candidates’ decisions to pursue a career as a physical educator. Understanding the various attractors and facilitators for choosing a career in PE is important as the number of students entering into a PETE program have decreased across the country.
Method: Six current PETE students from two Mountain West Universities, were given the Attractors and Facilitators for Physical Education (Spittle, Jackson & Casey, 2009) questionnaire to answer. This questionnaire consisted of 44 questions based on the stem “Why do you want to be a PE teacher?” Based on a seven point Likert scale, where 1 is not at all and 7 is exactly, questions were then separated into five motivational subscales: confident interpersonal service, family, sport and physical activity, role models and low perceived demand. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted in order to gain a better understanding of the answers provided by the questionnaire.
Analysis/Results: Results from the questionnaires were analyzed using the five motivational subscales as provided by Spittle, Jackson and Casey (2009). Descriptive statistics were reported for all five motivational subscales using Excel. For these six participants, the main attractors for pursuing a career in PE was Confident Interpersonal Service (M = 5.70) and Role Models (M = 4.91). Regarding the Confident Interpersonal Service subscale, questions involving service to others (M = 6.83) and giving back to the community (M = 6.83) revealed extremely high scores for all six participants. When examining scores on the Role Model subscale, the six participants’ answered fairly high on questions regarding past PE teachers (M = 5.66).
Semi-structured interviews were conducted and allowed for the PE teacher candidates’ to share their story regarding their desire to become physical educators. Based on these interviews, two main themes emerged: Influencing factors to become a PE teacher and Perceptions of what it takes to be a PE teacher. Findings were consistent with previous literature regarding attractors and facilitators for choosing to become a physical educator. However, these six PE teacher candidates’ orientation seemed to be based more on a fitness/health orientation rather than a teaching or coaching orientation.
Conclusions: While the results of this study were consistent with previous research, there were several questions that required further analysis. When examining the subscale of physical activity and sport, it was important to examine each question separately. Results from this subscale showed these six participants did not enter into their PETE programs to coach sport (M = 4.83) or to have sports be a part of their job (M = 3.66). While these findings shed light on prior research regarding teaching and coaching orientations of PE teacher candidates, future research should aim to include a much larger sample size across several various regions of the United States. This would allow the ability to gain a better picture of the underlying attractors and facilitators for pursuing a career as a physical educator including that of a fitness orientation.
Stability and Change in Mastery-Approach Goals in Physical Education/Athletics Classes
Ping XiangF, Jiling LiuF, Texas A&M University; Weidong LiF, The Ohio State University; Jianmin GuanF, University of Texas-San Antonio
Background/Purpose: Research on students’ achievement goals has been conducted to understand their motivation and related cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes in both classroom and physical education (PE) or physical activity (PA) settings. This work has consistently revealed mastery-approach goals are associated with positive outcomes among K-12 students, whether it be in the classroom or in the gymnasium. As a result, promoting mastery-approach goals has been highly recommended as an effective way to foster positive motivation and outcomes among K-12 students in these settings.
Mastery-approach goals focus on developing one’s ability through learning, task mastery, putting forth effort, and personal improvement. To effectively promote them in PE or PA settings, we need to know how they might remain stable or change across the school years. This is unknown in the field of PE or PA. Therefore, in the present study we used a longitudinal design to help researchers and practitioners gain such knowledge.
Method: The five waves of data collections consisted of 806 students (431 boys; 375 girls) who were tracked from fourth to eighth grade while participating in running activities in PE or athletics classes. Mastery-approach goals were assessed using four items from Xiang, McBride, and Bruene (2004) on a 5-point scale. A score for each student was calculated by averaging the four items of mastery-approach goals. Higher scores indicated stronger endorsement of these goals. All data were collected during regularly scheduled PE or athletics classes.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed in four steps using SPSS and MPlus: (1) data screening, (2) assessing construct validity and scale reliability, (3) calculating descriptive data and Pearson product-moment correlations, and (4) latent growth modeling. Missing values of each item (<5%) were computed through Expectation Maximum algorithm. Construct validity and scale reliability at each time point were acceptable (χ2(2) = .535–5.064, p = .080–.765; CFI = .996–1.000; RESEA = .000–.054; SRMR = .008–.018; α = .711–.785). Across the five years from fourth to eighth grade, estimated means of mastery-approach goals were all significantly correlated (r = .25–.49, p <.001), and they changed from 4.161 to 3.917. Latent growth modeling revealed a linear change in the means across five years with a rate of −.051 (p < .001) on the 5-point scale.
Conclusions: Mastery-approach goals were found to be significantly correlated from fourth to eighth grade, indicating they were stable over time with this sample of students in PE or athletics classes. The 5-year stability in mastery-approach goals observed in the present study adds strong evidence to support the view that achievement goals are stable learner characteristics. Though stable, mastery-approach goals declined from fourth to eighth grade, suggesting that students were less likely to adopt them as they progressed over the school years. This may be due to their adoption of differentiated views of ability. Given that mastery-approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, this finding is concerning. Researchers and teachers must work together to figure out strategies that can effectively help students maintain and enhance mastery-approach goals in PE or athletics classes.
Structured FMS Program Enhances Preschoolers’ Actual and Perceived Motor Competence
Ana West, Joonyoung Lee, Asada Samin, Stephanie Zinai Gonzalez, Tao ZhangF, University of North Texas
Background/Purpose: Teaching fundamental motor skills (FMS) in preschools has been identified as a viable option to enhance preschoolers’ FMS, self-perceptions, and participation in physical activity (Logan et al., 2013; Palmer, Chinn, & Robinson, 2019). The self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) provides a strong framework to create a need supportive social environment to enhance motivation and motivated behaviors; thus, structured FMS programming with a need-supportive environment can promote children’s FMS. The purpose of this study was to implement a need supportive and structured FMS-based intervention program during recess (24 lesson plans; 6 lessons/week for four weeks) to examine intervention effects on preschoolers’ FMS and perceived competence.
Method: Twenty-four preschoolers (Mage = 4.80 ± 0.32) were randomly assigned to intervention (N = 13) and control (N = 11) groups. Pre and post assessments were obtained to measure FMS using the Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3; Ulrich, 2019) and perceived competence using The Physical Competence Subscale of The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance (PCS; Harter & Pike, 1984). A 2 (time) × 2 (group) repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine the effects of the four-week need-supportive and structured FMS intervention program on actual and perceived motor competence among preschoolers.
Analysis/Results: A repeated measures MANOVA showed significant improvements between the groups over time in their FMS and perceived competence [F (3, 20) = 6.45, p = .01, Wilk’s Λ = 0.50, partial η2 = 0.49]. A follow-up univariate test showed significant group × time differences in locomotor skills (p < .01), ball skills (p < .05), gross motor index (p < .01), but not in perceived competence (p > .05). Cohen’s d results comparison between pre and post tests indicated medium to large effect size (range ds 0.54–0.99) for the intervention group’s actual FMS and perceived competence. However, the control group decreased or did not show any significant changes in FMS and perceived competence compared to the intervention group.
Conclusions: The findings of this study indicate that structured FMS interventions with need-supportive teaching strategies during recess can be used to enhance preschoolers’ FMS and perceived competence, which can subsequently affect their physical activity participation and health status. The present study makes a significant contribution to the literature by providing meaningful insights for intervention design and implementation during recess for enhancing preschoolers’ actual motor competence and perceived competence.
What Motivates High School Students to Enroll and Engage in an Online Physical Education Course?
Shelby E. Ison, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Chad M. Killian, Georgia State University; Shannon Pennington, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Online learning has become a popular learning modality due to its perceived ability to provide enhanced flexibility of access to content and instruction (Bakia et al., 2012). Online PE (OLPE) continues to emerge as one viable alternative to traditional face-to-face PE, yet very little is known about why students elect to enroll in online PE and the extent to which students are engaged while enrolled (Killian et al., 2019). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the motivational constructs that influenced student enrollment and engagement in an elective OLPE course.
Method: This study employed group interviews as the primary data collection method. The semi-structured interview guide was developed, in part, using Self-Determination Theory as a guiding framework. A total of 34 high school students participated in this study. All were enrolled in an elective OLPE course during the 2019–2020 school year. Interviews lasted 20–30 minutes and were audio recorded with participant consent, then transcribed verbatim using a transcription service. Data were initially analyzed inductively using open and axial coding. Deductive methods were then applied using the intrinsic and extrinsic autonomy continuum within Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) as a lens for analysis.
Analysis/Results: Three main themes were generated. First, students chose to enroll in OLPE to create flexible academic schedules. Physical education was required every semester in the schools where this study occurred, which caused some participants to feel forced to enroll in PE rather than other more appealing electives. In addition, most participants were involved in multiple extracurricular activities, enrolled in AP courses, or had part-time jobs after school. The availability of the OLPE course allowed students to fulfill their PE requirements, while allowing room in their schedules to take another elective class, add a study hall, or leave school early to go to work. Students also reported feeling cognitively unchallenged and unmotivated during the online course activities and assessments. Most participants reported not watching the video lectures for each module because they felt that they had already learned the content in their personal lives or from former health-related courses. Many also noted how assessments were unengaging because answers were generally common sense. Lastly, students’ physical activity behaviors were primarily driven by two types of extrinsic motivation: external regulation and introjection. Students’ self-imposed pressure to achieve academic success (introjection), coupled with being graded for physical activity participation (external regulation) seemed to be the primary means of motivation to engage in physical activity during OLPE.
Conclusions: Our findings suggest OLPE may appeal to students who are highly involved in extra-curricular activities, academically overloaded, and who have part-job jobs. To promote engagement and enhance student experiences, OLPE courses should include instructional strategies and design features that facilitate a supportive, autonomous environment with appropriately challenging content and assessments. Students who experience optimal cognitive and psychomotor challenge are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to be physically active and also more likely to enjoy their physical activity experience (Ryan & Deci, 2017).
Motor Behavior
Factors Link to Motor Skill Development in Kindergarten Children
Qin Yang, Suzanna Rocco Dillon, Texas Woman’s University
Background/Purpose: Child’s motor skill development is a dynamic, continually changing interaction among environmental constraints, task constraints, and individuals’ constraints. For example, these constraints can include child’s physical education, and child’s health condition and language development. The current study aimed to explore factors linked to kindergarten children’s motor skill development. We hypothesized that child’s motor skill development is significantly associated to the child’s physical education status, health condition, and language development.
Method: Data in this study were retrieved from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study [United States]: Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999 (ECLS) longitudinal study. A total of 3226 participants’ data was analyzed. Factors included child’s physical education status (i.e., physical education per week, physical education per day, and physical activity free time), child’s health condition (i.e., 5-point health scale and BMI) and language development (i.e., percentage of reading skill and language/number skills). Motor skill and health condition data were collected from direct assessments, physical education data were collected from teachers’ survey, and language development data were collected from parent’s data. Hierarchical linear regression was used.
Analysis/Results: A total of 1637 male and 1589 female children at age 86.97 ± 4.33 months have motor skill at 12.07 ± 3.34. In the hierarchical linear regression model 1, physical education per week (β = 0.015, p > .05), per day (β = 0.027, p > .05), and physical activity free time (β = −0.025, p > .05) were not significantly related to child’s motor skill development. In model 2, child’s health condition and BMI explained 5.90% of the variance in motor skill development. As such, child’s health (β = −0.14, p < .001) and BMI (β = −0.05, p < .01) were significantly related to child’s motor skill development. In model 3, child’s language and number skills were significantly associated with motor skill development (β = 0.06, p < .01).
Conclusions: In the current analysis, child’s physical education didn’t show significant association with child’s motor skill development, but child’ health condition and language skills were significantly related to the motor skill development. Even though physical education has been confirmed as a vital subject for school-aged children because of its irreplaceable function in promoting motor skill development and health (Singh, 2020), Ericsson (2011) research shown that two lessons of physical education per week was not sufficient to demonstrate positive effects on child’s motor skills development, which may explain the nonsignificant association between physical education and motor skill development in current study. Ericsson (2011) research suggested that daily physical activity and motor training was needed to elicit motor skill improvements, in the future research and education, the quality and quantity of physical education should be improved in order to promoting child’s motor skill development. Hill (2010) research proved that motor development within the first months of life is closely associated with language development, which aligned with current analysis results.
Fundamental Motor Skills Between Girls and Boys
Anderson dos Santos Carvalho, Universidade Paulista—UNIP; Chayene Dornelas Barbeta, Universidade do Oeste Paulista—Unoeste; Nilo C. Ramos, Coastal Carolina University; Pedro Pugliesi Abdalla, Universidade de São Paulo; Aline Madia Mantovani, Universidade Estadual Paulista—UNESP; Leonardo Santos Lopes Silva, Nandhara Gabriela Ferreira Silva, Universidade Paulista—UNIP; Jair Rodrigues Garcia Junior, Universidade do Oeste Paulista—UNOESTE
Background/Purpose: The deficit in the performance of fundamental motor skills (FMS) can compromise children’s participation in domestic, recreational and sports activities (Nobre, Valentini, & Nobre, 2018). This problem may encourage physical inactivity, leading to serious health problems, such as obesity, depression, type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease and even some types of cancer (Taunton, Mulvey, & Brian, 2018). While the literature indicates that boys have higher physical activity levels than girls (Nobre et al., 2018), there are few studies suggesting that boys have higher FMS proficiency levels than girls (Gallahue, Ozmun, & Goodway, 2013). Considering the relationship between FMS and physical activity levels, it is important to explore if children are reaching the proficiency stages in FMS and if there are differences between genders. Findings may suggest specific pedagogical interventions strategies. The purpose of this study was to compare the stages of FMS between girls and boys.
Method: Participants of this study were 36 boys (10.8 years old) and 45 girls (10.5 years old) in 5th grade from an elementary private school located in a medium-sized city (700 thousand inhabitants) in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The Test of Gross Motor Development—edition 2 (TGMD-2; Ulrich, 2000) was used to evaluate FMS for locomotor (LO) and object control (OC). TGMD-2 classifies FMS in seven stages, from “very poor” to “very superior.” The independent t test was used to compare the raw scores of LO and OC FMS between genders, assuming α = 5%.
Analysis/Results: There was no statistically significant difference between boys (32.5 [3.9]) and girls (32.2 [3.6]) for the gross LO score (p = .714) and the majority of children (63%) had “poor” FMS. Only 18.5% of children scored above “poor,” in the next category “below average.” No student scored above the “below average” level. However, there was a statistically significant difference (p ≤ 0.001) between boys and girls for the gross OC score. Boys had a higher gross score (36.2 [3.7]) when compared to girls (28.6 [4.7]).
Conclusions: After comparing the developmental stages of FMS between boys and girls, it was evident that girls are behind boys in the development of OC FMS. This result suggests that there is a low proficiency in the implementation of OC skills by girls and supports the literature that girls have lower FMS development than boys. This finding underscores the importance of participation, since childhood, in specific daily and sports activities to develop FMS and enable both genders to become active adults. To achieve this goal, it is important to propose efficient instructional programs with different practices that allow these students to explore the multiple FMS, which will assist in reaching the desired stages of FMS skill development (superior and very superior).
Gender Disparities in Fundamental Motor Skills Development During Early Childhood
Sherri Pham, Salwa Shoaib, Samantha Moss, Xiaoxia Zhang, Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington
Background/Purpose: Fundamental motor skills (FMS) are essential components to develop physical literacy and a physically active lifestyle (Foulkes et al. 2015). However, more than half of the children in the U.S. demonstrate developmental delays of FMS and children as young as 5 years old already show gender discrepancies in FMS proficiency (Foulkes et al. 2015). A deep understanding of the FMS development profile and the potential gender effect among young children is urgent. The purpose of this study was to assess the developmental characteristics/profile of thirteen FMS within locomotor and ball skills categories, which was assessed through a product-and-process oriented approach among 3–5 years old preschoolers. The gender disparities in all FMS categories were also examined in this population.
Method: The study followed a cross-sectional research design. Participants including 74 preschoolers (38 girls; 36 boys, Mage = 4.02 ± .73 years) were recruited from two local childcare centers in Northern Texas. FMS proficiency was assessed in terms of locomotor (6) and ball (7) skills using the TGMD-3 (Ulrich et al., 2019). The comprised locomotor assessment included running, galloping, hopping, skipping, horizontal jump, and horizontal slide skills. The ball skills included two-hand strike, one-hand strike, dribbling, kicking, two-hand catch, overhand and underhand throwing skills. All skills were comprised of 6–10 criteria scored as either 0 (criteria not met) or 1 (criteria met). The scores for each skill and overall locomotor and ball proficiency were recorded. Descriptive statistics and an independent t-test were performed to determine gender differences and their FMS profile.
Analysis/Results: The children demonstrated a range of locomotor and ball skill proficiency levels (M = 7.87 ± 2.77; M = 8.04 ± 2.54, respectively). Out of the locomotor skills, children had the highest proficiency in running (3.71 ± 1.90) but demonstrated the worst proficiency in skipping (1.34 ± 1.94). Although the mean values between the boys and girls did not show a significant difference in locomotor skills, the girls demonstrated greater performance in jumping (3.13 vs. 2.33; d = 0.57). Two-hand strike was the best performed out of the ball skills (3.65 ± 2.42), whereas performance in dribbling and one-hand striking showed the sign of developmental delays in this age group (0.79 ± 1.54; 1.15 ± 1.84, respectively). Boys were shown to significantly outperform their counterparts at ball skills, particularly on the two-hand strike (4.47 vs. 2.87) and one-hand strike (1.64 vs. 0.71).
Conclusions: These results imply some discrepancies in early FMS development among preschoolers. The observed consistent gender disparities in ball skills provide a valuable insight that gender-appropriate skill instructions may be needed during early child education. Parents and childcare professionals may provide both boys and girls with more opportunities to develop each FMS skill at an early age to reduce imbalanced motor development.
Massed or Distributed Practice: Which Is the Best for Learning Sports Motor Skills?
Gylton B. Da Matta, Colorado State University YOSA/SCH of Sp; Leandro N Dutra, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais and Nebraska Athletic Performance Laboratory; Herbert Ugrinowitsch, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
Background/Purpose: Distribution of practice has been investigated through different inter-trials intervals and has been dichotomized in the conditions of massed and distributed practice. Both conditions are used to compare the proportion of inter-trials interval in learning conditions (Lee & Genovese, 1989; Newell, Antoniou, & Carlton, 1988). See meta-analysis by Donovan and Radosevich (1999). However, inter-trial analysis was compiled using less than 1 min of an inter-trial interval, without showing a clear distinction for the conditions inter-trials interval of massed and distributed practice with sports motor skills. Studies used different experimental designs manipulating spacing (e.g., trial blocks followed by an interval and trial blocks distributed in other sessions) (Dail & Christina, 2004; Ahmadvand, Kiani, & Shojae, 2016). Such studies with inter-session and inter-trial intervals represent confusion in practical settings where applications continue to be controversial. There is a gap in the literature about massed and distributed practice in motor learning.
Method: An experimental design was adopted to test the variables. Participants signed informed consent (UNebraska IRB#20,337). Subjects (n = 24, ages 13.8 ± 1.0) performed the volleyball overhand serve. Two experimental groups were analyzed and compared: massed practice (0 s inter-trials interval) and distributed practice (inter-trials interval of 40secs). In pretest, groups performed 12 trials; 200 acquisition phase, and 12 in retention test.
Analysis/Results: The ANOVA two-way conducted between pretest and retention test demonstrated the main effect of interaction between blocks × groups [F(1,22) = 11.537, p = .002, ηp2 = .344]. The post hoc: both groups improved (p < .003). There was also main effect of groups [F(1,22) = 8.895, p = .006, ηp2 = .287]. G0 was significantly higher that of G40 (p < .007). There was also main effect of blocks [F(1,22) = 106.74, p = .001, ηp2 = .829]. In the post hoc block was significant at pretest with a lower performance compared to retention test (p = .001).
The consistency score, ANOVA two-way conducted between pretest and retention test demonstrated main interaction between blocks × groups [F(1,22) = 11.326, p = .002, ηp2 = .339]. The post hoc detected that both groups were more consistent in the retention test compared to the pretest (p = .001). There was also main effect of groups [F(1,22) = 18.421, p = .001, ηp2 = .455]. The post hoc indicated G0 as significantly more consistent than G40 (p = .001). There was also main effect of blocks [F(1,22) = 54.501, p = .001, ηp2 = .712]. The post hoc shows G0 retention test greater in consistency than G40 (p = .001). In sum, shorter inter-trials interval led to better learning than longer inter-trials interval during acquisition and retention phases.
Conclusions: Massed practice leads to better retention of learning to serve in volleyball compared to distributed practice. Coaches should be to optimize their training schedules through massed practice to learn sports motor skills. More research is needed comparing massed and distributed practice in other sports skills.
Proficiency in Gross Motor Skills Among Home- vs. Public-Schooled Children
Lauren Ullmann, Yoonsin Oh, Saori Braun, Marquell J. Johnson, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire
Background/Purpose: Approximately 2 million American children are home-schooled, yet no information is available regarding motor skill proficiency within this population. While children who attend public school have scheduled time throughout the school day to practice and develop their gross motor skills, home-schooled children do not have structured settings that provide opportunities for them to acquire and become more proficient in fundamental locomotor (e.g., skipping, sliding, galloping, running) and object-control skills (e.g.,ball throwing/catching). The purpose of this study was to compare gross motor skills of home-schooled versus public-schooled children using the Test of Gross Motor Development 3rd edition (TGMD3).
Method: A total of 35 children (15 home-schooled and 20 public-schooled; aged 5–10 years) participated in this study. Researchers recruited home-schooled children from a homeschool physical education program offered by the university in the Midwest region, and public-schooled children from a local public elementary school in the same city. Each participant completed the TGMD3 assessment including 6 locomotor skills and 7 ball skills. Each motor skill was assessed two times followed by one practice trial, all of which were recorded and later scored by at least two researchers, all of whom had undergone a series of training for proper scoring of TGMD3 tasks. When there was a discrepancy in the scores between researchers for a task, they met in person to reach a consensus score. Interrater reliability across scorers was .978.
Analysis/Results: Independent samples t-test, with an alpha level of .05, indicated the average total gross motor development score for homeschool participants (M = 59.60; SD = 13.39; n = 15) was similar to that of public school participants (M = 66.85; SD = 11.81; n = 20), t(33) = 1.70, p = .099. The average locomotor subtest score for homeschool participants (M = 27.07; SD = 5.98; n = 15) were similar to that of public school participants (M = 31.10; SD = 7.35; n = 20), t(33) = 1.74, p = .092. The average ball skill subtest score for homeschool participants (M = 32.53; SD = 8.77; n = 15) were similar to that of public school participants (M = 35.10; SD = 7.28; n = 20), t(33) = .946, p = .351.
Conclusions: The results indicated that gross motor skills were not significantly different between children who were home-schooled (once a week) or public-schooled PE (2–3 times a week). It would be of particular interest to explore the impact of extracurricular physical activities supplemental to homeschool PE vs. public school PE programs on gross motor development in early childhood. Despite the challenges that COVID-19 pandemic brings to educators and parents, the present findings encourage school districts to advocate at least once a week of semi-structured PE to be provided to children to help develop their gross motor skills.
Physical Activity & Health Promotion
P.L.A.Y. for All: Exploring the Effects of a Community-Based Inclusive Afterschool Program
Hayley McKown, Virginia C Hodges, Erin E. CenteioF, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa
Background/Purpose: Many children across the United States have become subject to overweight and sedentary lifestyles.1 This is partly due to their insufficient physical activity (PA) levels, which should reach the recommended amounts of 60 minutes every day.2 Researchers found that time in school can help meet recommended PA minutes in order to improve healthy behaviors,3 but that may still be insufficient.4 After-school programs for PA, based on whole-of-school approaches, can be an added contribution to these PA minutes for children and youth.5,6 The purpose of this pilot research study was to determine the effects of an inclusive afterschool program on PA levels and motor-skill outcomes for children.
Method: Located in the southwest region of the United States, children ages 3–10 (N = 38) participated in the P.L.A.Y. for All program (52.6% Male; 47.4% Mixed race; Mage = 5.1 years). The 10-week program was designed for participants of all abilities to improve motor-skills and provide additional PA opportunities. Pre-post data collection included TGMD-3 motor-skill assessment, daily accelerometer data, and a 30-question parent/guardian survey. University students conducted motor-skill assessments and worked in small ratios with participants weekly to develop and improve motor skills and provide opportunity for increased PA levels. SPSS v27 was used for calculating descriptive statistics, paired-samples T-tests, and regression analyses.
Analysis/Results: Paired-samples T-tests were conducted to compare parent survey data from pre-post tests as well as TGMD-3 scores from pre- and posttests. Change in both lthe TGMD3 ocomotor and ball-skills were statistically significant from pre- (Mball = 29.51, SDball = 14.26; Mloco = 30.59, SDloco = 13.94) to post program (Mball = 38.27, SDball = 10.63; Mloco = 35.52, SDloco = 11.26); ball = t(36) = 3.46, p = .001; loco = t(36) = 4.79, p < .001. Correlations and linear regression analysis revealed that the children’s’ average MVPA across the program was not significantly related to their change in motor skills. However, children did exhibit an average of 13 minutes of MVPA a day. Although the parent level data needs to be further explored, initial analysis revealed that parents increased their engagement in PA with their child from the beginning of the program to the end of the program t(15) = −2.41, p = .029.
Conclusions: This pilot study revealed the P.L.A.Y. for All program had positive effects on children’s’ motor-skill outcomes and contributed to their overall PA levels, increasing MVPA by an average of 13 minutes per day. We know that children need to move more, especially children with intellectual and physical disabilities. Having an inclusive environment fall all children to participate in PA is important as it can help contribute to the recommended amounts of daily PA minutes leading to positive long-term health benefits for youth. Non-significant relationships with MVPA could be due to low sample size, and should be examined further to explore how MVPA contributes to increased ball and locomotor skills in this population. Examining the program while using a control group is also needed in order to understand direct effects the P.L.A.Y. program has on the outcome variables.
Adherence to 24-Hour Movement Behavior Guidelines and Associations With Depression
Xiaoxia Zhang, Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington
Background/Purpose: High prevalence of depression among young adults keep challenging the higher education and public health systems in the United States (American College Health Association, 2019; James et al., 2018). Importance of adherence to 24-hour movement behaviors (moderate-to-vigorous physical activity [MVPA] ≥ 60 minutes, sedentary behavior < 3 hours, and sleep ≥ 7 hours) on depression has been documented (Tremblay et al., 2016), however, the evidences mainly relied on self-report measures. Applying an actigraphy-based assessment, the primary purpose of this study was: 1) to examine the effects of socio-demographic factors (sex, academic level, race, and weight status) on the prevalence of depression and on adherence to the 24-hour movement behavior guidelines (MVPA, sedentary behavior, and sleep) among college students; 2) to examine the effects of adherence to the 24-hour movement behavior guidelines on depression by adjusting the socio-demographic factors.
Method: A cross-sectional research design was applied in this study. A total of 278 college students (187 females; Mage = 22.38, SD = 3.91) were recruited from a public university in North Texas. Their races consisted of White (30.2%), Black (21.9%), Hispanic (21.9%), Asian (18.3%), and other races (7.6%). 52% of them were in healthy weight and 48% were in unhealthy weight (overweight and obese) based on BMI calculated from their self-reported height and weight. Participants completed the 20-item Center of Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) assessing depression status (no depression [CES-D score < 16] vs. depression [CES-D score ≥ 16]). Accelerometer (GT9X ActiGraph) was used to objectively measuring MVPA, sedentary behavior, and sleep duration. In accordance with the 24-hour movement behavior guidelines, each movement behavior was categorized into two groups: MVPA < 60 minutes vs. ≥ 60 minutes; sedentary behavior < 3 hours vs. ≥ 3 hours; and sleep < 7 hours vs. ≥ 7 hours, respectively.
Analysis/Results: There were effects of sociodemographic factors on the likelihood of depression (odds ratios [OR] ranged from 1.21 to 3.39). Specifically, females, seniors, and Asian college students had significant higher odds of depression compared to males, freshmen, and White college students, respectively (ps < 0.05). Females and White college students were more likely to meet the sleep guideline (OR ranged from 0.24 to 0.52), but no significant socio-demographic effects on adherence to MVPA and sedentary behavior guidelines (ps > 0.05). Lower risks of depression were observed in individuals who met the 24-hour movement behavior guidelines (OR ranged from 0.65 to 0.95), although the effects did not reach the statistical significance.
Conclusions: The findings suggest that group-specific copping strategies (e.g., healthy lifestyles, help-seeking) may be developed in depression prevention programs for college students, especially those who are females, seniors, minorities, and in unhealthy weight status. Promoting 24-hour movement behavior guidelines is recommended to produce positive effects in lightening depressive symptoms among college students.
This study concluded that COVID-19 negatively affected the PA rates of University students in Maryland. The youth in this study claimed this drop had to do with lack of structural opportunities as well as social networks. As COVID-19 continues, we argue there is a need to consider built structures as well as social connections to encourage PA whilst also being cognizant of, and consider a protection to, COVID-19.
Are They Having Fun Yet? Potential Correlates of Children’s Enjoyment of Physical Activity
Nancy O’Hara Tompkins, West Virginia University; Jill Nolan, Concord University; Charlotte Workman, Lesley Cottrell, West Virginia University
Background/Purpose: Children’s enjoyment of physical activity (PA) is an important, yet understudied topic. Data from a study of family and school-based approaches to increasing children’s PA were analyzed to understand children’s perceptions of PA enjoyment and explore potential correlates.
Method: Self-report survey data from 572 fifth grade child and parent dyads formed the analytic sample for this study. Key questions included (1) what are children’s perceptions of PA enjoyment, and (2) do PA perceptions vary by sex, locale, household income, child health conditions, parent enjoyment of PA, child perceptions of neighborhood safety, child activity PA preferences at recess, and child PA during free time?
Analysis/Results: 43.4% (n = 131) of the child sample reported they either were neutral about physical activity or were less enthusiastic about it. Among the factors examined, those found to be significantly associated with differences in perceptions of PA enjoyment were: parent enjoyment (F = 2.84, p = .016), access to PA equipment (F = 3.741, p = .024), child’s PA in the past 7 days (F = 4.379, p = .001), and child PA preferences during recess (F = 3.297, p = .006).
Conclusions: Child PA enjoyment was associated with greater parent enjoyment, greater access to PA equipment, and greater PA both during recess and overall in the past week. These findings, pulled from activity during the school day and at home, emphasize the significance of both parent modeling and incorporating PA during the school day. Parents and school health professionals need to understand the influence of enjoyment in children’s PA and provide opportunities that emphasize the fun factor.
Association Between BMI and Physical Activity in Chinese Elementary Teachers
Lingsong Kong, Southern Connecticut State University; Xiaozan Wang, Yaohui He, East China Normal University
Background/Purpose: The prevalence of adult obesity in China has doubled in the past decade, as well as the prevalence of physical inactivity, has been increased quickly because of the popularization of technology. Both obesity and physical inactivity are two of the important factors of chronic diseases in China and they are varied with occupations. School teachers play important roles in the development of students and their health is drawing more and more attention. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and association of obesity and physical inactivity in Chinese elementary teachers.
Method: The participants of this study were 1088 elementary teachers (age: 35.23 ± 7.966) from different areas in China. The participants were required to finish an internet questionnaire, which included demographic information and International Physical Activity Questionnaires (IPAQ). The BMI was calculated and classified into healthy weight group, overweight group, and obesity group by using the “Chinese Criteria of Weight for Adults.” The physical activity levels were determined by scoring the IPAQ. Descriptive statistics and one-way ANCOVA were performed to examine the prevalence of obesity and physical inactivity and the influence of physical activity levels on the BMI. The statistical significance was set at P < .05.
Analysis/Results: The prevalence of overweight and obesity among elementary teachers was 18.8% and 2.5% respectively, which were much lower than the prevalence of overweight and obesity in Chinese adults (30% and 12% respectively). The prevalence of physical inactivity was 21.8% among elementary teachers, which was higher than the prevalence in Chinese adults (17%). There was no significant difference in BMI among the three physical activity levels while adjusting for genders and age (F = 1.258, P = .285).
Conclusions: Obesity and physical inactivity are prevalent among Chinese elementary teachers. Compared with the prevalence in China, the prevalence of obesity among elementary teachers is much lower while the prevalence of physical inactivity among elementary teachers is relatively higher. The physical activity level of elementary teachers is not a significant factor in obesity. We suggest that the school should pay more attention to the health of teachers and provide more opportunities to improve their physical activity. Further studies with more comprehensive anthropometric measurements and objectively measured physical activity data is needed.
Associations of Frequency of Resistance Exercise, Salivary Flow Rate, and Psychological Measures Among College Students
David Bellar, University of North Carolina at Charlotte; Lawrence Judge, Ball State University; Ben D. Kern, University of Wyoming
Background/Purpose: There is an emerging mental health crisis among College students with anxiety and depression increasing in incidence and prevalence among this population. As colleges and universities wrestle with the task of providing resources to those experiencing social and emotional challenges, it is important to assess physiological variables and behaviors that may be associated with the mental well-being in college students. The purpose of the present investigation was to examine frequency with which college students engage in resistance exercise and the associated impact on their physiological and psychological well- being.
Method: Participants (n = 59, 30 female, 29 male, 20.7 ±2.3 yrs.) reported to the lab during the morning hours in a fasted state, having refrained from brushing their teeth. They provided a saliva sample (passive drool method) that was timed and later turned into a flow rate score (ml/min). The subjects then completed the Leisure and Physical Activity Survey (LPA), the Profile of Mood States (POMS), Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS 21) surveys. Data were evaluated for associations of salivary flow rate and frequency of resistance exercise (from LPA survey) using multiple linear regression analysis controlled for age and sex.
Analysis/Results: A significant model predicting total mood disturbances (POMS) and positive affect (PANAS) was observed (R > 0.45, p < .04), with a trend toward a significant model for depression (DASS 21) also noted (R = 0.42, p = .06). Within the significant models, total mood disturbance was associated with salivary flow rate (p = .03) and frequency of resistance exercise (p = .02). Positive affect was associated with frequency of resistance exercise (p < .01) and age (p = .02).
Conclusions: Higher frequency of resistance exercise (6–7 days per week) was associated with increased positive affect and lower total mood disturbances among the college students tested. Additionally, increased salivary flow rate was associated with lower numbers of total mood disturbances. These results suggest that college students with greater parasympathetic activity and who engage in higher numbers of resistance training sessions experience better mental health. As colleges and universities attempt to offer support for the multiple types of emotional and psychological mental health issues college students report, a preventative approach that utilizes resistance based physical activity may be a worthwhile consideration.
Associations of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior With Classroom Behavior in Preschoolers: A Gender-Based Approach
Samantha Moss, Xiaoxia Zhang, Madison Melton, University of Texas at Arlington; Alex Zhang, University of North Texas; Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington
Background/Purpose: Classroom misbehavior has been shown to lead to school problems and disruption in children (Hong et al., 2015). Physical inactivity/sedentariness has been noticed to associate with the risk of classroom misbehaviors in older children (Mahar et al., 2006). However, there is limited evidence of how physical activity (PA) and sedentary behavior may be related to classroom behaviors in early childhood. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the association of PA and sedentary behavior with classroom behaviors (i.e., emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity scale, peer problems, and prosocial behavior) in preschoolers and the gender-specified associations were investigated as well.
Method: A cross-sectional research design was utilized in this study. Subjects included 74 preschoolers (38 boys; 36 girls, Mage = 4.02 ± .73 years) that were recruited from two local childcare centers. Children’s body mass index (BMI) and gender were collected. Children’s school-based PA (light PA[LPA], moderate-to-vigorous PA [MVPA]) and sedentary behavior (SB) were objectively assessed by the accelerometer. Classroom behavior was reported by teachers using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (TC-SDQ; Goodman, 1997). Descriptive statistics, Pearson’s r correlational analysis and a one-way (boys vs. girls) multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA, BMI as covariate) were conducted.
Analysis/Results: On average, children spent more than 9 hours being sedentary (564.55 ± 178.06 minutes) and only about 1 ½ hours in MVPA (81.59 ± 37.04 minutes). Boys spent more time in SB (620.23 vs. 529.01) and MVPA (94.52 vs. 66.53) than girls, respectively. No significant gender difference was observed in SDQ subscales (p > .05) in this age group, however, the associations of PA and SB with classroom behaviors differ in boys and girls. Specifically, emotional symptoms were significantly associated with BMI (r = −.37, p < .05), SB (r = −.39, p < .05) and MVPA (r = −.45, p < .05) among girls. Only SB, but not MVPA became a significant correlate of peer problems (r = −.39, p < .05) and hyperactivity (r = −.50, p < .05) in boys, respectively.
Conclusions: These findings indicate that young children spend most of their school hours being sedentary and less time in MVPA which can lead to emotional problems, especially in girls. Implementing activity breaks in the classroom to decrease SB could be a potential approach to improve classroom behavior in preschool-aged boys. Limiting sedentariness regardless of PA may lead to better social skills, steady emotional distress, and abate distracting behavior in both genders during early childhood.
Attitudes Toward Physical Activity With Different Intensities
Yubing Wang, Nikki Hollett, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Background/Purpose: Promoting students’ attitudes toward physical activity (PA) is one goal of physical education. To change attitude toward PA, it is important to understand what components/factors influences attitudes toward PA. Although many studies have shown that attitudes toward PA significantly influence PA behavior, we still know little about the structure and content of attitudes toward PA, especially toward PA with different intensities. Intensity is identified as the most important PA prescription variable. Many studies have shown that PA with different intensities has different health benefits and elicits different affective responses. Based on the multicomponent model of attitude, the purposes of this study were to determine (a) to what extent students hold different levels of cognitive and affective attitude toward vigorous, moderate, and light PA, (b) to what extent students’ cognitive and affective attitude contribute to their global attitudes for general, vigorous, moderate, and light PA, respectively.
Method: This study employed a cross-sectional design. A total of 159 colleges students participated in this study. They completed validated measures of global, cognitive, and affective attitude for general, vigorous, moderate, and light PA, respectively. Repeated-measure one-way ANOVAs were conducted to determine the differences of students’ attitude toward PA with different intensities. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the contributions of cognitive and affective attitude to global attitude for each type of PA.
Analysis/Results: Students had significantly higher levels of cognitive attitude toward moderate PA than vigorous (p < .01, Cohen’s d = .37) and light PA (p < .01, Cohen’s d = .35). They had significantly higher levels of affective attitude toward light PA than moderate (p = .02, Cohen’s d = .21) and vigorous PA (p < .01, Cohen’s d = 1.12) and higher levels of affective attitude toward moderate PA than vigorous PA (p < .01, Cohen’s d = .98). They also had significantly lower levels of global attitude toward vigorous PA than light (p < .01, Cohen’s d = .46) and moderate PA (p < .01, Cohen’s d = .56). This study also showed that both cognitive and affective attitude contributed to global attitude (R2 = .82-.87) and cognitive attitude had a stronger influence than affective attitude (β differences ranged from .03 to .21).
Conclusions: This study is the first study that examined the differences of peoples’ attitude toward PA with different intensities. Colleges students tend to have different levels of cognitive, affective, and global attitude toward PA with different intensities. Interventions targeting at cognitive beliefs about PA may be more effective to change college students’ attitude toward PA than targeting at feeling or emotions attached to PA.
Bidirectional Relationships of Physical Activity and Gross Motor Skills Before and After Summer Break
Ryan D. BurnsF, Christopher Pfledderer, Taylor E Colotti, University of Utah; You FuF, University of Nevada, Reno; Yang Bai, Wonwoo Byun, Timothy A. Brusseau Jr.F, University of Utah
Background/Purpose: Gross motor skills are postulated to have a bidirectional relationship with physical activity (PA); however, no study has tested this relationship before and after a summer break. The purpose of this study was to examine the bidirectional relationships between school PA and gross motor skills before and after a summer break in children.
Method: Participants were a sample of 440 children recruited from three low-income schools (mean age = 8.9 ± 1.2 years). PA was assessed as average school day step counts using Yamax DigiWalker pedometers worn for 5 consecutive school days. Gross motor skills were assessed using the Test for Gross Motor Development 3rd Edition. Data were collected at two timepoints: at the end of Spring semester (T1) and at the beginning of the subsequent Fall semester (T2). An age- and BMI-adjusted cross-lagged model was employed to relate T1 school step counts with T2 gross motor skills and T1 gross motor skills with T2 school step counts.
Analysis/Results: T1 gross motor skills significantly predicted T2 school step counts (β = 0.24, 95%CI: 0.08–0.40, p = .003); however, T1 school step counts did not predict T2 gross motor skills (β = 0.04, 95%CI: −0.06–0.14, p = .445). The model explained 35.4% and 15.9% of the variances of T2 gross motor skills and T2 school step counts, respectively. Additional analyses indicated that these relationships were primarily driven by ball skills.
Conclusions: The relationship between gross motor skills and school PA was not bidirectional; however, higher gross motor skills, specifically ball skills, predicted higher school PA after a 3-month summer break. It is recommended that future research determine if higher gross motor skills at the end of the school year could sustain PA both during and after summer break in children from low-income families. This study adds to the continually building body of evidence on the important role gross motor skills have for sustaining PA within the pediatric population, specifically ball skills having a positive influence for sustaining school PA after a prolonged summer break.
Chronic and Acute Effects of GoNoodle© Brain Breaks on Reading Fluency
Hannah Wold, David Barney, Keven Prusak, Carol Wilkinson, Brigham Young University
Background/Purpose: There is a growing achievement gap among readers in schools (Neuman & Celano, 2001). While coordinated approaches to school health are not new (Erwin, et al., 2011), classroom physical activity (PA) has only recently been acknowledged as a health risk (Strong et al., 2005), accounting for less than 5% of total daily PA among children (Brusseau et al., 2011).
Most reading fluency research focuses on instructional strategies. However, emerging research suggests that integrated PA programs in the classroom or during lessons, increases overall rates of engagement (Erwin et al., 2011). Little is known about how PA can affect domain specific subject areas such as reading fluency and virtually nothing is known about the effects specific to GoNoodle© PA breaks. Understanding how GoNoodle© affects reading fluency will help educators determine the benefits of devoting more time to brain breaks like GoNoodle© in the classroom setting. Therefore the purpose of this study was to assess the immediate and effects of physical activity breaks (specifically GoNoodle©) on reading fluency.
Method: Three hundred eighty four, 2nd and 3rd grade students, members of 16 intact classes were examined in a 2 (history of PA breaks) by 2 (acute episodes of PA breaks) factorial MANOVA analysis. Dependent variables (via DIBELS) included: Word Per Minute, Accuracy, and Words Retold. Also, gender, ELL WIDA scores, pedometer steps, and SES indicators were also recorded. SPSS (GLM univariate) analysis was used to examine main effects of chronic and acute use of GoNoodle© PA breaks on reading fluency (WPM, Accuracy, and WR).
Analysis/Results: A significant Acute main effect on WPM: (F(1,380) = 4.02, p = .046); Accuracy: (F(1, 380) = 7.20, p = .008); and Words Retold (F(1, 380) = 14.54, p < .001). A significant Chronic main effect on Accuracy: (F(1,380) = 4.45, p = .036). Trending to significance Chronic main effect on WPM: (F(1,380) = 3.13, p = .078. Effect sizes (Eta2) were small (r = .000-.04)
Conclusions: While many teachers recognize the value of PA for increasing engagement and focus (getting the wiggles out) in academic endeavors, these results indicate that increase in academic achievement in reading fluency are also possible. Notably, the most pronounced effects were immediately following acute bouts of PA. Further, chronic use of PA bouts for Accuracy but also led to a trend toward significance in WPM (p = ,078). In such cases, we are reminded of an article, Surely God Loves the .06 Nearly as Much as the .05: (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1989) and believe that one should not discount the probability of Chronic PA effects on long-term reading fluency. Further investigation into the chronic effects are warranted.
COVID-19 Global Pandemic: Impacting Youths’ Physical Activity
Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington; Jean Keller, Tao ZhangF, University of North Texas; Heather Roberts, Texas Women’s University; Dana R. Dempsey, M.S., CTRS, Wilshaw Stevens, Kelly Jeans, Justine Borchard, Jonnathan VanPelt, Kirsten Tulchin-Francis, Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children
Background/Purpose: The health benefits of physical activity (PA) are well-documented for youth. Behavioral and environmental changes due to the COVID-19 pandemic have been observed in the U.S pediatric population; however, large data-based investigations are lacking. Guided by a social ecological model (Sallis et al., 2008), this study examined the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the type and intensity of PA participation in youth related to: (1) age and sex; and (2) social-ecological factors including demographics, social environments (i.e., education, income, community and household types, COVID-19-based restrictions), and built environments (i.e., sidewalk, cycle paths, recreation facilities, neighborhood safety).
Method: A cross-sectional research design was used to assess an anonymous online survey completed by U.S. parents/guardians for their child/children, with a total included sample of 1,324 youth (674 girls). Age groups included preschoolers (228; 3–5 yrs), children (632; 6–11 yrs), and adolescents (464; 12–18 yrs). Racial distribution was White (83.2%), Black (4.8%), Asian (3%), and other races (8.3%), with a sample of Hispanic ethnicity (12.7%). The Leisure Time Exercise Scale (Godin, 2011) captured the PA intensity levels—light PA [LPA], moderate PA [MPA], and vigorous PA [VPA] before and during COVID-19. The changes of PA types during COVID-19 were measured using outside PA (in yard, neighborhood, and community) and inside PA (child- and parent-led PA, and virtual PA). A modified Physical Activity Neighborhood Environment Scale (PANES; Sallis et al., 2010) assessed community built environment and safety.
Analysis/Results: After controlling for socio-demographic covariates, there were significant age- and sex-specified changes on types (h2 = .041, p < .01) and intensities of PA participation (h2 = .018, p < .01) during the COVID-19. While all three age groups reduced PA intensity levels, statistically significant age group differences were seen in VPA during pandemic (−2.43 preschooler vs. −7.73 children vs. −10.80 adolescents; p <.01). Both younger age groups increased their outside PA and engaged in less inside PA (p < .01). Adolescents significantly reduced participation in both inside and outside PA, especially adolescent boys spent less time compared to girls (2.62 vs. 2.84; 2.98 vs. 3.08, respectively). The correlations indicated that all PA intensity levels were significantly correlated with inside and outside PA (rs range from .23 to .31). COVID-19 restriction (social distancing and shelter-in-place) was a significant predictor of MVPA (β = −.11; p < .01; R2 =3.5%) and VPA (β = −.13; p < .01; R2 =3.7%). These changes in PA were beyond the contributions of other factors (education, house type, age, gender). The LPA was significantly predicted by both recreation facilities and COVID-19 restrictions (β = .09; β = −.11; p < .01; R2 =3.3%). Social-ecological factors were significant predictors of outside PA during pandemic, contributing 10% of the variance.
Conclusions: This study’s findings provide insights into promoting PA more equitably and suggest group-specified physical activity planning as pandemic restrictions change. These findings demonstrate a need to tailor programs and policies to help high-risk groups (e.g., adolescent boys) stay active, healthy, and resilient during and after COVID-19 pandemics.
CSPAP Implementation During Student Teaching: Lessons Learned From the Field
Cate A. Egan, Chris B. Merica, University of Idaho; Karie Lee Orendorff, University of Montana
Background/Purpose: Less than half of youth in the United States meet national recommendations for physical activity (PA). Schools are identified as one of the most important intervention points for helping youth achieve PA guidelines. To ensure all youth have opportunities to meet these guidelines the Comprehensive School PA Program (CSPAP) model was developed and includes five coordinated components for PA promotion. Physical educators are being called upon to implement CSPAP components in their schools, but little is known about how teacher education programs are preparing their preservice teachers for CSPAP. Furthermore, little is known about how CSPAP implementation experiences influence preservice teachers desire to implement CSPAPs during their in-service years. The purpose of this research study was to understand preservice teachers’ perceptions’ of implementing CSPAP components at both the elementary and secondary level during a semester of student teaching.
Method: Research was conducted through a qualitative case study design with a convenience sample of (n = 5) undergraduate and (n = 4) graduate student physical education majors enrolled in student teaching. Researchers collected data at three time-points: (a) prior to CSPAP implementation at placement one, (b) between school placements, and (c) after implementation at placement two. Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted (N = 27, n = 9 per time-point) and N = 18 (one per implementation) CSPAP projects were collected (each CSPAP project included a school needs assessment, project goals and final outcomes from implementation).
Analysis/Results: Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. After each time-point, interviews were coded to inform and develop subsequent rounds of interview questions; after all interviews were completed all data was recoded using constant comparison. Trustworthiness was established (e.g., data triangulation, member checking, researcher debriefing, audit trail). The coding of data first revealed codes, then categories and eventually four themes emerged each with their own subthemes. Theme one is preparedness with two subthemes (a) CSPAP components and (b) previous coursework experiences. Theme two is perceived challenges and barriers with four subthemes (a) secondary level, (b) elementary level, (c) facilities and resources, and (d) support. Theme three is implementation with four subthemes (a) successes, (b) challenges and barriers experienced, (c) impact (school, staff, students, family, community), and (d) lessons learned. The fourth and final theme is moving forward with four subthemes (a) personal growth (b) perceptions of CSPAP importance, (c) career benefit, and (d) physical educator role. Findings indicated improved confidence in CSPAP implementation, a desire to implement CSPAPs in the future, and recognition of the value of implementing CSPAPs in the future. Preservice teachers also reported feeling proud of their implementation accomplishments and the impact that their program made on the school community. Preservice teachers also experienced personal growth and shared their perceived career benefits (e.g., discussing CSPAP implementation during job interviews) from implementing CSPAPs during their student teaching experience.
Conclusions: The findings suggest that implementing CSPAPs during student teaching can increase preservice teacher’s confidence and desire to implement CSPAPs in the future. Further research is needed to determine how preservice physical education student CSPAP experiences during student teaching influence implementation of CSPAP programs during future teaching employment.
District Administrators’ Views of Facilities Use: “It’s a School First”
Pamela Hodges KulinnaF, Arizona State University; Shannon C. Mulhearn, University of Nebraska-Kearney; Hans Van Der MarsF, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: From a behavioral-ecological perspective (Hovell et al., 2009), public high school campuses are a potential community-based setting for supporting health-enhancing physical activity (PA). Public high school PA areas have been found to be accessible outside of school hours just over 50% of the time (i.e., later afternoon/evening and weekends), but only used an average of 9% of this time (van der Mars et al., 2019). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to gain insight into administrators’ views of the high school facilities’ use during non-school hours.
Method: Six school district-level administrators (male = 5, female =1) who were Latino (n = 1) or Caucasian (n = 5) from four districts in the Western US were interviewed to learn about their views of high school facilities use during non-school hours. Administrators held positions of superintendent (n = 2), director of research (n = 1), chief operations officer (n = 1), assistant superintendent of facilities (n = 1), and athletic director (n = 1) serving in positions from 43 days to six years.
Analysis/Results: Constant comparison was utilized to identify common themes among responses. Data triangulation was used to support the trustworthiness of the themes (with observations and field notes) as well as member checking. Participants believed that facilities were used more frequently than what was found and they questioned the previous study’s findings. This was stated in a similar way across participants, “Number one (impression) was I thought our facilities were used a lot more than what the research showed” and “I didn’t find that [the study findings] was real accurate with what we have available at our schools.” Part of the perceived discrepancy between observed facilities use and administrators’ views of facilities use may be attributed to only investigating high school facilities use. All administrators mentioned that community use of facilities was much higher at elementary/middle school campuses. Relatedly, most of the administrators clearly agreed with the second theme of wanting more use of the schools’ PA facilities. One administrator indicated [if there were] “better ways to make it accessible to the community, we would be very interested in that.” Another mentioned responsibility to the community in his statement “And in actuality we want this [community use] … these are tax dollars, they are public investments. We would like our facilities to be considered part of the park system … ” The final theme, barriers, came with a stark reminder that administrators view campus from a “school first” perspective, before including a concern for being a community park. A variety of barriers were discussed including facilities, particularly fields, “overuse” which might not recover in time for school-sanctioned practices or games. In addition, there is the potential of possible physical dangers (e.g., bobcats on campus), and the risk of predators coming on campus to become familiar with facilities (e.g., shooters).
Conclusions: School district administrators had generally favorable views about increasing community use of high school facilities during non-school hours. Greater collaboration across influencing levels of the behavioral ecological model including schools, policy makers, and communities, may help to reduce barriers to high school facilities use and improve access for community members.
EATSS Curriculum Impact on Eating Behaviors of Hispanic Students
Erlinda Lopez Rodriguez, Gregory Jason Soukup Sr., Erica DeJesus, University of the Incarnate Word; Peter Wagner, Southwest Independent School District
Background/Purpose: Two thirds of Americans are overweight or obese. Researchers suggest the current generation of young people will have life expectancies between 3 and 5 years shorter than adults 65 and older because of unhealthy lifestyles. An estimated 300,000 American deaths each year are attributable to obesity. Childhood obesity has shown a significant increase in the Hispanic population in the last 30 years. These high rates of obesity in the Hispanic community have prompted concern from educators, parents, and public health practitioners regarding possible side effects such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer (CDC, 2004; USDHHS, 2000). The Early Attitudes Toward Staying Strong (EATSS) nutrition related school health program focuses on improving healthy eating behaviors of fifth grade physical education students. The EATSS program intervention is based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The purpose of the study was to determine if information that students received regarding healthy dietary food choices, nutritional knowledge and self-efficacy in the EATSS program curriculum would have a positive significant impact on the students and their families.
Method: Data were collected at 2 predominantly Hispanic Title I elementary schools in south Texas. A sample of 187 low income mostly Hispanic (91%) fifth grade students completed the E.A.T.S.S. program. The EATSS curriculum was comprised of 14 lessons related to nutrition that were 30 to 40 minutes in length. The curriculum was administered over a 14 week period and contained three assignments that were completed at home by students with family involvement. Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the university Institutional Review Board (IRB) and a public school district in south Texas. Parents provided permission for all students to participate in the program.
Analysis/Results: Average scores for students on the three assignments at the two different schools were analyzed for the study. Students at School A (n = 112) scored 42.9 on dietary food choices, knowledge, and self-efficacy and had the highest family involvement rates of 37% of the two groups. Students at School B (n = 75) scored 72.2% on dietary food choices, knowledge, and self-efficacy but only had 18% family involvement. Analysis did not provide evidence of positive changes in healthy eating behaviors with students and their families that participated in the E.A.T.S.S. curriculum.
Conclusions: The researchers concluded that an impediment to improving healthy eating behaviors with the Hispanic students and their family members that participated in the EATSS curriculum was because the majority of students lived in multigenerational homes that interfered with consistent implementation of healthy dietary interventions. The majority of students reported overeating. The researchers plan to address these limitations by creating new lesson plans that will specifically address healthy portion sizes for students and their families.
Ecological Factors and Sustainability of Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs
Aaron Jordan Mason, Pamela Hodges KulinnaF, Arizona State University; Shannon C. Mulhearn, University of Nebraska-Kearney; Henry Yu, Janelle Marie Griffo, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: Ecological models have appeared in Public Health Promotion initiatives since the 1980’s (Richard et al., 2010). In particular, Sallis and Owen (2002) and Lohrmann (2010) bring operational definitions to Teachers’ Health Ecology making it possible to measure ecological variables within a school context. Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs (CSPAP) promote healthy lifelong behaviors (e.g., physical activity; CDC, 2018) and are guided by these theoretical frameworks and constructional definitions. Though CSPAP is growing in popularity and use, little is known about factors influencing sustainability. Grounded in ecological and CSPAP models, the purpose of this study was to identify potential sustainability supports related to ecological factors.
Method: A previously validated, 31-item Likert-like health ecology questionnaire was administered to teachers in the Southwestern US in a multiyear CSPAP both mid-intervention (N = 47) and at follow-up (N = 67). Although three years passed between time points, school stakeholders were similar in gender (female 81% and 83%) and years of teaching experience (M = 14.4, SD = .11; M = 14.54, SD = .46) while more ethnically diverse at follow-up (82% Caucasian, 12% Hispanic, and 6% other). Questions related to the five aspects of ecological influence (Individual, Community, Organizational, Policy, and Interpersonal) were answered on a scale ranging from 1 (least influential) to 5 (most influential) in creating healthy schools. T-tests were used to explore differences in ecological factors over time. Additionally, at follow-up, a sub-sample (N = 40) participated in a card sort of which they ranked the ecological factors from most to least influential.
Analysis/Results: Most t-test results showed significant differences (p < .05) between the two time points in teachers’ ratings of factors, including Individual (mid-intervention M = 3.46, SD = .81 vs. follow-up M = 4.03 SD = .58), Organizational (M = 3.58, SD = .83, and M = 3.91, SD = .62), Interpersonal (M = 3.40, SD = .81, and M = 3.72, SD = .71), Policy (M = 3.22, SD = 1.09, and M = 3.56, SD = .81), and Community factors (M = 3.19, SD = .95, and M = 3.69, SD = .75). Similarly, at the follow-up interview card sort, 53.85% of teachers ranked Individual as the most influential factor while 23.08% ranked Organizational as most influential. Only 7.69% ranked Policy factors as most important, and none indicated Community factors as most influential when deciding to include healthy behavior activities.
Conclusions: All factors received higher rankings at follow-up, supporting the teacher’s health ecology model. This suggests that teachers’ decisions evolved as they became more aware of how CSPAP impacted their school. Although the card sort was only conducted in the follow-up, the results parallel those of the questionnaire, showing Individual levels having the greatest influence. For example, personal value of health and school culture are indicated as prime contributing factors to the sustainability of CSPAP programming. However, a significant proportion (23%) of teachers perceived Organizational factors as an important area of focus. These results imply that future sustainability efforts should initially prioritize the Individual and Organizational levels of CSPAP programming for greatest sustainability.
Effectiveness of Driving Simulator or Videos to Impact Distracted Driving
Maria T. Wessel, Theresa M. Enyeart Smith, James Madison University
Background/Purpose: Many who have had phones since their preteen years consider them a crucial part of their daily lives; however, they can be deadly distractions. In 2018 alone, 2,841 fatalities were due to distracted driving (DD), and 10% of fatalities and 15% of injury crashes happen to teen drivers.
The purpose of this study was to identify effectiveness of different strategies used to impact attitudes and behaviors related to DD, particularly texting and driving, before and after participation in the study.
Method: A sample of 98 student participants completed the “No Excuses” project. Participants were randomly assigned to three groups: control, distracted driving simulator group, or the video viewing group. All three groups completed a pretest assessing attitudes and perceptions related to DD. One experimental group used the simulator to test texting while driving and driving proficiency; the other experimental group viewed DD videos that had emotional appeal. Only the two experimental groups completed the posttest, which measured the immediate perceptions of the videos or simulator. Participants in all three groups completed the post posttest approximately 30 days later, measuring attitudes and behaviors related to DD, which were analyzed for any change.
Analysis/Results: The sample consisted of primarily females (86.9%), ages 20–21 (70.3%), junior or senior status (84.5%) with a majority reporting driving daily (77.6%). Results indicated students continue to drive distracted in spite of acknowledged risk. Most participants (85.7%) reported sending texts and 89.8% reported reading texts while driving. Additional data were collected on texting and driving behavior including frequencies, location, and time of day.
Posttest results indicated that both viewing videos and use of a driving simulator positively impacted awareness (90.8%) and perception of risk (98.5%) related to texting and driving. Participants reported conflicting views of effectiveness of videos or the driving simulator to change texting and driving behaviors of others. Unfortunately, post posttest results indicated erosion of desired perceptions about distracted driving.
Conclusions: Despite that data indicated students continue to drive distracted despite acknowledged risk, Health Belief Model (HBM) constructs verify high perception of susceptibility to and severity of negative consequences of DD, high perception of benefits of not texting and driving to reduce negative consequences, and low perceptions of self-efficacy to safely text and drive. HBM has been widely used in changing health behaviors such as immunizations, health testing, and safer sex practices, as examples. Currently, HBM constructs such as perceived severity (i.e. education) and cues to action (i.e. peer influences) are being used to increase mask wearing for prevention of COVID-19. By identifying HBM-related constructs such as perceptions, benefits, ubarriers and cues to action, effective education, persuasion, and incentives may be implemented for safer behavior related to DD. However, DD is pervasive and complex and may require multi-pronged prevention. HBM strategies, as well as wider community and environmental efforts including policies, policing, phone, and vehicle engineering must also be used for prevention of DD. Although texting and driving has become a behavioral norm proving difficult to change, continued strategies must be implemented to reduce the occurrences of DD incidents.
Effects of Kinesthetic Classroom Equipment on Second Graders’ Amount of Physical Activity
Emily D. Clapham, Michelle Flippin, Shane Tutwiler, University of Rhode Island
Background/Purpose: This pilot study examined the effects of modifying the elementary classroom with use of kinesthetic equipment on amount of physical activity for elementary school children. Student participants were 47 children (24 females, 23 males) enrolled in three, second grade classes in a single elementary school in southern New England. Of these, 87% were White, 7% African American, 2% Hispanic, 2% Asian, and 2% Native American. Twelve students (26%) received subsidized lunch, one student was an English Language Learner and seven students (15%) had an Individualized Education Plan (IEP).
Method: After obtaining teacher and parent consent and student assent and institutional approval students were fitted with FIT Step Pro digital pedometers. Researchers collected daily step count and number of steps per minute data at the end of each sampling day. Established class schedules for this second grade cohort were structured so that children spent a morning block in the home classroom and rotated to across to other second grade teachers for instruction in literacy, math and science, along with special classes (i.e., physical education, music, art, library). Daily step counts, total activity time and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity were collected each day over 5 weeks for a total of 10, full day samples. This pilot study used a multiple baselines across conditions ABAB withdrawal design to examine physical activity amounts over five weeks in the spring term. During baseline and withdrawal weeks (A phases), students used standard classroom desks, tables and chairs in the existing classroom design. During intervention and generalization weeks (B phases), classrooms were fitted with kinesthetic equipment. Equipment utilized consisted of under the desk pedals, exercise balls, learniture active learning stool, standing desks, kneel and spin desks and bouncy bands for desks. Children were given the option to try each piece of equipment throughout the course of the study. Equipment was chosen based on the following criteria: cost, ease of application, ease of assembly and variety. Researchers attempted to offer as many options as possible to vary physical movements: standing, balancing, kneeling, kneeling and spinning, sitting and bouncing, sitting and balancing and cycling. These movements are common movements for children and physical activity breaks throughout the day can improve both student behavior and learning (Reilly, Buskist & Gross, 2012).
Analysis/Results: Total step count data indicated a statistically significant increase with the implementation of the kinesthetic classroom equipment. When the equipment was taken away, the total step count returned to baseline and was also statistically significant compared to the first week of the introduction of the equipment. Total step count stabilized for the following weeks. The steps per minute decreased after the initial introduction of the kinesthetic classroom equipment.
Conclusions: Researchers saw an increase in amount of physical activity when kinesthetic classroom equipment was introduced in the classroom.
Environmental Constructs Associated With School Readiness to Implement Wellness Initiatives
Emily M. Jones, Illinois State University; Joseph Lee, Colorado State University, Colorado Springs; Andrew Eberline, Megan Weemer, Tyler Kybartas, Illinois State University
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine school and environmental factors associated with capacity to implement school-based wellness initiatives.
Method: Exploratory mixed methods design was used to assess school and district-level wellness assets and needs. School site visits were conducted within eight K-12 schools in a single mid-western school district fall 2019 (n = 6 Elementary, n = 1 Jr. High, n = 1 High School). Site visits included quantitative and qualitative data collection methods to capture school-level physical activity, nutrition, and wellness opportunities, programs, and environments. Site visits included six focus group interviews (each 45 minutes) with 4–6 participants representing a specific stakeholder group including: classroom and physical education teachers, recess monitors, school nurses, afterschool physical activity program leaders or directors, food service personnel, parent/community members, and building administrators. Interview questions were derived from the School Wellness Environment Profile (SWEP; Lee & Welk, 2018) based on stakeholder group expertise. Hand-written field notes were taken throughout the interview to capture the dynamic conversations and provide qualitative insights to the stakeholder discussions. Participants completed an anonymous, paper-pencil 40-item survey to evaluate the school’s readiness for change (School Wellness Readiness Assessment [SWRA]). The SWRA includes individual structural and psychological items, along with organizational structural and psychological items to measure school capacity and readiness to implement wellness initiatives and programs.
Analysis/Results: Mixed methods analysis was employed. Schools were classified as low (LC) or high (HC) capacity using the SWRA data. A one-way ANOVA examined between group differences on the SWEP wellness environment constructs (physical education, classroom physical activity, before/afterschool physical activity, community and family engagement, school food environments, and staff wellness) and capacity for change. Qualitative data were analyzed inductively, and emergent school-level themes helped expand contextual understanding and nuances of school wellness environments and validated quantitative findings. Schools were placed into HC and LC groups using the median split procedure based on SWRA data. Four schools were grouped into the HC group (M = 3.08, SD = 0.14; all elementary) and four schools were grouped into the LC group (M = 2.65, SD = 0.15). Results from the one-way ANOVA reveal a statistically significant between group difference for schools with more active school wellness teams (F(1,6) = 8.442, p = .27). Qualitative data revealed findings that indicated school wellness committees were common areas of needed growth across all eight schools, regardless of HC or LC status. Further, six of the eight schools reflected strong wellness-focused family/community connections or partnerships. Common themes associated with HC areas of need included increased policy adherence and clarity, and enhanced staff wellness programming (3 of 4 schools), whereas HC strengths noted school food environments (3 of 4 schools). All LC schools identified a need for increased student PA and wellness opportunities.
Conclusions: Findings suggest that beyond physical education and school food environments, higher capacity for change is promising and could associate with more physical activity opportunities, better wellness team function, and perhaps, implementation of wellness policies/efforts. Mixed methods data reveal that additional efforts are needed to increase capacity and resources to align school wellness plans/strategies to district wellness policy aims/goals.
Evaluation of a Neurocognitive Affect-Related Model in Physical Activity Context
Myungjin Jung, Han Soo Kim, Minsoo KangF, Paul Loprinzi, The University of Mississippi
Background/Purpose: Recent research has proposed a conceptual neurocognitive affect-related model in the context of physical activity (PA), ultimately helping to explaining the potential interrelationships between executive function-based cognition, PA related affect, and habitual PA. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to develop and empirically evaluate a neurocognitive affect-related model of PA.
Method: A total of 298 undergraduate and graduate students completed a self-reported questionnaire evaluating executive function-related creativity, PA enjoyment, adherence intention to PA, and PA behavior. The self-evaluated creativity instrument utilized a short form of the Kaufman Domains of Creativity Scale, including 20 items measuring five domains of creativity relevant to college student populations. A sample item is “Teaching someone how to do something.” Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale was modified to measure enjoyment of the PA, and 5 items were selected from the original 18-item. An example item is “When I am physically active, I like it.” Adherence intention to PA was assessed using three items, which focus on PA plans for the next 4 months. A sample item includes “I intend to participate in PA regularly during the next 4 months.” Habitual engagement in PA was evaluated from a two-item Physical Activity Vitals Sign survey. The questions include the number of days and the average time in a typical week participants engaged in moderate-vigorous PA. Using AMOS (v. 24), structural equation model was used to evaluate the measurement and conceptual dimensions of our model.
Analysis/Results: Using a confirmatory factor analysis, the full measurement model, indicating all latent constructs (i.e., creativity, PA enjoyment, adherence intention to PA, and PA behavior), indicated a good model fit (χ2 = 429.11, df = 296, p < .001, CFI = .96, TLI = .96, SRMR = .05, RMSEA = .04). In addition, the hypothesized structural model showed an acceptable model fit (χ2 = 463.74, df = 315, p < .001, CFI = .96, TLI = .95, SRMR = .06, RMSEA = .04). Regarding structure relationships, the direct path from creativity to adherence intention to PA was not significant (standardized ℽ = .01, S.E. = .23, p = .84). However, other three direct paths were statistically significant (creativity → PA enjoyment: standardized ℽ = .17, S.E. = .17, p < .05; PA enjoyment → adherence intention to PA: standardized ℽ = .57, S.E. = .10, p < .001; adherence intention to PA → moderate-to-vigorous PA: standardized ℽ = .40, S.E. = .05, p <.001). In addition, creativity was indirectly associated with adherence intention to PA via positive enjoyment to PA (standardized ℽ = .10, S.E. = .18, p = .03). PA enjoyment, thus, served as a full mediator in the relationship between creativity and adherence intention to PA.
Conclusions: These findings underscore the importance of forming both cognitive and affective functions for PA promotion and also provide partial support for our neurocognitive affect-related model in the PA context.
Examining High School Students’ Perceptions of Physical Activity
Kenneth Allen Murfay Jr., Heather E. ErwinF, University of Kentucky; Aaron Beighle, The University of Kentucky
Background/Purpose: Regular physical activity (PA) has been associated with bone health, improved cognitive functioning, reduced risk of cancer, reduced anxiety, and improved quality of life.1 It is recommended that youth engage daily in 60 minutes of PA.2 However, adolescent PA levels have been declining over the years3 with only 46% of students self-reporting that they were active for 60 minutes a day for 5 or more days in a week.4 This number is even lower when PA is objectively measured with males being more active than females.5 In an attempt to help promote PA, it is important to consider variables that impact PA behaviors. Specifically, perceptions of PA have been shown to affect youth PA.6 This mixed methods study wanted to better understand students’ perceptions of physical activity, their perceptions of the benefits/barriers to PA, how these perceptions are developed, and how that relates to actual PA. The discussion section used self-efficacy, as developed within social cognitive theory, to help explain the results.
Method: The study involved interviews with freshmen high school students (n = 25) and their physical education (PE) teacher (n = 1), measuring student PA with pedometers for one week, and students completing the modified Exercise Benefits and Barriers Scale to measure perceptions of PA.
Analysis/Results: Results revealed a significant difference in PA between males/females (p = .03), but not with perceptions of PA (p = .60). There was no significant association between students’ perceptions of PA and PA (p = .28) with a moderate to weak positive association (.44). The benefits/barriers scale found that all the students (100%) said that they enjoyed PA and understood some of the long-term benefits of PA. About 15–20% of students on the survey were not aware of the immediate benefits of PA. These students disagreed that PA helped with “mental alertness,” “better sleep,” and “mental health.” Some students said that PA “tired me” (68%) and were fatigued by PA (44%). Interview data from the students and teacher indicated the following themes: students inconsistent PA knowledge, students wanting more opportunities to be active, and that families play a pivotal role in the development of perceptions of PA.
Conclusions: The study found that students lack basic PA knowledge. They do not have a shared understanding of what PA is and what it means to be physically active. They enjoy PA but have differing levels of motivation to be physically active. One reason for this is that some students perceive PA to be sports or exercise. These perceptions could explain why some students thought PA was difficult or didn’t feel PA increased their acceptance by others. The students wanted more opportunities to be physically active, which can come from family, school, and PE. All three should try to provide students with positive experiences with PA that include participating in a variety of PA, being educated about PA, and being encouraged to individualize movement for success. Increasing students’ PA self-efficacy should help students to develop positive perceptions of PA and hopefully increase their PA.
Examining Project FLEX: A Physical Activity Program for Incarcerated Youth
Zachary Wahl-AlexanderF, Jennifer Jacobs, Northern Illinois University
Background/Purpose: Research exploring incarcerated youth is scarcely underrepresented. Although prison populations continue to grow at an exponential rate, there are a limited number of programs worldwide working toward rehabilitating this vulnerable population. The limited programs that do exist focus predominantly on religion, spirituality, or drug prevention. While there is a plethora of research recognizing sport and physical activity as ideal vessels for promoting physical and psychological health, there are few known programs currently employing this approach with incarcerated youth.
Project FLEX (Fitness, Leadership EXperience), is a sport-based leadership program at a maximum-security juvenile detention center. The primary aims of Project FLEX are to provide onsite opportunity to participate in regular physical activity and develop personal and social responsibility. This multifaceted program is a preventative effort to provide knowledge and opportunities for youth to optimize their future outlooks. The purpose of this presentation is to explore the longitudinal impact of Project FLEX on the incarcerated youth population.
Method: This study was conducted in a maximum-security youth detention center in the Midwest portion of the United States. Participants in this study were 60 male youth (Mage = 18.2), who participated in biweekly, 60-minute Project FLEX programming focused on sport, fitness and team-building activities. Pedometers (SW-701 Yamax Digi Walker) and systematic observation (SOFIT) were utilized to evaluate programmatic physical activity levels, whereas field testing (FITTNESSGRAM) was used to assess participant fitness levels.
Analysis/Results: To examine the differences in health-related fitness variables, a Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) test was employed. The within-subject’s factor was time (pretest, posttest) and age was included as the covariate. Wilks’ lambda was used to determine the statistical significance of the multivariate model. Follow-up tests involved separate univariate Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) tests with Bonferroni alpha level adjustment.
Project FLEX successfully provided youth with ample opportunities to be physically activity during programming. SOFIT demonstrates youth spent over 48% of class time engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (data from 12 coded sessions). These findings align with pedometer data from over 100 sessions, illustrating youth averaged over 3,500 steps per session and 55 steps per minute. Prolonged participation in Project FLEX had an immense impact on minority youth’s overall health-related fitness markers. The youth in this study saw reductions in both weight and BMI, in addition to increases in PACER test (7 laps), pushup (8 repetitions) and sit-up tests (4 repetitions).
Conclusions: Although the prison population continues to grow at an alarming rate, very little has been done to rehabilitate these youth. Findings from this study indicate Project FLEX has had an immense impact on the incarcerated population. Not only has this programming provided youth with high bouts of moderate to vigorous physical activity, but biweekly programming has controlled the inordinate weight gain that typically ravishes this population. In addition to stabilizing weight gain, youth participating in Project FLEX saw increases in cardiovascular endurance and muscle strength. Future research is warranted to determine if these gains are able to be held over longer periods of time and upon release.
Exercise Stages and Health-Related Fitness in Young Adults
Istvan Kovacs, Wenhao LiuF, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: Based on the Transtheoretical Model (Prochaska & Marcus, 1994), people can be categorized into five exercise stages: Stage 1 (Precontemplation), no exercise and no intention to change; Stage 2 (Contemplation), no exercise but considering a change; Stage 3 (Preparation), having some change/exercise; Stage 4 (Action), performing regular exercise recently or currently (less than six months) and meeting Federal Physical Activity Guidelines (FPAG); and Stage 5 (Maintenance), performing regular exercise habitually (at least six months) and meeting FPAG. While the exercise stage model is frequently used in physical activity (PA) intervention, there are no reports relating the exercise stages to people’s health conditions. This study examined the relationship between exercise stages and health-related fitness in young adults.
Method: Standard assessment protocols were followed to assess 20-meter PACER, curl-ups, push-ups, sit-and-reach, and percent body fat (%BF) for 190 university students (mean age: 21.06 ± 1.66) in the US. Exercise stages were assessed with the Exercise Stages of Change Survey (Marcus & Forsyth, 2009). Fifty participants (24 females) were identified in exercise stages 2 or 3, forming a Low Exercise Stage Group (LESG); 56 (24 females) in exercise stage 4, forming a stage-4 group (S4G), and 84 (40 females) in exercise stage 5, forming a stage-5 group (S5G). No stage-1 participants were identified. One-way MANOVA was run for males and females separately to examine the relationship between the exercise stages and the five dependent variables (i.e., PACER, curl-ups, push-ups, sit-and-reach, and %BF).
Analysis/Results: For males, the omnibus F test was significant, with F(10,190) = 3.12, p = .001, and ƞ2 = .14. The follow-up pairwise comparisons showed significant differences (p values ranged from .001 to .038) in the following four measures in favor of S5G: PACER, S5G (63.77 ± 18.10) vs. LESG (48.54 ± 13.87), and S5G vs. S4G (54.34 ± 14.30); curl-ups, S5G (64.61 ± 18.92) vs. LESG (52.08 ± 16.56); push-ups, S5G (26.82 ± 7.78) vs. LESG (21.62 ± 6.58), and S5G vs. S4G (21.81 ± 6.61); and sit-and-reach, S5G (19.24 ± 3.63) vs. LESG (16.40 ± 4.08), and S5G vs. S4G (16.59 ± 3.34). With respect to females, the omnibus F test was significant as well, with F(10,162) = 3.12, p = .001, and ƞ2 = .16. The follow-up pairwise comparisons showed significant differences (p values ranged from .000 to .048) in the following three measures in favor of S5G: PACER, S5G (46.00 ± 16.26) vs. LESG (31.33 ± 11.40), and S5G vs. S4G (34.50 ± 11.11); curl-ups, S5G (61.55 ± 23.13) vs. LESG (47.21 ± 18.68); and sit-and-reach, S5G (20.13 ± 4.63) vs. LESG (17.46 ± 3.55).
Conclusions: Young adults in exercise stage 5 demonstrate significant better performance in most health-related fitness components than those in low exercise stages (i.e., stages 2 and 3). Those in stage 4, however, do not show any of these advantages over those in low exercise stages. While both stage-4 group and stage-5 group meet the FPAG, the former has met the FPAG less than six months, whereas the latter has met the FPAG six months or more. It seems that only long-time commitment to exercise engagement will result in significant positive outcomes.
Experimental Study on Improving College Students’ Fitness and Physical Activity Based on Wearable Devices
Mingming Guo, Xiaozan Wang, East China Normal University
Background/Purpose: In the past few decades, the physical activity level and the fitness level of Chinese college students have declined rapidly. It has become a bottleneck for the improvement of the health status of Chinese college students. At the same time, wearable devices are rapidly evolving, and it has become possible to apply wearable devices to physical activity interventions among college students. Based on this, this study aims to explore the effectiveness of physical activity intervention based on wearable devices in improving the physical activity level and fitness level of Chinese college students, and then put forward effective suggestions for the corresponding health promotion actions.
Method: A total of 132 college students were selected to participate in the experiment, of which 65 were in experimental group and 67 were in control group. The experiment was carried out for 13 weeks. During the experiment, the students in the experimental group wore smartwatch (iHealth Edge AM3S), and the number of exercise steps was recorded every day. Those who exceeded 10,000 steps were rewarded with virtual credit. The control group did not receive any intervention. Before and after the experiment, the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) was used to measure the physical activity level. The Fitness Test of Chinese Students was used to assess the fitness level.
Analysis/Results: The independent samples t tests showed that there was no significant difference in physical activity level and fitness level between the experimental group and the control group before the experiment. The paired sample T tests showed that the overall physical activity level and medium-intensity physical activity level of the experimental group improved significantly more than the control group after the experiment (t medium intensity = 115.08, p medium intensity <0.01; t overall = 100.84, p overall <0.05). Paired sample T tests also showed that after experiment the majority of fitness indicators of experimental group improved significantly more than the control Group (t vital capacity = 5.14, p vital capacity <0.01; t standing jump = 2.37, p standing jump <.05; t50 m female = −3.34, P50 m female <0.01; t800 m female = −2.28, p800 m female <0.05; t1000 m male = −3.92, p1000 m male <0.01).
Conclusions: Physical activity intervention based on wearable devices can effectively improve the overall physical activity level of college students and the level of moderate physical activity. Physical activity intervention based on wearable devices also can effectively improve the cardiopulmonary function and cardiopulmonary endurance, speed and lower limb strength of college students, thereby further improve the fitness level of college students.
Exploring the Impact of a Rural HBCU Walking Program
Desmond Woodruff Delk, Langston University; Asherah Nichole Blount Allen, North Carolina Central University
Background/Purpose: Sa and colleagues (2016) concluded that physical inactivity among African-American students at an HBCU resulted in high rates of obesity, especially when there has been a family history of health-diminishing practices such as sedentary behaviors. As such, in the fall of 2016, the ROARS Walking Program RWP was established as a daily program to increase the overall physical activity engagement of the Langston community. In order to address sedentary behaviors present in college and university students, the RWP is a campus-wide physical activity initiative at Langston University, a HBCU with a large percentage of minority students, faculty, staff, and community partners.
Method: Semi-structured interviews and focus groups were conducted to explore the experiences of students and faculty who participated in the walking program. Data on daily participation levels and session offering were collected through an electronic database
Analysis/Results: Over the span of three years, the number of daily walking sessions have nearly doubled. Also, the number of participants has tripled from 161 persons in the first academic year to 485 persons in the most recent. Lastly, the overall instances of participation nearly doubled from 630 in the inaugural year to 1025 in year three. In terms of participant experience, it was found that the program provides an opportunity to be actively engaged on a consistent schedule. Participants also felt that the program fosters an environment to establish relationship. The students particularly believed that their newly developed relationships with instructors could flourish into mentoring opportunities. Lastly, participants believed that the walking program assisted with establishing healthy lifestyle choices in addition to the consistent physical activity engagement.
Conclusions: Overall, RWP supports in educating, developing, and implementing healthy behaviors that will counteract the debilitating effects of inactivity while assisting in mitigating issues prevalent in African Americans. As the program has been found to have social benefits, the program will continue to provide opportunities for members of the Langston community to reach recommended levels of moderate physical activity engagement while developing partnerships, friendships, and collaborations.
Familial Factors Associating With Youth Physical Activity Using a National Sample
Ryan D. BurnsF, Taylor E Colotti, Christopher Pfledderer, University of Utah; You FuF, University of Nevada, Reno; Yang Bai, Wonwoo Byun, University of Utah
Background/Purpose: Factors within the home environment may have a strong influence on child physical activity. Examining a comprehensive set of familial factors with child physical activity is important to inform researchers and practitioners that aim to derive interventions with a family component, which may yield higher levels of effectiveness for promoting child physical activity and its correlates. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the independent and joint associations between familial and child-level factors with reported weekly child physical activity using a representative sample of US children and adolescents.
Method: Data were analyzed from the combined 2017–2018 National Survey of Children’s Health. Household addresses were randomly selected within each US state and the District of Columbia between August 2017 and January 2019. One parent within each household answered health and wellness questions pertaining to one randomly selected household child (N = 37,392; 48.1% female; 6–17 years old). Weighted logistic regression models examined the independent and joint associations between family-level and child-level factors with a child meeting the 60 minutes of physical activity per day guideline, controlling for child age, sex, BMI classification, and race/ethnicity. Secondary analyses were conducted to test for joint associations (interactions) between family-level and child-level variables.
Analysis/Results: After controlling for confounders, higher levels of family resilience (OR = 2.17; 95%CI: 1.35–3.49, p = .001), high event and activity attendance (OR = 1.65; 95%CI: 1.18–2.31, p = .004), and high family income (OR = 1.84, 95%CI: 1.34–2.52, p < .001) significantly associated with higher odds of a child meeting the 60 minutes of physical activity per day guideline. Family generational status and adult education significantly modified the association between family resilience and child physical activity (p < .05).
Conclusions: The current study provides robust evidence for family-level determinants of child physical activity. These findings should spur additional research using more rigorous research designs and objective assessments to improve internal validity evidence. Nevertheless, parents may have as much of a role and responsibility to promote child physical activity as anyone in a child’s life and thus improving family resilience and involving parental support within school- and community-based interventions to promote child physical activity should be considered.
Flourishing Through Sport: The Effect of Sport Participation on Individuals With Adverse Childhood Experiences
Scott R. Doig, Arkansas State University; Shane D. Staats, Unaffiliated; Suzanne Pottratz, Barry University; Yongjin Hwang, University of South Carolina
Background/Purpose: It is estimated that just under half of the children in the United States have experienced at least one Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE), which is a specific instance of significant toxic stress. ACEs have been consistently shown to have strong, graded relationships with health outcomes, social problems, and academic performance that can persist throughout the lifetime. Children with greater levels of flourishing (overall well-being and positive mental health) are more likely to overcome these negative outcomes. Recently, researchers have found that sport participation could be one method of improving protective factors against the negative effects of ACEs. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of sport participation on flourishing in children, as well as to develop a model for how sport participation impacts flourishing and the relationship between ACEs and academic performance. It was hypothesized that sport participation would build flourishing, and that flourishing would moderate the relationship between ACE effects and school performance.
Method: Using data collected from the 2016 and 2017 National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH) for children ages 6–17, the researchers examined the relationship between sport participation and flourishing. The proposed model for the moderating effects of flourishing on the relationship between ACEs and school performance (school engagement, missed school days, and repeated grades) was also tested. Bayesian Structural Equation Modeling (BSEM) was used for the analysis.
Analysis/Results: Sport participation was found to significantly, positively affect flourishing in both 2016 (PhysAct_16 to flrish6to17_16 = .128; AftSchAct_16 to flrish6to17_16 = .382) and 2017 data sets (PhysAct_17 to flrish6to17_16 = .126; AftSchAct_16 to flrish6to17_16 = .334). Moderation analysis showed excellent model fit in both 2016 and 2017 data (posterior predictive p value = .5). The positive posterior mean value (.231) indicated positive influence of flourishing on school engagement for both 2016 and 2017 data. The posterior mean value of flourishing to missed school days was negative for 2016 (−.101) and 2017 data (−.108). However, flourishing was not a significant factor for repeated grades for either data set.
Conclusions: Sport participation leads to greater levels of flourishing in children ages 6–17. Children with higher levels of flourishing are more likely to overcome the negative academic consequences associated with experiencing ACEs; more specifically they are more engaged at school and miss fewer school days. Therefore, encouraging children who have experienced one or more traumatic events in their life to get involved in sports may be an effective intervention for increasing school attendance and engagement.
Generalization From Physical Education to Recess During Sport Education Season
Shu Cheng, KU Leuven; Rosalie Coolkens, PXL University College; Phillip Ward, The Ohio State University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven
Background/Purpose: Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs (CSPAP) contain physical education as its core, complemented with components such physical activity during school, such as recess (SHAPE America, 2015). One goal of CSPAP’s is model is connecting the content of physical education with recess programs to contribute to the increase of elementary school children’s moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (Coolkens, Ward, Seghers, & Iserbyt, 2018). Our purpose was to investigate the effect of generalization of engagement in parkour from physical education classes to a voluntary parkour setting during recess.
Method: A total of 143 (64 girls, 79 boys) 3rd grade elementary school children received a 12-lesson parkour sport education season in physical education lessons. Voluntary participation in five parkour recess sessions was investigated. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in physical education classes, parkour recess and regular recess was collected using systematic observation. Parkour recess was the generalization setting, which was held by physical education teachers once per week and for a total of five sessions in the school’s gym. Children could participate voluntarily in parkour recess and the duration was 20 minutes. Regular recess was the comparison setting which was supervised by school personnel. Regular recess was the time children spent on the playground after lunch for a duration of 45 minutes. Parkour related MVPA, defined as MVPA generated through performing parkour skills learned in physical education (i.e., children jumped over the plint using a speed step), was collected in physical education classes and parkour recess. Analysis of variance was used to detect statistical differences between setting (i.e., physical education, parkour recess, and regular recess) and between boys and girls.
Analysis/Results: The proportion of children voluntarily participating in individual parkour recess sessions ranged between 70% and 77%. A significantly higher proportion of girls participated in all five parkour recess sessions compared to boys (53% vs. 35%, p = .034). Boys achieved significantly higher MVPA than girls in physical education (47% vs. 42%, p = .045), parkour recess (73% vs. 65%, p = .003) and regular recess (56% vs. 36%, p < .001). The proportion of parkour related MVPA of girls and boys was higher in physical education compared to parkour recess (22% vs. 15%, p < .001), no parkour-related MVPA was observed in regular recess.
Conclusions: Connecting physical education with organized recess led to a majority of children voluntarily participating in parkour recess which was highly beneficial for girls since their MVPA values almost doubled during parkour compared to regular recess. Generalization of engagement from physical education classes to organized recess program is a promising strategy to increase children’s daily MVPA.
Home-Based PE and PA During the COVID-19 School Closures
Catherine P. Abel-Berei, Daniel Reid Swartz, Kristie Rupp, Southern Connecticut State University; Amy Gagnon, Central Connecticut State University; Darren Robert, Eastern Connecticut State University
Background/Purpose: Online physical education (OLPE) is a method of instructional delivery in physical education (PE) that allows students to complete academic work virtually using a computer or handheld mobile device. How this occurs varies greatly and research in this area is limited. The COVID-19 global pandemic forced parents/guardians to home school children in a virtual or online environment. It was unknown what was being sent home by physical educators to complete PE requirements in this home-based learning environment. There is no existing research regarding the types and amounts of physical activity (PA) children are participating in throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, and whether or not PA participation is a result of PE requirements or a means of expending energy at home. Thus, this study examined: (1) the types and amounts of PA youth engaged in during the pandemic; and (2) differences in meeting PA guidelines by OLPE requirements.
Method: Parents/guardians (N = 348) of children who were being home schooled during the school closures completed a Qualtrics survey sent through social media (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn), state health and PE organizations, school principals, and PE teachers. Survey questions examined parents’/guardians’ perceptions of the types and length of participation in PA, PA equipment, various behaviors (e.g., distracted/difficulty concentrating, fidgeting) before and after PA, PE requirements (content, time), instructional delivery methods, changes in the importance of non-structured PA and changes in the importance of structured PE classes before and after the school closures. Parent-reported PA levels and activity type were analyzed by grade levels (preK–5th grade [n = 207] and 6th–12th grade [n = 141]). Logistic regression models, adjusted for age and grade level, assessed the odds of youth meeting PA guidelines (≥60 min/day) comparing parent reported OLPE requirements to parents who did not report OLPE requirements.
Analysis/Results: Participants were 53.7% (n = 187) male and 72.7% reported living in a suburban setting. Overall, 69.6% of younger students (grades preK–5th) and 39.0% of older students (grades 6–12) reported meeting PA guidelines. Types of PA were collapsed into aerobic, muscle strengthening, and bone strengthening activities. Only 31.4% of younger and 14.9% of older students reported engaging in aerobic activities. Whereas 12.1% and 2.8% of younger and older students reported engaging in muscle strengthening activities, respectively. Lastly, 16.9% of younger and 6.4% of older students reported engaging in bone strengthening activities. Among students of all grade levels, there were no statistically significant differences in the odds of meeting PA guidelines by OLPE requirement (AOR = 0.56; 95% CI: 0.31, 1.01) after adjustment for gender and grade level.
Conclusions: The prevalence of youth meeting PA guidelines during the pandemic and OLPE is similar to pre-pandemic estimates [USDHHS, 2018] with a greater proportion of younger children meeting guidelines than adolescents. However, from our results it is not clear what types of activities youth were engaging in. While we did not see a significant relationship between OLPE requirement and meeting PA guidelines, further investigation is warranted in a larger and more representative sample of youth, particularly since further disruptions to in-person education are anticipated.
How Physical Education, Sport, and Technology Influence College Students’ Activity Levels
Kimberly Maljak, James W Ball, Trace Alexandria Chase, Carolyn Rose Crost, Michael Ortega, Marisela Palma, Allan Gabriel Ramirez, Northeastern Illinois University
Background/Purpose: The CDC (2019) states physical activity (PA) decreases with age from late adolescence to early adulthood. However, those who participated in high school sport and recreation programs tended to be more active adults (Brown, Patel, & Darmawan, 2017). Quality PE programs are designed to improve fundamental and motor skill development, increase self-efficacy, and encourage lifelong PA (SHAPE America, 2020). Limited research has been done on the impacts of high school PE and its effect on adult PA. Likewise, Middelweerd, Mollee, Van Der Wal, Brug, and Velde (2014) found very little research on the effects of apps/technology and its impact on PA.
According to Deci and Ryan (2000), self-determination theory (SDT) suggests three psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) to maximize growth, social development, and well-being. If high school students were physically active in environments that satisfied these three needs, they may be more active adults. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of high school PE, sport, recreation, and technology on college students’ PA levels centered on the three basic needs of SDT.
Method: Using participant observation methodology, 30 college students, ages 18–46, who participated in PA in the recreation building, were observed and interviewed during two semesters at one Midwestern university. Data collection included two observations of each participant being active and one 45-minute individual interview with each participant. Data was analyzed using constant comparison and inductive analysis throughout to identify themes. Trustworthiness was sought by prolonged engagement, persistent observation, triangulation, peer debriefing, negative case analysis, and member checking.
Analysis/Results: Results indicated PA levels varied among college students depending on their PE, sport, and recreation experiences. First, students who attended an urban high school were limited by PA choices in PE, thus, affecting their motivation to stay physically active versus those who attended suburban schools with more autonomy, keeping them interested in lifelong PA as adults. Second, participants who partook in sport and recreational activities formed strong bonds with other students and enjoyed mentorship from coaches and supportive adults. Participants (n = 23) stated past recreational activities with a caring and trusted role model indicated positive motivation to remain involved in PA as adults. Finally, technology trends did not indicate a significant influence on PA. However, the most common form of technology used by participants were social media to learn new workouts and smart watches for tracking progress.
Conclusions: PE classes would have a more lasting effect on students if teachers increased competence by providing more instruction for exercises and activities that reinforce lifelong activity. Also, creating a more autonomous environment to engage students in class will increase the likihood of students being lifelong active adults. Coaches and teachers should build relationships with students in order to instill positive feelings about PA. Most participants use the skills they learned in previous sport and recreational activities in their current PA routines, which has strongly encouraged them to form healthy habits as adults. Finally, technology can help to learn new workouts, set PA goals, and set PA reminders.
Impact of a Before-School Physical Activity on Students’ SEL and Energy
Tan Leng GohF, Carol Ciotto, Central Connecticut State University; Jacquelyn Fede, University of Rhode Island; Marybeth H. Fede, Southern Connecticut State University
Background/Purpose: Youth who possess competency in social and emotional learning (SEL) skills exhibit positive social behaviors, display fewer conduct problems, and have lower levels of emotional distress. Literature on physical activity (PA) engagement and SEL among youth is limited despite the positive connection between SEL and emotional well-being of youth. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of a before-school fitness-based PA program on students’ SEL.
Method: The 30-minute program was implemented, three days per week, for six weeks in fall 2019 at a middle school by the physical education teacher. A total of 85 students (67 in 6th grade; 16 in 7th grade; 2 in 8th grade) took part in the study. Thirty-three students participated in the program, while 52 students who did not participate in the program were in the control group. Data were collected one week before and one week after the 6-week program. A 17-item, 4-point Likert scale questionnaire (1 = very difficult; 4 = very easy) was administered to assess students’ SEL. Questions (e.g., doing my schoolwork even when I do not feel like it) were structured according to the five core competencies of SEL. Additionally, the students in the program filled out their energy levels (1 = asleep; 4 = focused/purposeful; 6 = maxed out) before and after their participation in the session each day in order to gauge their readiness for active engagement in the classroom.
Analysis/Results: The differences in SEL scores from the beginning to the end of the program among students in the program and controls were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA. The difference in SEL scores from the beginning to the end of the program was significantly higher for students in the program than for controls, F(1, 56) = 13.86, p < .001, with SEL scores for those who participated increasing 7.58 points on average compared to 1.70 points on average for controls. Post hoc tests indicated that gender and grade level were not significant factors in SEL scores. Average student-reported energy at the beginning and end of before school PA sessions was analyzed using a paired-samples t-test. Participant energy was significantly higher after the PA session (M = 4.10, SD = 1.06) than before the session (M = 2.28, SD = 0.65), t(30) = 15.51, p < .001. In practical terms, students reported, on average, feeling sleepy and still before the session and feeling focused and purposeful after the session. There were no differences by gender or grade.
Conclusions: Results suggest that before school PA had a significant positive impact on SEL among middle-school aged boys and girls. Additionally, before school PA sessions appear to show promise for students’ emotional regulation, that is being able to shift one’s energy to a state consistent with the needs of the environment. These data suggest that before school PA resulted in students feeling focused and purposeful at the start of their class. In view of the benefits of a before-school PA program on middle school students, schools should be encouraged to include more PA programming within school policies.
Influence of Physical Activity on Suburban Students’ Academic Performance
Lingshu Li, Shanghai International Studies University
Background/Purpose: Due to the long-term concept of light sports in Suburban area in China, enthusiasm for physical activity is often misunderstood by parents as not expressing love, but it has been proved MVPA has a positive effect on academic performance, focusing only on academic performance and neglecting the body (L Ji, 2015). This study will explore the relationship between physical activity and academic performance, in order to change the public’s original prejudice against physical activity, highlight the importance of physical activity (LS Li, 2018); According to different gender and age characteristics, mining students’ favorite sports to produce academic results different effects, and indicate there are intermediate variables like aerobic endurance, stress, selective attention, sustained attention, attention shift, self-regulation ability between physical activity and academic performance, and physical activity can effectively promote these variables. Improve, thus affecting academic performance, highlighting equal status of sports disciplines and other disciplines.
Method: A total of 216 students from the 7th and 8th grades were selected in suburban area, including 122 boys and 94 girls. This study used human motion energy monitoring instrument (Actigraph Wgt3X-BT) to monitor time distribution of physical activity, and used progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance running (PACER) to test aerobic endurance of students. The Academic Self-Regulation Questionnaire was to test students’ self-regulation ability. The Perceived Stress Scale is used for measuring the perception of stress. The Strup color test was used to measure selective attention and sustained attention. The Trailing Making Test assessed persistent attention and to assess the attention shift. Meanwhile, math test and computer science test were measured as academic performance.
Analysis/Results: The results show that the regression equation of the MVPA time to the mathematical level is significant, and the total effect is 0.1001. the students’ MVPA time and stress level have a positive influence on the mathematics level, and the influence of MVPA time on the mathematics level is partly caused by the mediating effect of the stress level, and the MVPA time has a positive impact on aerobic endurance and attention. Regression equation of MVPA time is not significant to computer science grade. Bootstrap test results show that students’ time of MVPA has no direct influence on computer science grades, and each mediator variable does not have a mediating effect on MVPA time. The regression equation of MVPA time for the total score was significant. The effect is 0.0990. The results indicate MVPA time, stress level, and selective attention level have positive effects on total scores, and the influence of students’ MVPA time on their total scores is partly caused by the mediating effect of stress level and selective attention.
Conclusions: The physical activity of suburban students has a positive impact on aerobic endurance and selective attention. The MVPA time of suburban students has successfully affected the mathematics scores and total scores, and the stress level and selective attention play a mediating part. Physical activity improves selective attention, which improves students’ mathematics scores and total scores, but the pressure is getting greater.
Knowledge and Behaviors of Active Living: A Comparison Between White and Black Adolescents
Stacy Imagbe, Yang Liu, Baofu Wang, Senlin ChenF, Louisiana State University
Background/Purpose: Racial and ethnic minorities such as African American and Hispanic youth face greater risks to health academic outcomes. The purpose of this study was to examine race differences in knowledge and behaviors related to active living among adolescents during middle school years.
Method: The study was conducted in one public middle school (grade levels 6–8) located in the southeastern region of the United States. Students completed the age specific PE Metrics written test to assess knowledge of physical activity and fitness (PAF knowledge). They also self-reported their physical activity at school (PAS), physical activity at home (PAH), and screen-time-based sedentary behavior (SB) using the previously validated Youth Activity Profile. Data from students (N = 291) who reported their race to be White/Caucasian (n = 152) or Black/African American (n = 139) were analyzed to address the research purpose. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and univariate analyses were conducted in which PAF knowledge, PAS, PAH, and SB were specified as dependent variables and race as independent variable.
Analysis/Results: Box’s M test of equality of covariance matrices showed statistical significance (Box’s M = 20.61, F10, 392,106.024 = 2.03, p = .03). Given the violation of statistical assumption, we adopted Pillai’s Trace statistic to report the MANOVA results, which showed significant race effect (Pillai’s Trace = .15, F4, 286 = 12.09, p < .01). Levene’s test of equality for error variances detected no statistical violations for individual dependent variables (p > .05). Subsequent tests of between-subjects effects demonstrated significant race differences in PAF knowledge (F1,289 = 14.07, p < .01,), PAH (F1, 289 = 6.91, p = .01,), and SB (F1, 289 = 24.39, p < .01,). Specifically, compared to their White/Caucasian counterparts, Black/African American adolescents scored significantly lower for PAF knowledge (M ± SD = 48.3% ± 13.1% vs. 54.3% ± 14.1%) and PAH (M ± SD = 3.31 ± 1.01 vs. 3.61 ± .96), but a higher level of SB (M ± SD = 3.28 ± .72 vs. 2.85 ± .77). No significant race difference was observed for PAS.
Conclusions: The results demonstrated significant racial differences in PAF knowledge, PAH, and screen-time-based SB, all favoring White/Caucasian adolescents over their Black/African American counterparts. In lieu of the Black Lives Matter context, the findings from this study add to the existing research literature that Black/African American students lag behind their White/Caucasian peers in health-related outcomes. The knowledge and behaviors related to active living are essential determinants of individuals’ current and future health, which should and can be purposely nurtured during middle school years. The findings suggest that future school-based interventions should strive to close the racial disparities in knowledge and behaviors of active living.
Longitudinal Changes in Chinese Minority College Students’ Health-Related Fitness
Xiaofen D. KeatingF, Zach Taylor, The University of Texas at Austin; Michael Gary Hodges, William Paterson University; Xiaolu Liu, Brooke Doherty, The University of Texas at Austin
Background/Purpose: Minority college students have a chance to serve as upcoming role models for minority citizens in China. Previous research has indicated that there is a gap in health-related fitness (HRF) between minority and majority college students. Although all college students are required to take the fitness tests each year for four years, Chinese minority students’ HRF has been understudied. More alarmingly, there is no research on longitudinal changes in HRF in Chinese minority college students. Therefore, the purposes of the study were to test the overall changes of health-related fitness (HRF) in minority Chinese college students and to examine HRF differences in gender, race, and year in college using a multilevel latent growth curve modeling approach.
Method: Participants (n = 1,320) were Chinese minority college students with more than two thirds females (i.e., 76.1%), and Hui, Tibetan, and Mongolia consisted of 13.8%, 13.8%, and 11. 2%, respectively. Student HRF (i.e., BMI, Vo2max, 800 meter run/sit-ups and 1000 meter run/pull-ups for females and males, respectively, sit-and-reach) was tracked for four years. Data were analyzed using multilevel latent growth curve modeling.
Analysis/Results: Muscular strength and endurance was the weakest component in minority college students’ HRF for both genders. The average score was below the pass point (i.e., 60 points) while BMI was within the category of “excellent” for four years. BMI increased with Vo2max and decreased with muscular strength and endurance. As a result, students with higher BMIs tended to be stronger, even though these correlations are relatively weak (r < 0.3). A student’s baseline BMI was strongly predictive of Vo2max development, meaning that as students’ age increased, their Vo2max improved. However, BMI was negatively predictive of achievement in the 800/1000 m run. Male students were much more likely to have higher Vo2max, flexibility, better 800/1000 m run times, and muscular strength and endurance than their female counterparts.
Conclusions: Chinese minority college students’ HRF is not optimal. Interventions concerning minority females’ HRF and muscular strength and endurance for both genders should be constructed and tested.
Middle School Students’ Physical Literacy: Characterization by Six Demographic Factors
Yang Liu, Wuhan University of Technology; Senlin ChenF, Baofu Wang, Stacy Imagbe, Louisiana State University
Background/Purpose: Few prior studies have reported students’ physical literacy (PL) by demographic factors. The purposes of this study were (a) to fathom middle school students’ PL levels and (b)to characterize PL by gender, grade, socioeconomic status (SES), body mass index (BMI; normal vs. overweight & obese), race, and ethnicity.
Method: Sixth and seventh grade students (N = 227) from a public middle school in a southeastern U.S. state completed the second version of the Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy (CAPL-2), to assess PL across four domain tests (i.e., cognitive, physical, behavioral, and affective). Students reported demographic information using a questionnaire. Stadiometer and weight scale were used to measure weight and height, which were converted to BMIpercentile socres. PL and PL domain scores were evaluated using the gender-specific CAPL-2 manual protocol. Descriptive (M ± SD) and inferential statistical analyses were applied to capture overall PL and PL scores in four domains level by the demographic factors.
Analysis/Results: Both boys (62.48 ± 12.25) and girls’ overall PL scores (59.51 ± 12.05) fell in the“progressing stage,” namely, level 2 of the PL development continuum: beginning, progressing, achieving, and excelling. Girls’ scores for cognitive (7.23 ± 1.68), physical (17.59 ± 5.33),behavioral (10.02 ± 5.71), and affective (23.57 ± 4.59) domains were at progressing, progressing, beginning, and achieving developmental stages, respectively; while boys’ scores for cognitive (6.50 ± 1.91), physical (20.73 ± 4.66), behavioral (10.74 ± 6.63), and affective (24.68 ± 4.90) domains were at progressing, progressing, progressing, and achieving stages, respectively.Inferential statistical analyses found (a) significant gender differences in cognitive (favor girls; p = .01, d = 0.32), physical (favor boys; p < .01, d = 0.52), and affective (favor boys; p = .03, d = 0.19) domain scores; (b) grade differences in cognitive (favor seventh grade; p < .01, d = 0.37) and physical (favor sixth grade; p = .02, d = 0.28) domain scores; (c) SES-based differences in overall PL (p < .01, d = 0.43), and behavioral (p < .01, d = 0.44) and affective (p = .03, d = 0.26) domain scores, all favoring high SES group; (d) BMI-based differences in overall PL (p < .01, d = 0.61), and cognitive (p = .03, d = 0.29), physical (p < .01, d = 0.68), behavioral (p = .03, d = 0.31), and affective (p = .01, d = 0.36) domain scores, all favoring normal BMI group; (e) race-based differences in cognitive (p = .01, d = 0.36) and behavioral (p < .01, d = 0.44) domain scores all favoring White; and (f) non-Hispanic students demonstrated higher PL (d = 0.22), and cognitive (d = 0.26) and affective (d = 0.19) domain scores.
Conclusions: The findings of this study have shown that middle school students mostly scored in the “progressing” category demanding purposeful pedagogical intervention in settings such asPE. To develop efficacious curriculum-based PL intervention, demographic characteristics such as gender, grade, SES, BMI, and race/ethnicity should be factored in.
Mind–Body Physical Activity Interventions and Stress-Related Physiological Markers in Educational Settings: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Ildiko Strehli, 2374 E 3700 S; Ryan D. BurnsF, Yang Bai, Donna Ziegenfuss, University of Utah; Martin Block, University of Virginia; Timothy A. Brusseau Jr.F, University of Utah
Background/Purpose: MBPA in educational settings is one possible preventive strategy of ameliorating stress-related physiological health parameters. The objectives of this study were to conduct a systematic review of literature with a meta-analysis on the effects of MBPA on stress-related physiological health markers in primary, secondary, and higher education students.
Method: In accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, the search for peer-reviewed articles published in English was conducted in PubMed, EBSCOhost, PsychInfo, Scopus, and Cochrane Library databases included MBPA interventions on stress-related physiological health markers was performed until April 2020.
Analysis/Results: Criteria for inclusion consisted of empirical studies targeting the student population (primary, secondary, higher education), studies examining the effectiveness of a MBPA intervention, studies including a control or comparison group (pretest/posttest studies excluded), studies targeting physiological marker outcomes such as heart rate, blood glucose, cortisol, and blood pressure, and finally, studies examining interventions implemented within educational settings. Results: Twenty-six interventions were eligible for the review and quantitative synthesis, which comprised a total of 1,625 participants, with 783 students serving within the control/comparison group. There were statistically significant and large pooled effects for MBPA effectiveness for lowering heart rate (Hedges’ g = −1.71, 95% CI: −2.43, −0.98), lowering cortisol (Hedges’ g = −1.32, 95% CI: −2.50, −0.16), and lowering systolic and diastolic blood pressure (Hedges’ g = −1.04, 95% CI: −1.53, −0.58). These effects tended to be stronger in older students compared to younger students. Most analyses were characterized as having high between-study heterogeneity and only 10 of the 26 studies were characterized as good quality (38.4%).
Conclusions: MBPA interventions may have a positive impact on physiological markers in students, especially students within higher education. However, more higher quality research is needed in this area.
More Than Games: Recess Experiences Are Associated With Adult Well-Being
Alexandra Szarabajko, Janelle Thalken, Deanna Perez, Oregon State University; Sean P. Mullen, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Nzubechukwu Emmanuel Ughelu, William V. Massey, Oregon State University
Background/Purpose: School recess has been reported to contribute to the physical, social, and emotional health of children (SHAPE, 2017). However, data consistently show inequity in access to recess, quality of recess, and experiences during recess (Barros et al., 2009; London, 2019; McNamara et al., 2018). While these inequity issues are problematic, the impact of recess inequity remains relatively unknown. Previous data indicate that negative childhood physical education experiences can affect healthy habits later in life (Cardinal et al., 2013; Ladwig et al., 2018). Additionally, being excluded or bullied on the playground contributes to feelings of loneliness and social isolation (McNamara et al., 2017). Given this, there is a need to explore the impact of recess experiences on social, emotional, and physical health later in life. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between past experiences during recess and current levels of physical activity, physical activity enjoyment, and social isolation.
Method: Participants included 513 adults between the ages of 19 and 79 (M = 45.56) in the United States. Recruitment was conducted through Prolific, a web-based research platform shown to produce high quality data with diverse participants (Peer et al., 2017). Within demographic categories, the highest proportion of participants were female (50.8%), Caucasian (71.8%), had a college degree (47.1%), and had an annual household income between $45,000 and $75,000 USD (27.9%). All participants completed measures of physical activity engagement, physical activity enjoyment, social isolation, past school recess enjoyment, and past experiences of being bullied during school recess.
Analysis/Results: Prior to analysis, all data were screened for patterns of missingness and multivariate outliers. Structural equation modeling was then conducted in MPlus v8.4 using the weighted least square mean and variance adjusted estimator. The initial correlated latent-factor measurement model provided a good fit to the data (χ2 = 864.29 (424), p < .001, RMSEA = 0.045, 90% confidence interval [CI] = 0.041–0.049, CFI = 0.986, TLI = 0.985) (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Hypothesized direct effects, indirect effects, and covariates were then added to the measurement model. Model fit remained virtually unchanged (RMSEA = 0.042, CFI = 0.985, TLI = 0.985). As hypothesized, past experiences of being bullied during recess was associated with both recess enjoyment (β = −.504; p < .001) and current social isolation (β = .300; p < .001). Recess enjoyment was also associated with current physical activity enjoyment (β = .227; p < .001). The overall indirect effects of past experiences of being bullied at recess to current physical activity enjoyment via recess enjoyment, and past recess enjoyment to current physical activity engagement via current physical activity enjoyment were statistically significant (p < .001).
Conclusions: Data from the current study suggest that previous experiences during school recess are associated with markers of physical, social, and emotional health later in life. Equitable access to a high-quality recess experiences for children needs to be ensured due to its positive implications on both child development (Ramstetter et al., 2010) and overall well-being in adulthood.
Ongoing Professional Development for Teachers in Rural Schools
Henry Yu, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: Professional development (PD) is defined as a set of structured practices designed to ultimately contribute to the quality of teaching and learning environment (O’Sullivan & Deglau, 2006). The effectiveness of PD have been investigated (Armor & Yelling, 2007; Keay, 2006; Kulinna et al., 2008), with positive outcomes such as, teacher change in classroom practices (e.g., increased number of using physical activity breaks). The current study, informed by Guskey’s model of teacher change (Guskey, 2002), sought to better understand teachers’ perceptions of PD as part of a follow-up project in rural school districts.
Method: At least a year after the conclusion of a five-year healthy school intervention, 97 teachers with average years teaching of 12.73 (SD = 9.17), including both genders (male = 35; females = 62); and mostly Caucasian (67%) or Hispanic (12%) ethnic backgrounds participated in Follow up PD sessions at four rural schools in the Southwestern US. The purpose of the follow up PD sessions was to reinvigorate the teachers to continue their efforts in maintaining a healthy school culture. The PD sessions were developed to be specific to the culture and needs of personnel at each school and comprised of resources such as physical activity breaks, knowledge of health-related topics, and demonstrations of integrating movement into academic content areas. Teachers submitted exit slips with reflections about the PD (i.e., three important things that they learned and the reasons from the PDs).
Analysis/Results: Thematic analysis using Braun and Clarke’s repeated reading method (2006) was utilized to identify commonalities in teachers’ priority outcomes from the PD and reasons given for why. Three researchers negotiated themes from the exit slips resulting in four overarching themes of priority outcomes for these teachers from the PD experiences and their rationale: (a) engagement [e.g., captivating the brain and body through various movements to benefit individual’s physical and mental health], (b) academic integration [e.g., improving thinking, learning, and content review/retention], (c) enjoyment [e.g., fun, feeling good, relieving stress, promoting excitement, and sensory breaks], and (d) efficiency/efficacy [e.g., awareness, ease of use, teacher use/content application]. Negative case searches and data triangulation (with other data sources) were used to support the trustworthiness of the findings.
Conclusions: Similar to McMullen et al. (2014), these teacher participants shared positive reflections about the strategies learned in the PDs. They were able to see the positive changes in student learning and behavior across the earlier five year project supporting this crucial criteria in Guskey’s model of teacher change. At the follow up PD, Teachers had clear preferences for activities that engaged students, were easily integrate into their academic content, and they believed students would enjoy. Implications suggest directions for future PD programming for teachers in order to model academic and movement integration strategies that are engaging, integrated into academic content, and enjoyable for students.
Parental Influences on Underserved Preschoolers’ Fundamental Motor Skills Competence
Joonyoung Lee, Tao ZhangF, Ana West, Stephanie Zinai Gonzalez, University of North Texas
Background/Purpose: Parental influences (e.g., role modeling, support, facilitation) can provide significant opportunities for children to develop fundamental motor skills (FMS) competence (Welk et al., 2003), which is associated with various health benefits such as physical activity, physical fitness, and cognitive functions across the lifetime (Robinson et al., 2015). However, the relationships between parental influences and children’s FMS competence remain unclear among underserved minority preschoolers from low-income families in Head Start centers. Guided by Welk et al.’s (2003) conceptual model, this study aimed to explore parental influences on underserved child’s FMS competence by adopting a multiple case study design (Stake, 1995).
Method: After examining 216 children’s FMS competence using the Test of Gross Movement Development–3rd Edition (TGMD-3; Ulrich, 2019) in six Head Start centers in Texas, purposeful and stratified sampling (by FMS competence [high and low]) was used in this follow-up qualitative study. Eight parent–child dyads (eight preschoolers’ parents + eight preschoolers) participated in the semi-structured face-to-face interviews for 45–60 minutes. This study applied multiple data sources (i.e., survey responses, child’s drawing, field notes) as triangulation to enhance the results’ trustworthiness. NVivo version 12 (QSQ International Victoria, Australia) was used for data analysis.
Analysis/Results: We found three key themes in the present study: a) parents’ habits of physical activity can influence their child’s physically active habit development; b) parents’ efforts can develop their child’s FMS competence; and c) the home environment facilitates their child’s efforts and possibilities to be physically active. Children with a single parent, divorced parent, or young parent (age range 18–24) tended to show low FMS competence. In addition, the analysis of children’s drawing pictures indicated significant differences in images about the moments when they played games or sports with parents based on their FMS competence levels.
Conclusions: It is imperative to provide potential interventions (e.g., government/state-funded activity program, parent workshops, FMS-based afterschool program) for underserved minority children from low-income families in Head Start. With a relative risk of family structure (single, divorced, and young parents), more efforts are needed to enhance these children’s FMS competence and establish healthy and physically active lifestyles. The findings of this study support the use of Welk et al.’s (2003) parental influence model, which emphasizes the importance of parents’ influence on their child’s physical activity associated with a child’s FMS competence.
Parental Support and Youth Physical Activity Outcomes During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Paige Arvidson, Kowsar Hijazi, Jeanne Barcelona, Wayne State University; Erin E. CenteioF, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa
Background/Purpose: According to the World Health Organization more than 80% of the adolescent population is insufficiently physically active. When compounded by the recent COVID-19 stay at home orders, this has the potential to become increasingly problematic as schools, which have been identified as the ideal setting to provide youth with opportunities to engage in physical activity (PA), have been shut down. Parents were called on to support and engage their children in at home learning and facilitate activities such as PA. We know that when opportunities for PA in school are provided, youth are significantly less sedentary. Little is known about how parental support and engagement may facilitate youth PA outcomes, especially situations like the stay at home order that was experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to better understand the relationship between student perceptions of parental support as it relates to PA engagement in youth.
Method: Over a 12 week period daily PA lessons were provided to elementary and middle school students and their parents located in a low-income community in Southeast Michigan. In the final week, elementary and middle school students (N = 879) students Mage = 12.2 completed an online survey to assess PA lesson interest, enjoyment and engagement as well as their perceptions of parental support and engagement during the stay at home order. Descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations and multiple regressions were conducted to explore significant and predictive relationships.
Analysis/Results: Bivariate correlations indicated significant associations between student perceptions of parental PA encouragement and youth engagement in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA; P < .001) and youth engagement in strength-related PA (p < .001). Results of the multiple regression analyses indicated that while controlling for grade, sex and ethnicity, parental encouragement was a significant predictors of youth engagement in MVPA over the last seven days R2 = .079, F(7, 858) = 10.462, p < .001. Additionally, youth self-reported engagement in strength-based PA was significantly predicted by perceived parental encouragement, sex, and ethnicity R2 = .083, F(7, 859) = 10.972, p < .001.
Conclusions: These overall findings show that parents play an essential role in youth PA outcomes, especially during the COVID-19 stay at home orders. These findings also contribute to the comprehensive school physical activity program literature base because they shed light on the value of parental involvement. Although we have acknowledged parent involvement in youth PA as valuable, little research has been done to examine their contribution to the framework. Future studies should use qualitative inquiry to better understand the role of gender and ethnicity as it relates to strength-based PA engagement. It would also be beneficial to conduct a deeper exploration into parent’s perceptions of and value placed on their children’s PA. Furthermore, the COVID-19 stay at home orders may have exacerbated the role of parental involvement on youth PA engagement, future studies should explore pandemic-related barriers and facilitators.
Patterns of Social Behavior Among Young Adults With or Without Access to Mobile Phone and/or Equipment for Physical Activity
Ben D. Kern, University of Wyoming; David Bellar, University of North Carolina at Charlotte; Amara Salaam, University of Louisiana at Lafayette
Background/Purpose: Mobile phone usage has reached historical highs, and research suggests that the amount and types of social interactions young adults experience may be impacted as a result (Dissing et al., 2019). Opportunities for physical activity (e.g., available time and equipment) are known to increase the likelihood of positive social interactions (Di Bartolomeo et al., 2019), however this phenomenon is understudied in young adults, and it is unknown at this time how these physical activity opportunities impact social interactions when combined with access to a mobile phone. The purpose of this was to evaluate the nature of social interactions and physical activity among young adults with or without access to their mobile phone and/or physical activity equipment.
Method: College-aged adults (N = 56) participating in the study were necessarily deceived and were asked to wait in a large room that was either filled with equipment that could be used for physical activity (i.e. jump ropes, balls, paddles) or empty. Participants in two groups were asked to surrender their mobile phone. Groups were observed a total of 12 minutes during the “pseudo waiting period.” Afterward, they were informed of the researchers’ true intentions and given the option to drop out or continue. The randomly assigned groups were exposed to one of four experimental conditions: (1) no phone, no equipment, (2) no phone, equipment, (3) phone, no equipment, or (4) phone and equipment. A modified version of the System for Observing Children’s Activity and Relationships during Play (SOCARP) was used to classify participants’ social interaction. SOCARP variables included in analysis were: (a) social group size (alone, small-group [2–4 individuals], medium-group [5–9 individuals], large-group [10+ individuals]), (b) social interaction type (physical-prosocial [PP], verbal-prosocial [VP], physical-antisocial [PA], verbal-antisocial [VA], ignoring [I]), and (c) activity type (sport, active game, locomotion, sedentary).
Analysis/Results: To determine whether differences existed among four experimental conditions by SOCARP variables structured Chi-Square multiple response analyses were conducted, followed by Chi-Square tests of homogeneity of response between groups at each observation. This analysis revealed that social group size, small (S; X2 = 13.6, p < .001) and medium (M; X2 = 17.53, p < .001) significantly differed across the entire recorded session, and tests of homogeneity of response between experimental groups were significantly different (X2 > 15.8, p < .03) across observations. Social interaction types PP (X2 = 7.99, p = .046), PA (X2 = 12.57, p = .006), and I (X2 = 8.48, p = .037) were significantly different by group across the recorded session, and significant differences (X2 > 12.5, p < .05) between experimental groups across most (24 of 36) observations were present. No significant differences were observed by group for activity type.
Conclusions: The results indicate that both mobile phones and equipment for physical activity impact social interactions of young adults, with phone presence increasing antisocial behavior/isolation, and equipment increasing both physical and verbal prosocial behavior. Given the prevalence of social/emotional distress among young adults, researchers should further examine the impact of mobile phone usage on social interactions and consider how physical activity opportunities may offset antisocial behavior and promote more social interactions.
Piloting the Use of Pilates to Improve Balance, Flexibility, and Motor Skills in Turkish Youth
Gunay Sen, [email protected]; Aaron Beighle, The University of Kentucky; Erkut Tutkun, [email protected]; Heather E. ErwinF, University of Kentucky
Background/Purpose: Promoting physically active habits for school-age children continues to be an important issue today. Specifically, the ability to balance, bend, stretch, and perform motor skills are important for lifelong movement. Pilates offers a vehicle to teach youth tools needed for maintaining the healthy development. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of Pilates exercises on Turkish school-age children’s balance, flexibility and motor skills.
Method: The sample consisted of 22 children (Control n = 11, Treatment n = 11) who were 4th and 5th grades students (Mage = 11.5 years, SD = 0.7). During the eight-week Pilates intervention, students participated in 40 minutes of Pilates at the beginning of the session followed by one hour of soccer activities five days per week. Pilates sessions were led by a trained Pilates instructor. The control group received soccer activities only as normal. Pre- and post-measurements included the flamingo balance test (Ozturk, 2008), as well as the sit and reach flexibility test (Mulazımoglu, 2002). In addition, the Mor & Christian (1979) soccer ability test was utilized to measure soccer specific motor skills including ball dribbling, passing and shooting.
Analysis/Results: Pre and post measurements were examined using paired samples t-tests. Differences in pre and post comparisons of variables were interpreted at the p = .05 significance level. For the experimental group, results suggest the mean flexibility posttest (M = 26.95 ± 2.1 cm) was significantly greater than pretest flexibility (M = 24.72 ± 3.1 cm), t(11) = −5.4, p = .000. Further, balance data indicated post-intervention balance times (M = 13.18 ± 3.3 min/repeat) were significantly higher than pretest times (M = 11.2 ± 2.6 min/repeat), t(11) = 2.5, p = .033). Finally, for the soccer skills, only the passing score was significantly better post treatment (M = 8.7 ± 1.56 points) than pre-treatment (M = 7.3 ± 1.56 points), t(11) = −3.5, p = .005. No other significant differences were observed.
Conclusions: The data suggest taking time for Pilates improved flexibility and balance as well as soccer passing for these participants. These promising findings suggest the use of Pilates for school-age children is warranted for teaching motor skills and fostering fitness. More research with a larger sample is needed to further investigate this relationship.
School Implementation of Physical Activity and Healthy Eating Programs: Results From the NFL Play 60 FitnessGram® Partnership Project Phase III
Yang Bai, University of Utah; Gabriella Maria Mcloughlin, University of Illinois; Gregory J WelkF, Iowa State University
Background/Purpose: A stepped wedge design was utilized to enroll cohorts of schools from the existing NFL Play 60 FitnessGram® Project to participate as Impact Schools. These schools were encouraged to adopt three physical activity “plays” and at least one healthy eating “plays.” The purpose of this study was to examine the physical activity and healthy eating program implementation from Impact schools compared to rates from a matching sample of schools in the main project.
Method: N/A
Analysis/Results: N/A
Conclusions: N/A
School-Based Physical Activity Interventions in Rural and Urban Communities
Christopher Pfledderer, Ryan D. BurnsF, Wonwoo Byun, University of Utah; Russell L. CarsonF, Northern Colorado/Univ of; Gregory J WelkF, Iowa State University; Timothy A. Brusseau Jr.F, University of Utah
Background/Purpose: The aims of this systematic review and meta-analysis were to (1) provide a summary of articles related to school-based physical activity programs in rural and urban communities, (2) assess and compare the effect of rural and urban school-based physical activity programs on total physical activity, and (3) identify and compare characteristics of school-based programs that improve physical activity outcomes among students in rural and urban schools.
Method: An internet search of several databases yielded 10,978 studies. Studies were eliminated based on lack of experimental manipulation, not having total physical activity as an outcome measurement or having a physical activity component to the intervention, a lack of comparison group, no identification of urban-rural status, and no reporting of the effect estimate’s variability.
Analysis/Results: A total of 33 studies remained after the exclusion process, 28 of which took place in urban schools and 5 of which took place in rural schools. The DerSimonian and Laird random effects model were employed with the estimates of heterogeneity taken from the inverse-variance fixed-effect model. For rural studies, the Hartung-Knapp-Sidak-Jonkman method was used. For all school-based interventions, results indicated a significant but small increase in total physical activity (Hedge’s g = 0.12, 95% CI: 0.06–0.18), which held true for interventions conducted in urban schools (Hedge’s g = 0.12, 95% CI: 0.06–0.19). For rural school-based interventions, the effect was null (Hedge’s g = 0.06, 95% CI: −0.50–0.61). High heterogeneity was identified across all studies (I2 = 84.6%), which decreased for urban studies (I2 = 82.9%) and increased for rural studies (I2 = 96.4%).
Conclusions: This meta-analysis provides evidence that school-based interventions can be effective for increasing total physical activity in children and adolescents but have not been effective in rural settings.
Subjective Social Status and Health-Related Quality of Life Among Middle-Aged and Older Women: Exploring the Mediating Role of Leisure-Time Physical Activity
Youngdeok KimF, Virginia Commonwealth University; Marc Lochbaum, Texas Tech University
Background/Purpose: Subjective social status (SSS), which refers to a one’s self-perception of their relative position within a social hierarchy, has been identified as a salient predisposing factor explaining the social gradient in various health outcomes including quality of life (QoL); yet, the underlying mechanism is not fully understood. Given the widely reported social inequalities in health behaviors, this study poses that detrimental association of SSS with QoL may possibly be explained by a social gradient in health behavior, particularly physical activity. The purpose of this study was to (1) examine the relationship of SSS with health-related QoL (HRQoL) among middle-aged and older women, and (2) explore the role of leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) on its relationship.
Method: A cross-sectional online survey was conducted using the Qualtrics research panel. A total of 588 women (mean ages: 56.79) residing in Virginia state participated. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to assess LTPA. Individuals were categorized into the three PA groups (i.e., no-LTPA and low-/upper-LTPA groups based on current PA recommendation (≥600 MET/min/week). SSS was assessed with the two level of comparisons, community (SSS-C) and national (SSS-N), separately, using the MacArthur Scale depicting a 10-rung ladder ranking with higher rungs indicating higher SSS within community and national, respectively. HRQoL (physical and psychological) was assessed using the World Health Organization Quality of Life scale. A path analysis based on a probit regression model was conducted to test the proposed research questions while adjusting for study covariates including demographic characteristics (i.e., age, race, marital status), objective social status (i.e., education, household income, home ownership), and health conditions (i.e., body mass index, number of chronic diseases). The mediation effect was tested by following the Baron and Kenny’s procedures and indirect associations were tested using a Bootstrapping method. Mplus v7.4 was used for path analyses and statistical significance was set at ≤.05.
Analysis/Results: In the full path model, greater SSS-N was significantly associated with better physical (b = 0.09) and psychological (b = 0.10) HRQoL. However, no apparent association was observed in relation to LTPA level and indirect associations with HRQoL via LTPA were also not detected (p >.05). Whereas, SSS-C was a significant predictor of LTPA level (b = 0.08). Additionally, while there was no direct association with physical HRQoL (p > .05), there was a significant indirect association via LTPA (b = 0.02). SSS-C was also directly (b = 0.10) and indirectly (b = 0.01) associated with psychological HRQoL.
Conclusions: The present study confirmed that SSS is an important social gradient in HRQoL among middle-aged and older women. We further demonstrated that SSS may differentially influence HRQoL in different mechanisms by the level of comparisons and the possibility of the mediating role of LTPA to better explain the differential effects of SSS on HRQoL in this population group.
Sustaining or Abstaining? Teacher’s Social Capital Regarding Healthy School Cultures
Janelle Marie Griffo, Pamela Hodges KulinnaF, Henry Yu, Arizona State University; Shannon C. Mulhearn, University of Nebraska-Kearney; Aaron Jordan Mason, Oregon State University; Romir Parmar, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: Social capital is a useful framework for understanding teachers’ communication practices and can be defined as interconnected relations and activities that bring together a community of people (Farr, 2004, p. 9). The quantity and quality among individual interactions within layered network systems allow promising action, such as change in schools. Thus, quantity and/or quality of interactions are commonly used by researchers as a key social capital feature (Pil & Leana, 2009). For social capital, who people talk to and how often, what people talk about, and the relationship value of the interactions greatly matter. Considering social capital’s potential role in school change, the purpose of this study was to follow up with teacher participants who previously participated in a multi-year healthy school intervention to (a) learn about their continued communication with other school stakeholders regarding creating healthy school cultures and (b) to investigate the connection between these communications and the sustainability of the intervention.
Method: A five-year healthy school intervention took place with five schools in the Southwestern US. A previously validated questionnaire was administered in year 1 of the intervention (teacher participants included 5 males and 21 females, all Caucasian with 14.4 mean years of teaching; SD = 11.11) and again one year after the conclusion of the intervention (year 7 participants included 11 males, 55 females, 82.82% Caucasian, 12.12% Hispanic, 1.52% Native American/Alaskan, 4.55% Other, and mean years of teaching 14.54; SD = .46). The questionnaire included questions related to general social capital (e.g., general communications) which were answered through a 5-point Likert-like scale, and specific social capital (frequency and depth of communication), which teachers completed by filling in the number of interactions per week by stakeholder type (Pil & Leana, 2009).
Analysis/Results: The results from year one (M = 3.59; SD = 0.671) and year seven (M = 3.76; SD = 0.598) indicate that the general communication levels occurred in remarkably similar ways t(90) = 1.195, p = .235. At the follow-up study, participants from five schools were also communicating with all stakeholder groups, even parents about issues surrounding healthy schools and healthy children, with weekly percentages of teachers communicating with other teachers 26.5% of the time, with administrators 4.4%, and with parents 14.7%. Teachers reported an average of two weekly individual conversations with students that addressed issues of healthy behaviors.
Conclusions: Regarding the sustainability of healthy school cultures, these results support the concept that discussions about behaviors lead to continued practices in the classrooms. Bearing in mind that teachers continued talking with peers, administrators, and parents about healthy practices even after the formal intervention ended is a positive indication that teachers made a connection with the content and chose to continue sharing with other stakeholders about such practices. These results can inform school personnel and researchers about the importance of teachers’ social capital in school change efforts. Fostering and sustaining healthy school climates can impact all students, families, and communities, supplying them with the understandings, expertise, and habits needed for a lifetime of health and physical activity.
The Effects of Cognitive Performance on In-Class Physical Activity in Physical Education
Anqi Deng, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Tan ZhangF, Winston-Salem State University; Stephanie Wells, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Yubing Wang, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater; Ray Schweighardt, University of Virginia’s College at Wise; Ang ChenF, North Carolina-Greensboro/University of
Background/Purpose: Cognitive load theory (CLT) explains cognitive effort’s impact on learning behavior. CLT postulates that intrinsic cognitive load is determined by the element interactivity of learning tasks and is necessary for learning to take place (Sweller, 2011). Research findings have revealed an association between cognitive learning tasks and learners’ behavior (e.g., physical activity) (Kramer & Erickson, 2007; Prakash et al., 2015). The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which cognitive learning tasks impact students’ in-class physical activity.
Method: The study was based on curriculum intervention research to help middle school students acquire scientific knowledge of physical activity needed for development an active lifestyle. Participants included 115 students (47, 29, and 39 students from 6th, 7th, and 8th grades, respectively) from 10 middle schools who completed all workbook assignments while learning a cardiorespiratory activity unit. In-class physical activity levels were measured using caloric expenditure (metabolic equivalents, METs) based on student’s gender, body weight and height. Intrinsic cognitive loads were measured using in-class written assignments’ cognitive engagement levels: descriptive tasks (n = 23), relational tasks (n = 24) and reasoning tasks (n = 21). The descriptive tasks asked the students to work on factual information, such as physiological responses they experienced during physical activity. The relational tasks required the students to relate their physiological responses to specific characteristics of physical activity and/or to establish the relationship between different concepts. The reasoning tasks led the students to understanding the reason why their physical activities benefited their health with specific connection between their action/behavior in the lessons to the health benefits and consequences of physical activity or inactivity.
Analysis/Results: A multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the impact of the intrinsic cognitive loads (the predictors) on in-class physical activity (the outcome). The results showed that the overall regression model was significant, F (3,111) = 5.517, p = .001, R2 = .13. Reasoning tasks (β = .57, t = 3.85, p < .001) positively predicted student’s in-class physical activity, while descriptive tasks and relational tasks were not significant predictors (β = .20, t = .81, p = .42; β = −.43, t = −1.88, p = .063, respectively). The findings appear to suggest that the student’s performance in reasoning tasks positively influenced their in-class physical activity.
Conclusions: The findings correspond to the literatures that higher cognitive levels of learning tasks moderate the effects of cognitive load on in-class physical activity (Schmidt et al., 2016). Although the positive results revealed that student’s performance in reasoning tasks helped increase in-class physical activity, the roles of descriptive tasks and relational tasks remain unclear. In this study, the reasoning tasks with high element interactivity required more time and effort for the students to understand, but the students seemed to be able to develop cognitive schemas that incorporate the interacting elements and act on the understanding immediately in the physical activity setting to receive health benefits. Further studies are needed to further investigate the role of intrinsic cognitive load and task element interactivity on physical activity levels.
The Impact of School Wellness Leadership on Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) Policies and Practices
Peter Stoepker, University of West Georgia; Taemin Ha, University of Northern Colorado; Russell L. CarsonF, Northern Colorado/Univ of; Brian D. Dauenhauer, University of Northern Colorado
Background/Purpose: In 2016, the U.S. Department of Agriculture mandated that schools identify a wellness policy leadership team of one or more school officials to ensure compliance with school wellness policy guidelines. Similarly, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC; 2013) Guide for Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programming (CSPAP) in Schools closely aligns with this recommendation and suggests that the first step in promoting physical activity (PA) in schools is to establish a team/committee and designate a PA leader. The purpose of this study was to understand how the presence of a school wellness leadership team impacts policies and practices related to CSPAP.
Method: The CSPAP Policies and Practices Questionnaire (CSPAP-Q), a 92-item electronic questionnaire shown to have acceptable validity/reliability (Stoepker et al., 2020), was administered to assess policies and practices related to each of the five components of CSPAP (physical education, PA during school, PA before/after school, staff involvement, family/community engagement) and the presence/absence of a school wellness leadership team (i.e., a committee and designated coordinator). The questionnaire was completed by 136 educators from 17 states between 2015 and 2019 (80% licensed physical education teachers; mean educational experience = 10.9 years; 42.6% female). Descriptive statistics (i.e., means, percentages) were computed for each variable and independent t-tests were conducted to examine the differences between schools/districts that adhered to school wellness leadership guidelines and those that did not. Analyses were conducted in SPSS v25 with statistical significance set a priori at p < .05.
Analysis/Results: Approximately 40% of respondents reported working in a school or district with a wellness committee and a designated wellness coordinator/leader (i.e., met school wellness leadership guidelines). In the component area of physical education, schools/districts that met school wellness leadership guidelines were more likely to adopt state physical education standards (94%) versus those that did not (83%). No other statistically significant differences were identified in the physical education component area. For during school PA, schools/districts that met leadership guidelines were more likely to have recess rules posted on the playground (60% v 35%) and a budget for recess equipment (42% v 28%; mean budget = $393 v $136). Classroom teachers were also more likely to have professional development for integrating PA (63% v 40%), be provided with classroom PA integration equipment (56% v 35%) and integrate PA into their classrooms (35% v 16%). In the areas of staff involvement and family/community engagement, schools/districts meeting leadership guidelines were more likely to have a policy in place that all teachers be trained on schoolwide PA promotion strategies (10% v 0%) and to survey parents/guardians about their thoughts on PA (15% v 1%). There were no statistically significant differences between groups in the before/after school PA component area.
Conclusions: In all cases where there was a difference between groups, the schools/districts that were adhering to school wellness leadership guidelines outperformed their counterparts in relation to achieving CSPAP policy and practice recommendations. These results reinforce the importance of having a leadership team in place to promote PA in schools (CDC, 2014).
The Many Faces of Motivation in Sustainability
Shannon C. Mulhearn, University of Nebraska-Kearney; Pamela Hodges KulinnaF, Henry Yu, Janelle Marie Griffo, Arizona State University; Aaron Jordan Mason, Oregon State University
Background/Purpose: This study focused on the longevity and self-sustainability of school-level healthy behavioral changes in rural schools (N = 5) in the Southwestern US. School personnel actions have previously been shown to significantly correlate with increased likelihood of sustainability (McIntosh et al., 2015), therefore, learning about teachers’ behaviors that mimic the intervention bears importance. This study was informed by Fullan’s description of seven premises based on Theories of Action with merit leading to school change (2006). The purpose was to learn about what portion(s) of a multi-year, school-wide health behavior change intervention were still in practice following at least a year after formal intervention concluded.
Method: Teachers (N = 41), self-identified as mostly Female (88%), and Caucasian (77%) or Hispanic (9%), participated in individual, semi-structured interviews lasting approximately 30 minutes. Questions asked which aspects of the original intervention were retained as part of their personal classroom practices or of the school culture. Teachers also reflected on facilitators and barriers to the sustainability of these practices. Field notes from campus visits on interview days were also included in the corpus of data. To establish trustworthiness, data triangulation (interview transcripts, survey results, and field notes) provided multiple angles for analysis, and two researchers negotiated all themes.
Analysis/Results: Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1994) was utilized to allow for thematic analysis of data without preconceived outcome expectations. Overall, themes gravitated to administrative support and personal investment/interest in healthy behaviors. Additional themes of sustainability included feeling capable and physical activity being the “norm” at their school. These themes appeared to resonate with Fullan’s Theories of Action with merit (2006) premises such as (a) a focus on motivation, demonstrated through teachers personally valuing a healthy school; (b) opportunity for capacity building, and (c) learning in context, both shown through professional development and peer modeling; and (e) changing context, reflected in teachers’ descriptions of having autonomy to adapt intervention skills to meet the needs of their unique classroom contexts. The premise of tri-level engagement, however, did not parallel with any themes, suggesting the teachers in this study were more focused on their school’s culture and practices as opposed to the district or state expectations for healthy behaviors.
Conclusions: Fullan’s seven premises provide some clarity to the teachers’ actions in that all teachers described their motivations for retaining various actions. In exchange, the teachers’ reflections provide further confirmation of Fullan’s reliance on the key importance of Motivation as a predictor of sustained change in educational settings. A limitation of the present study was a high turnover rate of teachers at the involved schools. However, this proved advantageous as we learned about those aspects of the intervention that were shared with new teachers and that administrators and veteran teachers chose to sustain.
The Perceived Psychological Benefits of Aerobic Exercise and Resistance Training Among College Students
Lawrence Judge, Ball State University; David Bellar, University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Background/Purpose: To attract and promote success for students, higher education institutions now must provide a responsive plan to battle practical and emotional barriers to academic success. Effective student support services and programming can have a measurable impact on student retention and graduation rates across the institution. Research provides growing evidence of the importance of physical activity for various aspects of cognitive functions. However, there is little research examining perceived benefits and barriers to aerobic exercise and resistance training exercise among college students. Additionally, the trends in physical activity among younger adults remain under-represented in the research literature. Given the large number of students enrolled in universities and colleges across the United States, an understanding of the psychological benefits of aerobic exercise and resistance training is of great interest. This area of research is particularly relevant given that prior studies have shown that college students on average do not engage in the recommended amount of physical activity for an adult and 60% of college students are unaware of current physical activity guidelines (McArthur & Raedeke, 2009). The purpose of this study was to determine the perceived benefits and barriers to aerobic exercise and resistance training in undergraduate college students.
Method: The participants for this study included 59 students (age: 20.7 ± 2.3 years, female n = 30, male n = 29) at multiple universities. Participants completed the Leisure and Physical Activity (LPA) Questionnaire (Judge et al., 2012) to quantify frequency of aerobic and resistance exercise per week and the Profile of Mood State (POMS) a psychological rating scale used to assess transient, distinct mood states. Descriptive statistics and correlations were used to examine the the perceived benefits and barriers to aerobic exercise and resistance training of undergraduate college students.
Analysis/Results: Multiple Linear Regression analyses were used to predict total mood disturbance from frequency of resistance and aerobic exercise per week, and resulted in a significant model (R = 0.501, p = .0162). The significant predictor in the model was frequency of resistance exercise per week (p = .035). Frequency of Aerobic Exercise was not found to be a significant predictor (p = .311).
Multiple regression analysis revealed significant predictive models for two sub scales of the POMS. Multiple Linear Regression analysis run to predict esteem-related affect and vigor-related affect from frequency of resistance and aerobic exercise per week resulted in significant models (esteem: R = 0.615, p < .001; vigor: R = 0.621, p < .001). The significant predictors for both models were frequency of resistance exercise per week (esteem: p < .001; vigor: p < .001) and age (esteem: p = .034; vigor: p < .001). Frequency of aerobic exercise was not found to be a significant predictor for neither esteem nor vigor (p = .515; p = .637, respectively). Both age and increased frequency of resistance exercise were associated with increased esteem and vigor, and increased frequency of resistance exercise was associated with decreased total mood disturbances.
Conclusions: When seeking effective retention strategies, universities can encourage students to increase regular physical activity, specifically resistance training, as the present study showed benefits to esteem and vigor along with existing benefits to health and wellness.
Sociocultural & Social Justice
A Centurial Exploration of Democratic Meliorism in Physical Education
Donal Howley, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this historically themed research is to explore how scholarly work in Physical Education (PE) has melioristically advocated for and lived democracy over the last 100 years within the USA and globally.
Method: Interpreted through Dewey’s (1916) concept of “education as growth,” I begin by presenting the contentious place of democracy in PE historically. Secondly, I draw from examples of peer-reviewed work from each decade to demonstrate the melioristic rhetoric surrounding democracy in PE. I examine how the global emergence of critical theorizing, expanding empirical research, and innovative pedagogical practice has challenged and addressed anti-democratic experiences. Finally, I look to inform a future research agenda and argue for the continued pursuit of better when it comes to teaching PE “as a way of life that requires certain habits and dispositions of citizens, including the need to balance individual rights with commitments and responsibilities toward others” (Hytten, 2017, p. 2).
Analysis/Results: During the progressive era, PE was presented as an untapped potential; a way “to save our civilization and democracy” (Burnham, 1922, p. 5); a site primed for “inculcating the principles of tolerance and the democratic attitude and habits of conduct” (Stoddard, 1937, p. 521); and, a site to develop “social, intellectual, aesthetic, moral and physical performance skills useful in a democracy” (Brooks, 1967, p. 32). Despite popularity and prevalence in then literature, the concept of democracy remained firmly philosophical and rhetorical. Starting around 1970, PE research and policy began to align systematically with physiology, sociology and psychology (Lawson, 1990; Livingston, 1996). By the late 1980s, critical theorizing, ethnographic/narrative, and democratically grounded standpoints increasingly emerged. Yet, by the turn of the millennium, democracy within mainstream practice and pedagogy was still scarcely evident (Daniel & Bergman-Drewe, 1998). Since then, increasing attempts to prioritize democracy and social justice in PE research provides enduring promise. However, this promise has also been compounded by the differing ways democracy has been conceptualized within PE contexts and a lack of pedagogical “tools to enact social justice or tackle sociocultural issues” (Hill et al., 2018, p. 470).
Conclusions: Despite increasing work emerging in differing forms advocating participatory and democratic practices within PE, the multiplicity of traditions, orientations, definitions, and suggested actions in relation to social justice and critical pedagogy continue to leave “many educators and physical educators bewildered and confused” (Randall & Robinson, 2016, p. 5). Research and practice globally must continue to re-think the means through which PE programs can “provide experience with democratic processes” (Oberteuffer, 1962, p. 1159) and a “meaningful context for living rather than just talking democracy” (Todd, 1952, p. 203). Democracy within PE is needed now more than ever, with scholars and practitioners “who have their head in a science and their hearts and hands in PE” (Lucas, 2006, p. 4). So long as such spirit of inquiry exists, opportunities in PE “to train our future citizens in a knowledge and practice of democratic living” continue (Herron, 1946, p. 574).
Broadening Horizons: International Outreach Through Sport, Character and Literacy
Ray Noble Fredrick III, Queens College, City University of New York; Risto MarttinenF, George Mason University; Kelly Johnston, Baylor University; Juana Fernandez, Unaffiliated
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine how REACH, an evidence-based afterschool program was able to connect with the Peace Corps in addressing their health sector goals in rural Paraguay through the sport of soccer and through character and literacy instruction. More specifically, the study aimed to examine how REACH was able to transform US based programming to fit the needs of an international organization and more specifically a rural, underserved indigenous community through a Peace Corps Volunteer (PCV).
Method: REACH partners with community leaders and schools to provide safe afterschool spaces for youth in under-resourced communities. This was the first international partnership that REACH has attempted. The program focuses on physical activity, literacy, and positive youth development through leadership from adult mentors who serve as coaches and facilitate sessions. The research questions were: (1) How does REACH work with a PCV remotely to facilitate the REACH programming in Paraguay; (2) What barriers to implementation did the coach face while implementing REACH and how were these barriers addressed?
The program ran from May 2019 to March 2020 when Jasmine, a PCV leading the program, had to evacuate due to COVID-19. Jasmine, an educator with a kinesiology degree, was the main participant in the study. Jasmine signed up for a 27-month stint with the Peace Corps in Paraguay to teach health to rural communities. Jasmine worked with Marko, a university physical education professor and Kimberly a university literacy professor. As a part of her PC partnership, Jasmine led a 7th grade class of 16 boys and 6 girls and an 8th grade class of 8 boys and 8 girls in the REACH program at the secondary school. They met twice/week for 60–90 minutes/day. Data collection included interviews, field notes, artifacts, and reflective notes. Marko and Kimberly received field notes each week and engaged in conversations with Jasmine. Artifacts consisted of student-produced responses in REACH activities and photographs taken. Data were coded using the constant comparative method, using open and axial coding. Several data sources were used to triangulate data, themes were checked for negative cases, and prolonged engagement by Jasmine in the community adds trustworthiness of the data.
Analysis/Results: Data analysis produced two main themes. (1) “Learning to teach in a new country with new rules.” This theme addresses the challenges Jasmine faced in facilitating lessons that were driven by evidence-based research from a US perspective but did not always align with the traditional pedagogical techniques expected in the community she was teaching in. (2) “Expectations and going with the flow.” This theme discusses experiences Jasmine had where she had to navigate the expectations of the community and the local teachers while trying to implement the REACH curriculum with high fidelity.
Conclusions: The REACH program was successfully implemented by a PCV which provides support for REACH aligning with NGOs to further expand evidence-based programming to an international audience while still maintaining the cultural significance of the communities REACH serves. REACH aims to focus on cooperation and not colonization.
Challenges, Reorientation, and Coping Strategies of Chinese Physical Education Teachers in the Post-COVID-19
Zhihua Yin, East China Normal University; Mingzhu Sun, Shanghai University of Engineering Science; Han Meng, Xiaozan Wang, East China Normal University
Background/Purpose: The outbreak of COVID-19 since the end of 2019 has spread rapidly to all over the world, and has had a major impact on the political, economic, cultural and educational fields of the world. As a major health crisis, COVID-19 reminds people should pay more attention to health (Drake & Yan, 2019). In the long post COVID-19 era in the future, as one of the main promoters to improve the health of children and adolescents, physical education(PE) teachers will face multiple challenges in China (Yin, Jia, Sun & Wang, 2020). Therefore, it is necessary to reposition and put forward countermeasures. The purpose of this study was to explore the above problems faced by PE teachers in China.
Method: A qualitative approach using individual semi-structured interviews was used to collect data from 10 PE workers (6 males and 4 females, aged 24–55 years). Two participants were administrators of PE, three were university PE faculties, another five were elementary and secondary PE teachers. The interview transcripts were analyzed to find common themes using the constant comparative method. During analysis, triangulation, negative case checks, member checks, and an extensive peer review were used.
Analysis/Results: Themes emerged as challenges, reorientation and coping strategies: (1) Challenges: the unbalanced development of school PE and health education, the low level of students’ PE and health literacy, the absence of PE teachers in the face of major health crisis, and the hasty development of online PE curriculum and teaching; (2) Reorientation: the owner of PE and health knowledge and skills, the guider of students’ PE and health problem solving, the active participants in dealing with major health crisis, and the designer of PE and health online curriculum and teaching; (3) Coping strategies: in the post COVID-19 era, we should help the PE teachers to transfer their roles from the perspective of the whole life cycle and according to the theoretical model of teacher socialization. It is necessary to take care of the role consciousness of “potential future PE teachers” in the stage of acculturation, provide rich experience in aspects of subjective warrant and apprenticeship observation; reconstruct the role training mode of preservice PE teachers in the stage of professional socialization, and help PE teachers update their professional knowledge and skills in the stage of organizational socialization.
Conclusions: This study shows that the Chinese PE teachers are facing challenges from education, society, students and classroom teaching in the post COVID-19 era. Based on this, this research analyzes the reorientation of the role in four aspects, and then combined with the model of teacher socialization, this research puts forward the coping strategies in different stages. Given the findings, this study recommends that PETE programs in higher education, in-service PE teacher training institutions should take positive and effective measures to help the PE teachers change the role in the post COVID-19 era, so as to lay a foundation for better improving the health literacy of children and adolescents.
Dr. Leroy T. Walker: A Giant Among Us
E. Newton Jackson Jr.F, University of North Florida
Background/Purpose: A man of color, goes to earn his undergraduate degree at Benedict College, in South Carolina capital, Columbia. He was always exceptional, as he earned 11 letters in football, basketball, track & field, graduating in 3 ½ years, while majoring in science and romance languages. Columbia University admitted him for graduate school which he completed in one year. Walker attended NYU earning his PhD in exercise physiology and biomechanics from New York University in 1957. Between the years 1956 and 1980 NCCU track and field athletes were in each of the Olympic Games. When he retired as the North Carolina’s chancellor-emeritus, his team won 11 gold medals, 80 were named All-American, and 35 had national championships. Aside from coaching NCCU, Walker was asked to coach track teams from Israel and Ethiopia in 1960, Trinidad and Tobago in 1964, Jamaica in 1968, and Kenya in 1972. He led USA to the Olympic Games in 1976, finally as Head Coach. Walker was the first Black coach of an American Olympic team, which included decathlete Gold Medalist Bruce (now Caitlyn) Jenner.
Method: An exhaustive archival related literature review was conducted along with personal analysis from contact among, special collection librarians, sport historians, nationwide higher education and sport legends. An inter-rater reliability was performed (among three coders, all with advanced degrees), to ensure historical facts for accuracy. Finally, the researcher utilized multiple data collection sources to enhance validity and reliability of this examination thus (Pitney & Parker, 2009) creating a data source triangulation.
Analysis/Results: This historical and archival investigation provided the discovery of Dr. Walker as one of the most impactful persons in the sport, both domestic and global. His success was magnified by identification and development of talent in various track and field athletes. Mentoring countless professionals in our allied fields (white, Black, Latinos, male and female), in the field, in higher education and the global sport.
Conclusions: The total involvement of Dr. Walker, more specifically, as a major educator, and leader as the only man of color to be so honored, for his service and work must not be ignored, nor dismissed so easily. Many across this nation have no idea of him nor his impact. Those he touched, fondly elaborate on countless acts, words and deeds of kindness and leadership. Walker’s leadership skills led to him being named the head or President of numerous organizations, including, Athletic Congress (now called USA Track & Field, the NGB of USA Track and Field), National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), Chancellor at NCCU. Elected President of USOC. In 1977–78 was elected president of AAHPERD (now SHAPE America), also the first person of color to do such. Inducted into the U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame, inducted into 17 Halls of Fame, awarded 16 Honorary Doctorates including Princeton, DUKE, and Springfield College. He was named the Luther H. Gulick Awardee. He is not mentioned in textbooks nor courses nationwide within our allied profession. A giant walked among us.
Effa Manley: A “Gender Bender” Who Challenged the Status Quo
Demetrius W Pearson, University of Houston
Background/Purpose: This sociocultural and historical analysis highlights the social justice activities of arguably one the earliest and most controversial female executives in American sport history. Effa Manley, who entered the sports world with no prior experience, became one of the most respected owners, social advocates, and contributors to sport integration and society at-large. Unbeknownst to many, Manley was the co-owner and chief executive officer for the Newark Eagles baseball franchise of the Negro National League. She is currently the first and only female executive elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. Her extraordinary business acumen, innovative marketing ploys, and keen negotiating skills enabled the Newark Eagles to be one of the more successful and profitable Negro League teams during the Jim Crow era in Major League Baseball (MLB). More importantly, Manley’s early social justice activities and stance against illegal contract negotiations by several MLB owners challenged the status quo and America’s national pastime.
Method: An extensive archival literature review and analysis of periodicals (i.e., newspapers and magazines) published during the 1930s and 1940s, books and journal articles, as well as casual conversations with knowledgeable informants (e.g., archivists, special collection librarians, and sportswriters) familiar with the research topic provided the requisite data. The use of multiple data collection sources to the point of saturation helped frame the study and enhanced both reliability and validity, thereby serving as a form of “data source triangulation” (Pitney & Parker, 2009).
Analysis/Results: The archival analysis revealed that Effa Manley was a gender bender who challenged “ … gender ideology by entering the male world of sports” (Coakley, 2017, p. 15). Not only was she the most prominent female executive in professional baseball, but was among the most insightful and innovative. Sexism and gender discrimination often dissuaded her male counterparts from considering her recommendations and ideas. Lanctot (2004, p. 86), noted the prevailing gender bias espoused by one team owner: “the proper place for a woman is by the fireplace not functioning in positions to which their husbands have been elected.”
Conclusions: Effa Manley’s social justice activities during her years in professional sport (1935–1949) were prior to the celebrated Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s, as well as the Civil Rights Act (1964) and Title IX (1972) legislation. She hosted “Anti-Lynching” days at games (Smith, 2020) in 1939 and orchestrated a boycott of white-owned Harlem businesses that refused to hire African Americans salesclerks which ended such discriminatory practices in the city. Similar social justice activities were incorporated in the special events and marketing ploys of Manley’s baseball franchise. To her credit, several early Negro League players that integrated Major League Baseball were from her team. She was also the first Negro League owner to be financially compensated for the purchase of a player’s contract.
Engaging Student Voices and Choices: Developing a Playground for All
Victoria N. Shiver, Northern Illinois University; Peter Stoepker, Duke Biber, Sadija Zizic, University of West Georgia
Background/Purpose: Further research is needed to address school playground and physical activity spaces to ensure the needs of all developmental levels are met (Adams, Veitch, & Barnett, 2018). It is critical to include student voices in the decision-making process, empowering children to assist in the creation and design of their own environment (Loizou & Charalambous, 2017). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to (a) explore student perceptions of current physical activity spaces at one elementary school and (b) engage with student choices and voices regarding ideal physical activity spaces.
Method: The study was conducted at an elementary school in the southeastern region of the United States. Evidence indicates that multimodal research (combining visual, aural, and/or text-based forms of data collection) enhances understanding of participant’s lived experiences and the richness of the data (Kress, Jewitt, Ogdorn, & Tsatsarelis, 2006). In order to captivate the children’s thoughts and ideas, data were collected through child drawings combined with focus group interviews (Kearney & Hyle, 2004). Participants were a combination of males (n = 21) and females (n = 19) in 3rd (n = 22), 4th (n = 14), and 5th (n = 4) grade for a total of nine 30–40-minute focus groups interviews. Each session was audio-recorded as participants drew their ideal playground space while simultaneously discussing their drawings, followed by a series of semi-structured interview questions regarding their creations (Theron, Mitchell, Smith, & Stuart, 2011).
Analysis/Results: Analysis was completed utilizing Richards and Hemphill’s (2018) qualitative analysis protocol and was inductive in nature (Patton, 2015). Steps included open coding, axial coding, constant comparison, and making connections across codes to develop themes (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Peer debriefing followed each phase (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Three themes were developed. First, play structures, both traditional and nontraditional, and large green spaces were critical to physical activity and enjoyment. Children were interested in having more of their current play structures (e.g., slides) and adding novel play structures (e.g., a rock-climbing wall). Second, participants prioritized group-based activities and safety. The participants indicated that they predominantly chose group activities such as tag, team sports, or make-believe activities (e.g., fake snowball fights). It was also consistently critical that the space have play structures that would limit injury, meet adapted students’ needs, and be emotionally supportive and fair for all. Finally, participants believed that the playground space would be ideal in alternative hours (e.g., for family use on the weekends), but they did not believe their family members would actively facilitate their use of the space.
Conclusions: Empowering children with autonomy in the decision-making process will like increase student enjoyment as well as physical activity levels (Loizou & Charalambous, 2017). This study provided students with several modes to share their voice regarding the potential for their playground space, enhancing the data and the results. Findings related to the playground structure were consistent with prior literature indicating more play structures and a safe environment are preferable for physical activity spaces (Colabianchi, Maslow, and Swayampakala, 2011). Further work needs to be done following the development of the suggested physical space based on the children’s recommendations.
Establishing Restorative Practices in Physical Education Within a High-Needs Elementary School
Ben DysonF, Donal Howley, Yanhua Shen, Seunghyun Baek, Justin Somers, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Background/Purpose: Pedagogies in Physical Education (PE) developing social and emotional learning (SEL) are critical prerequisites within high-needs elementary settings (Gagnon, 2016). Restorative practices (RP) involve peaceful, non-punitive approaches for addressing harm, conflict, and problem solving with students, and have shown the capacity to improve SEL, attendance, and overall school climate (Fronius et al., 2019). The purpose of this study was to investigate a physical educator’s experience of establishing RP in PE to cultivate SEL within a high-needs elementary school.
Method: Adopting a qualitative case study design, researchers observed and interviewed Cody, a K-5 PE teacher working in Laurel; a rural high-needs elementary school serving approximately 375 students (59% African American; 20% Caucasian; 11%; Hispanic; 10% Multi-Racial), 98% of whom come from low-income families. Data was collected using interviews, a focus group, and field notes, conducted over 18 visits as part of a larger study over one school year. Cody was observed and asked to reflect on his understandings and ongoing experiences of establishing RP in PE. Jones and Bouffard’s (2012) SEL framework was used to further understand how Cody’s efforts to do so were being shaped by his own experiences and the broader educational, political, and socio-cultural factors that existed in Laurel.
Analysis/Results: Inductive and deductive data analysis was conducted (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). Trustworthiness, including credibility, dependability, and confirmability was achieved by member checks with Cody verifying his interpretations, researchers’ peer debriefing meetings, and extended periods of time spent with Cody at Laurel. Four themes emerged: “I’m going to do this”; “It’s hard for them”; “I have my days”; and, “We’re better off doing it together.” Establishing RP compelled Cody to reshape his pedagogy in PE: “It kind of forces you to rethink and reshape everything … it was very intimidating to say ‘I’m going to do this.’” Establishing RP was challenging for his students: “It’s hard for them … they still have their defense up … they’re being taught to have this very tough skin.” RP was just as challenging for Cody also: “When I have my days and I feel like I’ve kind of had a whirlwind of a time, I don’t feel great.” Despite establishing RP as common practice in PE, Cody emphasized the need for further buy-in across the school: “We’re better off doing it together … it needs to be 100% buy-in, everybody in the building speaking the same language, doing the same structure.”
Conclusions: Adopting a qualitative approach exploring the establishment of RP demonstrates the nuanced contextual opportunities and challenges involved when prioritizing SEL in PE. Cody’s practice was affected and shaped by many multi-level environmental, cultural, and political factors which extended beyond his dedicated efforts (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Jones & Doolittle 2017). Findings indicate that working closely with PE teachers in high-needs settings using qualitative methods can help construct meaning and understanding as to how to develop and implement SEL pedagogies. Such work in PE must also be positioned and considered within wider school culture to support and prepare students to negotiate schooling and their lives beyond the classroom.
Exploration of a Learn-to-Swim Program for African-American Adult Males
Timothy Michael Dasinger, Laura Brown, Boone Brown, University of Tennessee-Martin
Background/Purpose: African-American individuals exhibit the highest drowning rates and often do not have the same comfort level in and around water compared to other ethnicities. Understanding the reasons why some African-American adults never learned to swim and imparting knowledge and experiences related to water competency may help stop the history of fear of water. The purpose of this study was to investigate determinants that prevented participants from learning to swim and to explore the efficacy of swimming lessons on water competency in African-American men.
Method: Five African-American males (Mage = 22.6 ±.89 years old) with very little to no prior swimming experience participated in weekly swimming lessons guided by two certified swimming educators for two months. Swimming lessons began with rudimentary skills such as blowing bubbles and advanced to swimming 25 yards of the technical strokes. Participants responded to qualitative questions pertaining to their prior swimming experiences and level of comfortability before engaging in the guided swimming lessons. After the lessons concluded, the participants shared their perceived comfortability and how the lessons will shape their future water behavior.
Analysis/Results: Based on the participants’ responses, the main reasons the participants cited for not learning to swim were not having access to a pool and a lack of opportunity. After the conclusion of the swimming lessons, every participant reported an increase in their perceived water competency and comfortability around water. Additionally, after the guided lessons ended, some of the participants stated that their positive experiences during the swimming lessons made them want to help others in their community to learn to swim and become more comfortable being around water.
Conclusions: Providing access to a facility and imparting knowledge and experience pertaining to water competency helped increase the comfortability of the African-American men. By the end of the guided swimming lessons, all of the participants could swim 25 yards on their own. It is evident from the data that the participants have gained a sense of empowerment related to their swimming efficacy. Future endeavors should focus on earlier education and increased swimming opportunities to help reduce the high number of African-American drowning rates and to deter the generational fear of failure.
Female Students’ Barriers to Physical Activity in Secondary School Physical Education
Mijoo Kim, New Mexico Highlands University
Background/Purpose: Despite the well-known holistic benefits of regular participation in physical activity (PA), 80% of adolescents around the world do not meet the recommended PA guidelines (Hallal et al., 2013). Furthermore, research shows that PA rates tend to decline during adolescence, especially for females (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2003). In particular, within the South Korean context, only 8.6% of boys and 2.8% of girls meet the recommended PA guidelines (Oh et al., 2019). These statistics are alarming because female students’ levels of enjoyment and confidence in secondary school PE influence their PA later in life (Davison et al., 2010; Woodson-Smith et al., 2015); yet, there is a lack of research conducted on female students’ PA in secondary schools in East Asian contexts, and in South Korea. Thus, this qualitative study utilized theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) to explore the beliefs of South Korean PE teachers and their female secondary school students regarding girls’ barriers to PA.
Method: This study was situated in the qualitative research paradigm using an interviewing approach (Gay, 1996). The research sites were two public middle schools and four public high schools in urban cities in South Korea. The participants were six PE teachers (two female and four male), which reflects the gender proportions of most secondary school PE departments in South Korea, and 12 of their secondary school female students (two from each teacher, one identified as having low PA and the other high PA). Data was collected from teacher and student demographic questionnaires, semi-structured teacher and student interviews, and non-participant classroom observations, which were analyzed through thematic analysis.
Analysis/Results: The major findings of this study suggest that Korean PE teachers need to closely examine their own behavior, curriculum, and classroom environment to better promote female students’ PA participation in their PE classes. Both PE teachers and female students stressed the importance of teachers’ communication, attention, and feedback, which was often imbalanced between girls and boys. They also highlighted that a diverse PE curriculum could give female students greater choices and more motivation, as many female students complained that their classes favored male preferences and did not relate to their lives outside of school. Whereas the PE teachers emphasized the importance of creating a fun environment to reduce students’ anxiety and increase their enjoyment with PA, students stressed the importance of a safe environment free from bullying, teasing, gossip, and surveillance.
Conclusions: This study has strong practical implications for PETE programs in the East Asian context and beyond. Under Title IX provisions, schools are required to provide an environment that enables males and females to receive the same opportunities to participate in PE (Carpenter & Acosta, 2005), yet these provisions have not solved the problem because, in reality, girls receive an equal opportunity to a PE curriculum that favors male students (Garrett, 2004b). Thus, physical educators should design and implement effective interventions to increase female students’ PA. More specifically, they must diversify the PE curriculum to make it more inclusive, develop effective teaching strategies, and cultivate a positive learning environment.
Gay Men’s Reflective Experiences in Physical Education: Affects and Orientations in a Visual Economy
Samantha Meyerhoff, Towson University; Susan Loftus, Montgomery County Public Schools; Dillon Landi, Towson University
Background/Purpose: Scholars have illustrated that PE is rooted in heteronormative practices that reproduce gender binaries. Such practices have the ability to isolate, exclude, and reject LGBTQ+ persons (Devís-Devís et al., 2018; Sykes, 2011). Recently, Landi and colleagues (2020) noted a “rising tide” in sexuality research in PE. Despite this, there is very little historical research exploring the experiences of gay men in PE (McGlashan, 2013; Sykes, 2011) Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to explore gay men’s historical reflective experiences of physical education (PE) in the United States.
Method: To explore gay men’s historical experiences in PE, we chose to draw on queer and feminist materialist theories (Ahmed, 2006; Deleuze & Guattari, 1987; Ringrose et al., 2019). In particular, the authors draw on the concepts orientations, affects, and assemblage. Such a theoretical approach allows us to examine the complex networks of subjectivities, knowledge, and materiality at the intersection of curriculum and pedagogy in PE.
This paper conducted an historical document analysis (Bowen, 2009). There were 12 primary sources of data that comprised this study. The 12 artifacts were interview transcripts from previous postgraduate work. The transcripts documented the experiences of queer men who are now aged between 48 and 70 years old. The transcripts ranged from 3–5 pages each. This research was approved by the IRB committee of the corresponding University.
Data were analyzed using three specific methods. The first analysis method drew on Maclure’s concept of identifying “glows” in the data (MacLure, 2013). After data glows were extracted and identified, the authors discussed the glows and re-conducted an analysis using inductive approaches from a dialectical lens (Freeman, 2017). After the inductive analysis, the initial glows and dialectic inductive themes and memos were then re-analyzed using a deductive and theoretical (feminist new materialist) approach (Saldaña, 2015). Trustworthiness was addressed through multiple tools used in crystallization (Ellingson, 2009).
Analysis/Results: The first result examines how “orientating devices” (Ahmed, 2006) in physical education work to align bodies to a heteronormative ideal. To do so, we consider the ways in which objects, pedagogies, and knowledge work within a visual economy to orientate students’ bodies along physical, gendered, sexual, and racial paths. In the second result, we examine how those “orientating devices” affect—or influence—how gay men have experienced physical education. Lastly, we then examine the ways that these gay men re-orientate themselves in order to survive (or resist) the visual economy of physical education.
Conclusions: This paper has scholarly and practical implications. From an academic standpoint, the paper identified the different straightening devices that re-produce “straight and racialized” pedagogies in physical education (Culp, 2016; Fitzpatrick & McGlashan, 2016) and how this affects gay men’s participation in physical education. From a practical standpoint, we now have further insights into the ways that gay men reproduce, but also resist these pedagogical and orientating devices. Based on this information, changes can be made to curriculum and pedagogy.
Growing More Than Plants in the Reverend Rivera Community Garden
Jeffrey Cherubini, Christie M. Gonzalez-Toro, Manhattan College
Background/Purpose: No investigation of community health is complete without acknowledging the current dual public health crises of the novel coronavirus pandemic and systemic racism (American Public Health Association, 2020). Whereas COVID-19 is a virus that infects all people, economic considerations, environmental factors, social determinants of health, and underlying health conditions, all contribute to people of color being more at risk and disproportionately affected by the virus (Haynes et al., 2020; Hooper et al., 2020; Yancy, 2020). Addressing health inequalities and challenges connected to systemic racism, the public health benefits of community gardens are well-documented across physical, emotional, social, and environmental domains (Alaimo et al., 2016; Egli et al., 2016; McVey et al., 2018; Soga et al., 2017). As a health promotion tool, urban community gardens have the added benefits of fostering positive multi-cultural and multi-generational relationships (Draper & Freedman, 2010). The purpose of this study was to qualitatively identify co-benefits of community gardening participation from the perspective of the gardeners themselves.
Method: While there is reputable quantity of literature addressing the benefits of community gardening, studies investigating urban community garden participation, via qualitative approaches, are still needed and worth pursuing (Christensen, 2017; George, 2013; Poulsen et al., 2014). Utilizing a naturalistic approach (Patton, 2015), with a focus on hearing the “voices of garden members,” a qualitative inquiry (Strauss & Corbin, 2014) was used to allow for personal insights into garden program participation.
Analysis/Results: Adhering to protocols established by Rubin and Rubin (2011), qualitative interviewing was the primary source of data collection. Nineteen participants from a new garden program in the city of Yonkers, New York, were interviewed. Participants ranged in age from 32 to 80 years (M = 53.6, SD = 14.3) and self-identified as Black or African American (n = 3), Hispanic or Latinx (n = 14), and White (n = 2). Following grounded theory methodology (Strauss & Corbin, 2014), themes derived from transcribed interviews include: (a) use of space, (b) health impact, (c) challenges and supports, and (d) community recommendations. Applicable subcategories include: family history and cultural identity, physical activity, stress reduction, cognitive learning, social connectivity, social support, community engagement, cross-cultural connections, and safety.
Conclusions: Results support community gardening as a social-environmental intervention in which intrapersonal, interpersonal, and environmental processes influence health behaviors and determinants, which in turn influence health outcomes (Alaimo et al., 2016). Bridging research to applied work, we hope the data from this study serves a supportive role in the further development of community garden programs to help reduce health disparities and enhance social connectivity in our local communities. With this, we are not suggesting community gardening as a panacea to our current public health crises, but rather as a value added local public health resource. Whereas community gardens help in limiting surface level health disparity challenges, our results indicate they may also serve a much more influential public health role, that of “building community.”
Hispanic Athletic Participation at a Hispanic Serving Institution
Gregory Jason Soukup Sr., David Fike, Randall Griffiths, Heather Barton-Weston, University of the Incarnate Word
Background/Purpose: Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs) assist in increasing the number of Hispanic students in higher education. To gain HSI status, accredited public or private two or 4-year colleges or universities must enroll 25% or more full-time undergraduate Hispanic students. There are 539 American HSIs (247- 2-year colleges/292- 4-year universities). HSI institutions account for 66% of Hispanic undergraduate students. Hispanic participation in NCAA athletics is rising but still accounts for only 5% of nearly 200,000 NCAA athletes. While HSIs are required to provide access to higher education for Hispanic students are these universities providing Hispanic students the same type of access to their athletic programs? The purpose of the study was to determine if participation rates of full-time Hispanic students in intercollegiate/varsity sports at an NCAA Division I Hispanic Serving Institution differed significantly from non-Hispanic students at that university.
Method: Data were collected from a private urban HSI in the southwest United States. Undergraduate enrollment averaged approximately 10,000 students with roughly half self-identifying as Hispanic. The university is a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I member with 11 female and 10 male sports programs. Approval for the study was obtained from the university Institutional Review Board. A cross-sectional survey was used for the study. The Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership (MSL) was used to collect data. Data were randomly collected from student samples in 2015 and 2018. The dependent variable was participation in intercollegiate/varsity sports and the independent variable was if the student identified as Hispanic. There were 4,000 students randomly selected to participate in the survey in 2015, and 1673 responses were collected (41.8%) and 3,999 students randomly selected in 2018 with 1580 responses (39.5%).
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics include means, standard deviations, numbers and percentages. A Chi-Square test was used to determine if the percentage of full-time Hispanic students in intercollegiate/varsity sports differed from non-Hispanic students. Level of significance was established at .05.
Conclusions: In the 2015 sample, 53 of the 542 Hispanic students (9.8%) participated in intercollegiate/varsity sports, and 57 of the 330 non-Hispanic students (17.3%) participated in sports. The percentage of Hispanics participating in sports were significantly less than that of non-Hispanic students (p < .001). For the 2018 sample, 53 of the 443 Hispanic students (12.0%) participated in intercollegiate/varsity sports, and 98 of the 284 non-Hispanic students (23.9%) participated in sports. Once again, the percentage of Hispanic students participating in varsity sports was significantly less than non-Hispanic students (p < .001). The researchers found 9% and 12% of Hispanic students participated in NCAA varsity sports at the HSI university. These rates were higher than the 5% rates of Hispanic participation in varsity sports reported by the NCAA. The 17% and 23% rates of non-Hispanic student participation in varsity sports were significantly lower than NCAA reported rates. Even though rates of varsity sport participation were significantly lower for Hispanic students at the university, the rates of Hispanic student participation was twice the average rates reported by the NCAA for Hispanic sport participation.
Incorporating Social Justice Into a Motor Behavior Course
Layne Case, Sam W LoganF, Kathleen Bogart, Erica Woekel, Oregon State University
Background/Purpose: Kinesiology students are an important target population for disability beliefs intervention research, as many will work with people with disabilities in their future career within physical activity and allied health fields. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a motor behavior course with a social justice perspective on undergraduate Kinesiology students’ attitudes toward people with disabilities, alignment with medical and social models of disability, and mobility beliefs.
Method: This study used a nonrandomized, control group pretest posttest research design. A convenience sample (n = 897) was drawn from undergraduate students enrolled at a public university. Participants in the intervention group (n = 368; mean age = 21.31 ± 2.36) were enrolled in a required motor behavior course for Kinesiology students that included social justice content, such as examining motor behavior from a disability perspective and video-based contact with young children with disabilities. Participants in the control group (n = 529; mean age = 18.78 ± 1.73) were enrolled in a required health and fitness course for all university students that did not include social justice content. Participants completed four separate surveys—the Attitudes toward Disabled Persons scale, the 8-item Medical Model and 7-item Social Model subscales of Darling and Heckert’s Questionnaire on Disability Identity and Opportunity, and a 9-item Mobility Beliefs scale—before and after participation in the 10-week course.
Analysis/Results: Separate one-way ANCOVAs were conducted to determine if participants in the intervention group would demonstrate more favorable outcomes compared to participants in the control group, controlling for baseline measures. Results indicate that participants in the intervention group reported more favorable attitudes toward disability [F(1, 876) = 41.0, p < .001, np2 = .05], lower medical model scores [F(1, 876) = 14.43, p < .001, np2 = .016], higher social model scores [F(1, 876) = 62.37, p < .001, np2 = .066], and more favorable views toward self-directed mobility [F(1, 876) = 340.34, p < .001, np2 = .280], after controlling for baseline scores.
Conclusions: Integrating social justice concepts, such as disability perspectives, into the classroom may be an important addition to Kinesiology curriculum. This study demonstrated positive effects of an intervention strategy to change disability and mobility beliefs of undergraduate Kinesiology students. Future research should replicate the current results and extend knowledge through further understanding the underlying mechanisms that contributed to positive changes in beliefs. This work has potential to reach a large base of Kinesiology students if implemented at other universities. These findings are important because they suggest that future professionals in physical activity and allied health fields may adopt more favorable intentions, behavior, and advocacy in their forthcoming interactions with people with disabilities.
Physical Education Teachers’ Perception of Value-Added Model for Teacher Accountability
Tan ZhangF, Winston-Salem State University
Background/Purpose: A growing need to promote students’ physical literacy calls for quality physical education (PE) program that prioritizes student learning. Having a teacher evaluation program is critical to achieve such a goal in that it takes teachers accountable and provides them feedbacks and references for performance improvement (Stronge, 1997). With more states took the initiative of expanding their implementation of value-added models (VAM) to PE (Seymour & Garrison, 2017), it is imperative to explore teachers’ perception about the accountability system. The study is to explore how PE teachers perceived a state-wide teacher accountability system that emphasizes on student learning growth.
Method: The study was conducted in a large school district in a southeastern state that started to implement a state-wide teacher accountability system for PE in 2013–2014. The system expected teachers to 1) choose five learning objectives from the state essential standards for physical and health education, 2) sample five students from each class, 3) collect the sampled students’ works on the five objectives on at least two time points to reflect student growth, and 4) explain the captured “student growth” and submit the collected artifacts for peer evaluation. The result of peer evaluation placed teachers into categories of not meeting the expected growth, meets the expected growth and exceeds the expected growth.
Stratified random sampling was conducted based on the schools’ socioeconomic status, yielding a representative sample of 51 teachers with 17 teachers from each school level. The sampled teachers received an in-depth semi-structured interview with questions tapping into their experiences and perception on the teacher accountability system.
Analysis/Results: Based on grounded theory method, inductive analysis reveals that teachers held three perspectives toward the teacher accountability system. Around 50% of interviewed teachers believed that participating in the accountability system is the only way to legitimize the subject. They raised various constructive suggestions, including but not limited to establishing standardized test for conceptual content knowledge in health and physical education, using systematic observation to localize teacher evaluation on skill related content, taking students accountable for their performance in PE, to better operationalize the teacher accountability system. Some teachers were ambivalent about the accountability system due to the incompatibility between PE content and the VAM-expected “learning growth.” To them, physical skills are highly correlated with students’ ability and skillfulness and cannot be improved significantly within a limited learning period. Physical fitness is influenced by students’ demographics and motivation. In other words, how to fit PE into the VAM accountability system was their concern. Some teachers were pessimistic about joining the accountability system and believed the accountability system would not change the marginalized status of the subject.
Foucault’s perspective of disciplinary power and knowledge production is used to understand the process of establishing accountability in physical education as normalizing the subject (Gunzenhauser, 2010). Diverse teacher perceptions embodied the power negotiation on what constitute content knowledge in PE, what is the accepted form of knowledge, and who carry the authority to define the content knowledge.
Conclusions: An effective VAM accountability system needs to engage teachers closely on knowledge normalization process.
Preservice Teachers’ Experiences After Teaching Physical Education in a Nontraditional Setting
Cory E. Dixon, Rowan University; Peter A. HastieF, Jared A. RussellF, Auburn University
Background/Purpose: The ethnic and cultural gap in diversity is continuing to grow between teacher and student populations (NCES, 2018). Inevitably, teachers, who are white and female, will be teaching an increasingly diverse group of students. Teacher education programs must subsequently prepare preservice teachers to effectively teach diverse student populations. The purpose of this study was to examine the pedagogical experiences of undergraduate PETE seniors after they taught physical education at a youth development center (YDC) for a field experience.
Method: A phenomenological case study approach was employed. The participants were eight senior preservice teachers who taught and participated in over 45 secondary physical education lessons at a YDC that served an ethnically and culturally diverse group of students during a secondary methods course at a university in the Southeastern region of the United States. The primary data sources were reflective journals and semi-structured interviews. Data were interpreted using qualitative methods.
Analysis/Results: This study presented the results in two categories: (a) analysis of the data collected from students during their field experience and (b) potential transfer from the field experience at the youth development center to the internship settings during the next semester. The first category resulted in the generation of three themes. These have been given the following labels: (a) preconceived notions and assumptions; (b) expressed impact of teaching in a nontraditional setting; and (c) exposure to a diverse student population. Analysis of the data concerning examine any potential transfer from the field experience at the youth development center to the internship settings during the next semester led to two themes: (a) perspective of the students and (b) behavior management. The extent to which the PETE seniors’ experiences at the YDC were transferred into their internships is discussed in addition to implications for introducing culturally relevant pedagogies in nontraditional settings.
Conclusions: The use of nontraditional settings for pedagogical experiences, specifically is strongly recommended. Nontraditional settings (i.e. YDC’s, after school programs, detention centers, etc.) often times provide a specific set of pedagogical nuances that other more traditional settings do not provide. Nontraditional field experiences and/or experiences that provide exposure to diverse student populations are not alone sufficient in cultivating culturally competent teachers or teachers that will effectively implement CRP practices into their teaching. However, the PETE seniors did make some observable growth regarding cultural competency. Additionally, the data demonstrated that nontraditional pedagogical experiences have the potential to be transferred into other contexts beyond that experience. Therefore, PETE educators should consider using them as foundational experiences in PETE program curricula by implementing them early and throughout the matriculation process of PETE students.
Promoting Body Size Diversity in University Recreation Centers
Luciana Zuest, California State University Chico; Sae-Mi Lee, California State University Los Angeles; Juliana Leedeman, California State University Chico; Shuang Li, University of Wisconsin-Madison; Dawn Clifford, Northern Arizona University
Background/Purpose: The prevalence of weight stigma within physical activity (PA) contexts is well documented in the literature (Cardinal et al., 2014). Researchers examining weight stigma in PA settings such as fitness centers and school-based physical education have found that people in larger bodies often experience a great deal of stigma and discrimination in these spaces (Alberga & Russell-Mayhew, 2016). This is problematic because experiences of weight stigma in PA contexts are associated with biopsychosocial health consequences and can hinder PA participation and enjoyment (Ebbeck & Austin, 2018; Vartanian & Novak, 2010). As university recreation centers (URC) are the primary space in which college students pursue PA (Zizzi et al., 2004), it is important to ensure these spaces are inclusive and health-promoting. However, little is known about the extent to which those spaces have an inclusive climate for people in diverse body sizes. This study examined the extent to which URC leaders perceived their spaces to be an inclusive climate for body size diversity.
Method: One hundred and forty one URC leaders from 37 different states in the U.S. participated in this cross-sectional survey study. Participants completed an online survey containing Likert-type and open-ended questions about their URC’s practices for inclusion as well as demographic questions.
Analysis/Results: Researchers conducted descriptive statistics analysis for survey items using SPSS, and a content analysis for open ended questions using MAXQDA. Overall, participants perceived their URCs to have an inclusive climate. For example, 63.8% selected agree or strongly agree for the statement “all body shapes and sizes are welcomed.” Likewise, 79.4% selected agree or strongly agree for “our rec center is an inclusive space for all students.” However, URC leaders’ perceptions of the climate of their facilities were not always aligned with the actual practices they reported, nor were they aligned with the current research recommendations for building inclusive PA spaces for people in larger bodies. For example, their reported practices were limited to actions such as diversifying images used for marketing, establishing separate spaces within their URCs, and offering classes for different ability levels. Based on the Physical Activity for Every Body model (Pickett & Cunningham, 2017), which is a framework for creating body inclusive spaces, those practices, although relevant and beneficial, are insufficient in creating a climate of body size acceptance and respect. According to the model, additional elements as well as the multiple marginalized identities interacting with weight (e.g., race, gender, ability, socioeconomic status, and sexual orientation) must be taken into account to truly create inclusive PA spaces.
Conclusions: Findings from this study suggest that despite URC leaders’ perceptions of their facilities as inclusive of body size diversity, their reported practices did not always support their perceptions. This confirms the need for the development, implementation, and evaluation of research-informed training opportunities for fitness professionals focused on confronting weight stigma and creating body-inclusive communities.
Research on Diversity and Differences in Physical Education: A Bibliometric Analysis
James D. Wyant, West Virginia University; Adam Keath, Winthrop University; Jun-Hyung Baek, Gyeongin National University of Education; Emi Tsuda, West Virginia University
Background/Purpose: In the United States today, educators teach an increasingly diverse student population. A plurality of ethnic and cultural backgrounds magnifies the range of student communication styles, non-verbal behavior, and learning preferences that emerge in the classroom setting (Banks, 2006; Hutchinson & Mendon, 2010). Beyond appreciating that diversity and differences exist, all physical education teachers must have the pedagogical abilities to meet the needs of all students. To this end, it is essential to understand the best practices and pedagogical approaches for teachers working with diverse populations. The purpose of this study was to conduct a 30-year exploration of physical education research studies that have examined diversity and differences. Two research questions guided the study: (a) What are the most influential diversity and differences publications over the last 30 years? b) What are the trends in research on diversity and differences over the last 30 years?
Method: A bibliometric analysis was used to identify the most commonly cited research in physical education. Data sources for the study were identified from the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection. Further, this study adopted Albort-Morant and Riberiro-Soriano’s (2016) bibliometric analytical approach by progressing through the following steps: (a) establish the search criteria, (d) determine the bibliographic information of interest, (c) code the data and (d) analyze the bibliographic information. A general search on the WoS database was conducted to capture all of the publications that focused on diversity and differences research in physical education from 1990 through July 15, 2020.
Analysis/Results: Analysis of the data started with identifying all research publications on WoS that focused on physical education. The search process yielded 17,115 publications. The researchers then deductively coded the publications to pinpoint the top 20 most cited articles focused on physical education, diversity, and differences. Kirk, MacDonald, and O’Sullivan’s (2006) characterization of diversity, inclusion, and social class guided the coding process. The top 20 publications on diversity and differences over the past 30 years amassed 2,191 citations, with an average of 109.55 citations per year. Years 2005 and 2007 account for 30% of the top 20 list, each produced three publications. 2017–2019 represents the most active years for citations of publications from the top 20 list. During that time, the publications accumulated 565 citations. Ennis’ (1999) article on creating a culturally relevant curriculum for disengaged girls is the most cited. Among the topics explored, gender differences and inclusion were the most common focus. Qualitative research was the preferred methodology to examine the topic. Sport, Education, and Society was the most represented journal outlet among the influential list with five publications.
Conclusions: Physical education scholars have long studied issues related to diversity and differences. Scholars have discovered insights into best practices, shortcomings, and curricular modifications related to teaching students from diverse backgrounds. Importantly, influential authors and insights gleaned from their work have moved the field closer to a point where physical education prioritizes the needs of all students.
Scrapbooking, Health, and Fitness With Black and Latinx Youth
Carrie Safron, Teachers College, Columbia University and Manhattanville College
Background/Purpose: Physical education (PE) often reflects a homogenous Westernized perspective of the body (Landi, 2019). Such perspectives reinforce notions of the healthy, fit (female) body as thin, toned, slender and white. As a result, young people, and particularly young people of color, are positioned as “bodies-at-risk.” There has been scholarship in PE to counter these perspectives (Azzarito et al., 2017; Oliver, 2001). Yet, as youth learn about health and fitness from multiple sites outside of PE, it is important to expand our lens. As such, this study works with youth in a community-based afterschool program. It investigates youth’s interactions with health and fitness during a nine-week scrapbooking project.
Method: This study draws on data from a nine-week scrapbooking project with four Black and Latinx youth. I (White, woman, researcher) facilitated the project. Each week, the four youth and I explored pedagogical sites (Tinning, 2010) of health and fitness, ranging from magazines to our everyday experiences. We met once a week, as a group, to create our own scrapbooks. Each session, which lasted between 60 to 90-minutes, was audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. I also conducted 45 to 60-minute interviews with the participants after the project was over. Data included visual (scrapbooks) and nonvisual (transcripts) components. Data were analyzed using MacLure’s (2013) interpretation of coding and Jackson and Mazzei’s (2012) notion of “thinking with theory.” In other words, unusual, unexpected moments were coded inductively. These moments were then analyzed deductively, using affect from a cultural studies lens. I explore the week of magazine scrapbooking to discuss preliminary results.
Analysis/Results: “Magazines make me uncomfortable”—In the magazine scrapbooking, youth expressed that such materials made them “uncomfortable.” Sara iterated that magazines produce feelings that lead you to compare yourselves to others. She said, “when you’re constantly forced to see pictures like that, you start thinking I’m not healthy or fit.” While the youth were aware of normative discourses of healthy, fit body ideals, they also rejected consumerist messages produced by magazines. Specifically, through scrapbooking, they re-assembled images and texts to create their own versions of what they wanted to share. This process opened spaces for them to critique body ideals.
“Are you serious?”—Their magazine re-assembling led me to reconsider my positioning in relation to this project, and health and fitness more broadly. When youth expressed that the magazines “made them uncomfortable,” I did not first think they were serious. Yet, in interacting further with their visual (scrapbooks) and nonvisual (conversation) work, I began to realize they were serious. Even though I thought I was taking a critical approach, the youth shifted my positioning as a White woman with a background in exercise physiology.
Conclusions: Youth are cultural critics when it comes to health and fitness. They do not necessarily buy into Westernized, consumerist notions put forth in magazines. Thus, even as normative healthy, fit body ideals circulate multiple pedagogical sites, youth create other ways of thinking/doing. It is important for us (researchers, practitioners) to listen so we can shift our own positioning.
Voices of Leaders to Improve Leadership in Physical Education
James Ressler, Paul WrightF, Northern Illinois University; Jared Lawrence Anderson, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse
Background/Purpose: School-based physical education (PE) programs have a great responsibility to offer experiences that meet and challenge needs of their students. It is expected, through explicit national guidelines from SHAPE America to present learning opportunities with a wide range of outcomes. Among those outcomes involve personal, social, and emotional themes that have emerged across all content areas. Within these themes include common threads of leadership, an important skill that youth can develop through PE and transfer to other aspects of their lives (Gordon & Doyle, 2015). Teaching and practicing leadership is commonly known in high school PE programs. In some schools, there are specific classes organized and framed as some version of “PE Leaders” (PEL). The purpose of this study was to voice perspectives of participants from multiple angles of a physical education program, and detail ways in which the teaching and practice of leadership manifests in the formal PE curriculum.
Method: Participants in the study were high school students (n = 110) and teachers (n = 6) from a large, ethnically and racially diverse suburban high school of 3,500 students in the Midwestern portion of the United States. Students were formally enrolled and identified in a PEL course at their high school. The range of involvement included an introductory seminar course, assisting or co-teaching with a PE teacher in a general (e.g., 9th grade PE) or specialized (e.g., Adventure, Fitness, Weight Training, Integrated Adaptive) course. Teachers’ experiences ranged from three to twenty-nine years of experience in the profession and in the specific school district.
Teachers participated in semi-structured interviews lasting 25–40 minutes in addition to numerous informal conversations during a multi-year partnership between the school district and local university. Direct observations from the research team with reflexive notes, document review of planning materials, and copious journaling from the research team around the theme of leadership, effective physical education, and practical application (transfer) of affective and social skills.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using inductive and deductive analysis strategies (Patton, 2015). Constant comparison (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) and selective coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) were used to identify and delineate generative themes with the data set beyond initial interviews. Initial themes formed as (a) clear planning and vision for leadership, (b) accelerating leadership practice, and (c) influence of leader trainees. Planning took the form mainly of renaming and normalizing everyday leadership in the PE program and school community at-large. Leadership practice was advanced by way of targeting students to consider (i.e. apply) to be in the PEL program because of their known, observed affective and social skills rather than their PEL status being grounded in a “sporty” disposition. Student voice was welcomed and sought out regularly, but only recently captured formally. Teachers acknowledged new, improved, and aggressive measures to modify course offerings based on what they were hearing and seeing across the program.
Conclusions: Recommendations include specific steps in building a clearer leadership infrastructure, redefining PE for the entire student body, and improving the promotion of, and advocacy for ever-changing best practices.
What High School Principals Don’t Know About Sportsmanship
Lisa Brown, Sharon Kay StollF, University of Idaho; Jennifer M Beller, St. Mary’s Parish School
Background/Purpose: The National Federation of High School Activity Association (NFHSAA) guidelines are clear about moral duty and ethical practice. All administrators of high school activities, coaches, and athletes under the jurisdiction of NFHSAA are to know and follow the guidelines. These guidelines are based on the moral principles of honesty, responsibility, and justice. Moral reasoning research for the past 35 years is fairly clear that coaches and athletes reason morally from a perspective of “What’s in it for me? And what do I need to do right now to win?,” a perspective where sportsmanship rules and or principles are seldom considered relative to action. High school principals are the moral leaders of the high school and have the role of ensuring ethical practice in their athletic programs. Little to no research has been conducted relative to high school principal’s knowledge of the sportsmanship rules/principles.
Method: Eighty-seven (87) principals, from 157 association school volunteered to participate (59 males, 28 females). All participants gave informed consent and completed the RSBHVI, an instrument that measures moral reasoning (based on principles of honesty, responsibility, justice) in sport competition. The RSBVI correlates highly with the values and ethical principles in the NFHSAA sportsmanship guidelines. Cronbach alphas ranged from .81 to .87. Range of possible scores is 10–50. The higher the score the more principled perspective that is used in making decisions.
Analysis/Results: No significant difference was found by gender on moral reasoning of secondary school administrators (p = .08) [Males 30.05 ± 5.5; females 27.0 ± 6.00, by years of experience]. No difference was found by school size and gender on moral reasoning of secondary school administrators as evidenced by the RSBHVI (p = .49). Male scores by district size, large to small were: (31.15 ± 4.6), (21.25 ± 3.50), (21.18 ± 7.04), (31.10 ± 8.0), (29.66 ± 3.38) while female scores were: (25.70 ± 7.2), (28.80 ± 8.58), (27.0 ± 2.16), (25.6 ± 5.31), (29.75 ± 1.70).
Conclusions: Neither males nor females scored well on the moral side of the RHBVCI which has a direct correlation to the rules and guidelines of the NFHSAA. Interestingly, female administrators scored lower than males which is opposite of all but a couple of studies with coaches and athletes. It appears that principals either do not read, know, or perhaps even value the NFHSAA sportsmanship guidelines. As the moral leaders, these administrators have a direct duty, by virtue of being members of the NFHSAA to know, follow, teach, lead, and expect coaches and athletes to know and follow the rules of moral responsibility. If principals do not know the guidelines, then it appears that few coaches/athletes will learn to value the importance of these guidelines to issues of equity and fair play. Because schools, by virtue of being members of the state and NFHSAA both implicitly and explicitly agree to follow the rules, education is needed with high school administrators on ethical duty as members of the NFHSAA.
What Makes Character Education Possible? Examining Physical Education Classes for Character Education
Choi Soonjung, Seould National University; Euichang Choi, Okseon Lee, Seoul National University
Background/Purpose: Regarding the value of physical education (PE) for character education and social and emotional learning, it has become an academic priority to study about PE classes aligned to such missions. The purpose of this study was to explore characteristics of PE classes that were intended for character education through PE classes. The research questions guiding this study were: (a) What are the characteristics of PE classes as it positively affects students’ character development? and (b) What are the positive changes of students’ characters during PE classes?
Method: The researchers adopted qualitative research methods that were based on constructivism research paradigm. The participants were five PE teachers and 200 of students who were taught by the participating teachers. The researchers collected data from various methods, including in-depth interviews with PE teachers and ten students, open-ended questionnaires, classroom observations, document collection, and field notes. Collected data were analyzed using inductive category development, which entailed a circular process of description, analysis, and meaning finding. In doing so, the researchers repeatedly examined the data and then categorized them through open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. The authors sought to enhance the trustworthiness and minimize interest conflict through triangulation, member-checking, and peer-review.
Analysis/Results: Characteristics of the PE classes for character education were found in diverse aspects, encompassing contents, methods, and engagements. The contents of such PE classes covered a variety. The focus of contents embraced cultural or ritual traditions of sports so that the class instruction emphasized character development rather than limited to physical activities. As instructional methods, the teachers assigned proactive roles to the students. The teachers enacted in-directive instructional behaviors and adopted instructional models pertinent to character education. Also, they strategically used affective domain assessments. Students’ engagement was characterized by the fact that their proactive participation was facilitated and valued.
Within and going through the PE classes, the students’ character development were disclosed in many different ways. The positive changes in students’ characters were categorized into four themes: benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, and wisdom. The students’ changes of benevolence, which is a matter of loving, appeared to be respectful and considerate of others. In terms of righteousness, which is about being bold and confident, the students made an effort to their learning activities, holding themselves accountable. Some of them challenged themselves to a higher level. When it comes to courtesy, as being polite and careful, the students behaved more cautious about their own attitudes and demonstrated behaviors complying with sportsmanship. For wisdom, students displayed maturity controlling their emotions and making thoughtful decisions.
Conclusions: The findings are discussed regarding the implications on character education through PE and the reconceptualization of physical education teacher education. The study concludes by suggesting future research to explore the contextual aspects of PE class as related to specific character development, so as to facilitate a deeper understanding of character development through PE.
Sport & Coaching
Are Higher Grades for High Schools the Factor That Will Get 6A Football Athletes Into Division I or Division II Universities?
Michael Gonzalez, Lorraine Killion, Texas A&M University—Kingsville
Background/Purpose: Texas is all about football and making the cut for a Division I or II university has become a competitive market for aspiring 6A high school football players. Players are not just athletes, they are also students. The Texas legislature passed House Bill 72 (1984), the first primary school reform in Texas, thus initiating “No Pass No Play” which ruled “all students must be passing all courses to participate in any extracurricular activities.” The No Child Left Behind Act (2002) attempted to hold schools accountable for student achievement to better understand how well Texas public schools were performing on a wide range of achievement factors, including performance on standardized testing and school climate. House Bill 22 (2017), “clarified the accountability ratings for school districts and campuses” (Huberty, 2020). The Texas Education Agency (TEA) now posts performance reports (on a scale of A-F; exemplary to unacceptable) for every school and district in Texas. The TEA 2019 Accountability Rating System utilized a compilation of data, including STAAR testing scores, graduation rates, and SAT/ACT scores. The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a correlation with schools that are rated higher by TEA’s standard of academics (A or B rating) and the output of high-level collegiate football athletes.
Method: Upon IRB approval, data was retrieved from the TEA website. High schools classified as 6A (N = 252) were examined and 309 athletes met the criteria (from a 6A public high school in Texas graded by TEA and were on a 2019 collegiate official roster labeled as a freshman). Schools rated A and B did produce more collegiate football athletes than schools rated C, D, and F. Descriptive statistics for the 6A schools yielded those rated “A” comprised 30% and produced 32% of the athletes. Schools rated “B” made up 54% of the schools with 48% of the athletes, while C, D, and F schools combined 16% of the schools and produced 20% of the athletes.
Analysis/Results: A total of 40% of athletes attended a Division 1A university, 29% attended a Division 1AA university, and 31% of athletes attended a Division 2 university. An ANOVA was not significant [F (2,249) = 1.455, p = .235], however.
Conclusions: Efforts: Schools rated C, D, and F managed to get approximately 20% of their athletes placed in DI 1 & DI 2 universities. Efforts to better understand how well the Texas public school system is performing for student achievement is needed. This study did not yield a significant difference between schools athletically; so should educational deficiencies be a factor? High schools pride themselves on producing quality football teams and sending their athletes to institutions of higher learning. If academics are part of the equation, schools should aggressively examine this issue. Future research should investigate the C, D, and F ranked schools to determine how to improve ratings and if raising them would produce a higher number of quality athletes. Methods for closing the gap of C, D, and F rated schools for producing more collegiate athletes should be explored.
Elite Youth Players Perceptions of English Professional Soccer Club’s Talent Identification Camp Participation
Craig Parkes, University of South Alabama
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of elite youth soccer player’s participation in talent identification camps associated with professional soccer academies in England.
Method: Participants were five American youth soccer players aged between 10 and 14 years old located in the Northeastern United States. Qualitative data were collected through individual semi-structured interviews. Analytic induction techniques were used to analyze the data, and NVivo 11 Pro software was employed to manage and code the data.
Analysis/Results: The data suggested that there were four major themes that participants perceived as an advantage in their development as soccer players. Those themes were: (a) technical, tactical, and communication improvements increased player’s confidence, (b) challenging coaches, (c) higher quality players, and (d) the professional player experience. In contrast, participants felt that the disadvantages of participating in these camps were related to logistical issues. Players aired their frustrations at some of the logistical components of the camps including national camp temperatures, too much free time, and poor food options in England.
Conclusions: From a player development perspective, it appears that there are many advantages to participating in talent identification soccer camps, especially at the national and international level camps. However, logistically camp organizers may wish to consider weather, scheduling, and food options when planning future camps.
Experience and Challenges of Female Sports Dietitians in NCAA Division I Athletics
Lauren Antle, Lauren Beasley, Rob Hardin, University of Tennessee
Background/Purpose: The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) lifted all restrictions in 2014 for members of Division I—Autonomous conferences in regards to the amount and types of meals that could be provided to student-athletes. This was a shift in policy that had previously limited athletic departments to providing one daily meal and unlimited snacks. This change in policy also created a need for full-time sport dieticians to ensure student-athletes are properly fueled. This resulted in an increase in the number of registered dieticians (RD) working in collegiate athletic departments. Sports dietitians are understood to play an important role in the performance of athletes through advice on training, recovery, and competition nutrition, and a new scope of practice emerged that revolves around these needs. This reflects the growing awareness of the importance of nutrition for athletic performance and the need for RDs to be readily available to provide expertise and guidance in regards to sport nutrition.
The dietetic profession has been historically female-dominated and this trend is no different in the sport context. Eighty percent of the full-time RDs in the NCAA Division I—Autonomous conferences are women. This emerging profession in collegiate athletics has allowed greater career opportunities for women, but they are still working in a male-dominated profession. It is important to understand the challenges and experiences of current female RDs in athletic departments in order to guide those aspiring to attain this position and to examine issues faced with this profession. Research into this field is needed to better understand the role of a key support staff member and how this role ultimately effects the student-athlete. Thus, the purpose of this research was to understand the experiences and challenges of female sports dietitians within NCAA Division I—Autonomous conferences.
Method: Semi-structured interviews were used for data collection, as they allowed for the opportunity for participants to explain and go in-depth about their experiences as an RD working in collegiate athletics. Purposeful, criterion sampling was used, and interviews were conducted with nine participants. Data analysis was completed from a feminist perspective, considering the gendered experiences of the participants.
Analysis/Results: Three themes emerged from the data analysis: (a) Maternal Role, (b) The Glass Door, and (c) Validation. The respondents reported they often take on a maternal role with the student-athletes due to the lack of men working in collegiate athletic administration especially in the high-profile sports of football and men’s basketball. They also reported the need to development relationships to gain entry and acceptance into the profession. The respondents recounted how they often have to provide validation for the services they provide and educate administrators about the work they actually do.
Conclusions: The RDs’ experiences provide insight into the challenges female staff members experience in male-dominated athletic departments, but also how they have used their gender as a strength in providing care to student-athletes.
Parents’ and Coaches’ Perceptions of English Professional Soccer Club’s Talent Identification Camps
Craig Parkes, University of South Alabama
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of youth soccer parents and academy coaches involved in talent identification camps associated with professional Premier League soccer clubs in England. This manuscript is part of a wider project that previously investigated the perceptions of elite youth players who participated in soccer talent identification camps.
Method: Participants were six American soccer parents and four English Premier League academy soccer coaches. Qualitative data were collected through individual semi-structured interviews and online Qualtrics surveys. Analytic induction techniques were used to analyze the data, and NVivo 11 Pro software was employed to manage and code the data.
Analysis/Results: The data suggested that four major themes were apparent. Those themes were: (a) youth player migration challenges, (b) significant financial commitment, but it’s worth it, (c) logistical issues, and (d) academy player benchmark.
Conclusions: It appears that there are both advantages and disadvantages of participation in talent identification camps from a parent and coach perspective.
Sports Public Services and the Health of the Aging Population in China
Zhankun Wang, Timothy Makubuya, University of Missouri-St. Louis
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to analyze the public sports service demand and supply conditions related to the health of aging elderly in Zhejiang province.
Method: Using a sample of 1089 older adults (548 males and 541 females), we conducted a survey of sports public goods and their impact on the health of the elderly in Zhejiang Province China, and established a mediation effect model that is supported by stepwise regression analysis, to measure the impact of five categories of sports public goods on the health of the elderly.
Analysis/Results: From our regression analysis, a reliability value yielded an acceptable Cronbach’s alpha above 0.7. Our results also indicated that policies and regulations need to be formulated to guarantee the rights of the elderly to enjoy a healthy living.
Conclusions: On the basis of investigation and research, a proposition is put forward about the further development of sports public service for the elderly people.
Why Parents Are Enrolled in Youth Sports Programs and the Impact on Program Valuation
Zachary Beldon, University Of North Texas; Joseph Walker, University of North Texas
Background/Purpose: Roughly 60 million youth participate in youth sports annually (Albrecht & Strand, 2010; “The Big business,” 2018). Participation in youth sports varies based on participation level, with the high-end participants spending over 10% of their monthly income on various costs associated with traveling sport program, and average participants participating in local recreational leagues (Gregory, 2007). With millions of youth participants involved in youth sports programs, the youth sports industry has recently rivaled the values of several professional leagues (“Global Youth Team League,” 2018).
With parents carrying the final purchasing decision power in whether or not their children participate in a youth sport program, their views and perceptions of the value of the program need to be assessed in order to continue to provide effective and efficient programs. Historically, parents have identified several different motivations for enrolling their children in a youth sport program including: skill development, social development, physical activity, and sportsmanship/character development (Martin, Dale, & Jackson, 2002; Banning et al., 2010). Along with environmental programmatic opportunities, youth sport coaches play a vital role in the experiences and development of youth during sports participation, particularly through their behaviors of rewarding, modeling, emphasizing and instructing.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the magnitude of the influence that these behaviors have on parental valuation. Specifically, the study seeks to identify what parental motivations play a dominant role in parental program valuation and to identify the impact that specific coaching behaviors have on the valuation of the program.
Method: A convenient sample of 222 of approximately 600 parents attending youth sport games was acquired for this study. Participants were asked to complete a written survey which was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB). The sample consisted of parents with children aged between 7 and 14 who participated in a local recreational youth volleyball league. The adults who completed the survey ranged in age from 27 to 72. The survey instrument consisted of
Analysis/Results: Using IBM SPSS 26.0, a multiple regression analysis was conducted to evaluate which parental motivations and perceived coaching behaviors impacted parental valuation. The linear regression model identified that parental motivations and perceptions of coaching behaviors explained 23% of parental program valuation, with minimal shrinkage due to sampling error (20%). While the overall regression analysis identified a statistically significant result F (7,221) = 8.93, p <.001, evaluation of individual items identifies that only a coaches modeling behavior was a statistically significant predictor variable. Although, parental motivations of wanting their child to gain a new skill, be physically active and be a part of a team all proved to explain a good portion of parental value.
Conclusions: Overall, when evaluating program valuation within youth sports from parental perceptions, the behavior that the coach models and the motivation behind enrolling their child into a program all play the largest roles in how parents perceive a youth sport program. Most notably, the behaviors that coaches model influences parental program perceptions more than any of the motivational variables evaluated.
Teaching & Learning
A Comparative Study of PETE Between China and the United States
Rongrong Wang, Central China Normal University
Background/Purpose: With the comprehensive implementation of the “Healthy China 2030” Layout Plan, there are increasing demands and appeals for training physical and health education teachers and incorporating health education into physical education teacher education (PETE) program in China. It is expected that the reformation of PETE should not only improve its adaptability to the times, but also be comparable internationally with its own characteristics. In the United States, the research of PETE is initiated much earlier and representative of Western educational belief. This research aims to compare and analyze the features of PETE programs between China and America, so as to provide enlightenment and reference for the development of PETE in China.
Method: With multiple search engines, we collected data from existing academic literature, important documents of government departments from both countries. The similarities and differences in the development of PETE between China and the United States were then analyzed using inductive reasoning methodology.
Analysis/Results: Looked from the macro level of policy support, both China and the United States attach great importance to the development of PETE, and each has had its own development goals. From the medium level of implementation, the enforcement standards and intensity vary from state to state in the United States, while China’s reform on the development of PETE has stepped into a challenging situation due to the discrepancy between traditional conceptualization and new needs from social and cultural development. From the micro level of development content, the United States pursues a professional development model focusing on teaching skills and teaching strategies, while China pays more attention to the balance among fundamental kinetic knowledge, traditional sport skills and pedagogical strategies.
Conclusions: The three aspects of policy support, implementation, and development content show that, the development of PETE in the United States has the characteristics of diversification and concretization, while those in China is more centralized with general implementation plan. Comparing and referring international PETE may be helpful for further developing and refining effective PETE in China.
A Neo-Kohlbergian Study of Preservice Physical Educators
Jamie J. Brunsdon, Oleg A. SinelnikovF, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: Despite its recognition of potential for personal and social development (Bessa, et al. 2019), research associating physical education, physical educators and physical education teacher educators through a purely moral lens (i.e., moral education, moral development and character education), remains limited. Thus, physical educators and scholars alike have contributed to a moral (semantic) minefield where confusion about terms, approaches and purpose have gained a strong foothold (Berkowitz, 2012) and have as a result, hindered physical educators’ capability to educate children morally. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate preservice physical education teachers’ perspectives and practices in the context of their first physical education teacher education field experience, through the Neo-Kohlbergian theoretical framework of moral development (Rest et al. 2000). Through understanding how educators morally judge and morally reason in response to moral dilemmas, we would be more informed about how children are fostered opportunities to become moral through the context of physical education and in turn learn how to flourish as human beings.
Method: Participants were nine preservice physical educators (7 males and 2 females) engaged in their early field experiences teaching a 13-lesson Sport Education soccer season in a middle school in the Southeastern United States. One participant was African American and eight were Caucasian. Data were collected through six interpretive techniques, encompassing formal, informal and focus group interviews, non-participant observation, field notes and document analysis (Johnson & Christensen, 2016), and were analyzed through thematic coding (Peterson, 2017). Data and researcher triangulation and member checks contributed to research trustworthiness (Lincoln and Guba, 1985).
Analysis/Results: Results overwhelming refer to preservice teachers’ duty to directly educate for inwards and outwards looking moral development through physical education, and how Sport Education in this setting, facilitated a shared technical culture. Preconceived dilemmas opposed to those experienced, including role reversal, foundations in PE and pedagogical balance replicated previously argued concepts. Finally, preservice teachers’ responses to dilemmas were informed by their Sport Education shared technical culture and ranged from no action, to moderate and direct action through a response-action spectrum.
Conclusions: Our investigation was the first to attempt an empirically based and theoretically informed investigation using the contemporary theory of moral development. Our findings provide clues regarding preservice teachers’ perspectives and practices of, and toward educating for moral developing in PE. Additionally, the finding of this study demonstrated that Sport Education pedagogical model provided a medium through which some preservice teachers were able to support students’ moral development, however this support had to be explicitly taught.
We acknowledge that this research took place in a particular setting with predominantly “traditional entrants” and therefore, it reinforces the need for further investigations with different groups of people, at different locations and with different groups of teachers (i.e. early career or experienced in-service educators). Future scholarship might also attempt to follow Mouratidou and colleagues (et al. 2007) and Shwamberger & Curtner-Smith (2016) intervention-based approaches to identify whether educating for morally progressive practices informing moral development, is possible.
A Review of Fidelity of Implementation in Intervention Research
Weidong LiF, The Ohio State University; Lian Ma, Shanghai University of Sport; Ping XiangF, Texas A&M University; Tang Yan, Shanghai University of Sport
Background/Purpose: Fidelity of implementation (FOI) is essential to the effectiveness of intervention programs and resulting outcomes. The findings showed that 49% of intervention studies reported FOI data. However, the majority of intervention research still failed to assess and report FOI. Researchers in physical education have increasingly recognized the importance of assessing FOI in curricular interventions. In general education, a five-element conceptual framework has been proposed to measure FOI. These five elements include: 1) Adherence, 2) Intervention exposure or dose, 3) Quality of program delivery, 4) Participant responsiveness, 5) Program differentiation. Researchers have introduced this 5-component conceptual framework of FOI and called for researchers to use this conceptual framework as a guide to assess and evaluate the quality of FOI in the field of physical education. Yet no research has evaluated the quality of FOI in intervention studies in physical education. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to review and evaluate the quality of FOI reported in experimental research in physical education pedagogy published in RQES and JTPE under the 5-component conceptual framework.
Method: Thirty-five intervention studies with a quantitative method published in JTPE and RQES were included in the present study. These studies focused on K-12 students in physical education or in-service and preservice physical education teachers and met a series of inclusive and exclusive criteria. Researchers coded those articles using a five-item FOI checklist with indicators. The intercoder reliability coefficient was 88% between two researchers. Discrepancies were discussed and a 100% consensus was reached. One of the coders independently coded the remaining twenty articles.
Analysis/Results: For each of five items, frequencies and percentages were calculated. All 35 studies reported assessing program adherence. Among 35 studies, eight (23%) reported the assessment of dosage/program durations; Thirty (86%) reported the assessment of program delivery quality; Eight (23%) reported the assessment of participant responses to program interventions. Among 35 studies, 19 (54.3%) reported the assessment of program differentiations, 11 (31.4%) did not report assessing this FOI component, and five (14.3%) did not have a control or comparison group for assessing this component. Among 35 studies, only one (3%) reported the assessment of all five components of FOI, seven (20%) reported assessing two of the five components of FOI, 15 (43%) reported assessing three of the five components of FOI, and eight (23%) reported assessing four of the five components of FOI. The most frequently reported FOI components were program adherence, program delivery quality, and program differentiations.
Conclusions: Researchers have begun to realize the critical importance of FOI in intervention research. Further conceptualization of five-component conceptual framework and validation of FOI measures are needed. Most researchers selected certain FOI components to assess and report at their own interest. For many studies, the FOI information reported by the researchers are limited, incomplete, and vague. Researchers should pay more attention to FOI and provide a comprehensive assessment of FOI using the five-component conceptual framework.
Action Research of a D-PETE Student Immersed in edTPA Policy
Deborah S. Baxter, Kennesaw State University; Oleg A. SinelnikovF, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: Doctoral programs in PETE are influenced by policies, agendas, and practices within state institutions and educational departments, but many programs fail to address policy within D-PETE education. The purpose of this study was to engage in action research to facilitate edTPA implementation.
Method: Using self-study and action research, I analyzed the edTPA policy, reflected upon my teaching, and created edTPA learning activities. Data sources included: autobiographical inquiry, systematic observation tool, exit survey, reflective journal, activity logs, critical friend discussions, and document collection.
Analysis/Results: The edTPA policy has brought about dissention, taken away invention, and has led professors to subtract from their curricula. Encouraging cooperating teachers to understand the policy, understanding preservice teachers’ value orientations, and orientating preservice teachers to edTPA through observation instruments may improve facilitation.
Conclusions: PETE faculty must continue to advocate for and teach meaningful evidence- and research-based PE practices while negotiating preparations for edTPA.
An Exploration of the Process and Outcomes of the Elementary Physical Education Teacher Evaluation System
Dimitri Nannas, Fort Lee Public Schools; Ismael Flores Marti, William Paterson University
Background/Purpose: Many school districts in multiple states are adopting different teacher evaluation models as a mean to establish a teacher accountability system (e.g., Danielson, Stronge, Marzano, among others).This study was designed to explore the process and outcomes of the elementary physical education (PE) teacher evaluation system. Evaluators of teachers have the responsibility to evaluate them, not only for pedagogical improvement, but to also find ways to provide successful professional development. Although the context and content of PE is vastly different from other academic areas, it is equally important that PE teachers are evaluated and held to the same accountability standards as the teachers in other subject areas (Hunt, Gurvitch, & Lund, 2016).
Method: Four participants were interviewed in this qualitative study, including two physical education teachers and two evaluators who are the main observers and principals of their respective schools. Each interview was audio-recorded through a MacBook Pro. This was followed by the researcher transcribing all of the interviews into Microsoft Word version 16.26. Lastly, all transcriptions were analyzed on NVivo 10 software to prepare all answers into nodes (e.g., emerging themes) of categories to compare and contrast responses. Answers to the interview aimed to identify where participants agreed, disagreed and/or mentioned something different and in contrast with other responses.
Analysis/Results: Results from the study have shown an agreement between all four participants that the content area feedback they give or receive during an evaluation is mostly generalized. Six (6) themes emerged from the analysis: (1) “Evaluator’s Overload”—one evaluator to multiple teachers; (2) “Different Prescription Lens”—evaluators have limited knowledge in physical education; (3) “Wrench Not Fitting the Bolt”—evaluation model is associated to the teaching of physical education, but lacks specificity; (4) “Feedback in Limbo”—feedback is mostly not valuable; (5) “Context Matters”—lack of information on the resources available and used in a PE lesson; and (6) “NASPE’s Golden Tool”—content within NASPE’s teaching criteria found to be ideal for a physical educator.
Conclusions: After completing all four interviews, the researcher found that school districts using general evaluation teacher evaluation tools such as Danielson, Marzano and Stronge do not provide enough content related feedback to a physical education teacher. One of the multiple recommendations of the study is to replicate this qualitative study, but with a quantitative part with the potential to gather a larger data to get an overall picture of elementary physical education teacher’s thoughts on their observation and/or evaluation experiences.
Associations Between Screen Time, Perceived Stress, and Academic Performance
Tara C. Putnam, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire
Background/Purpose: Screen time is defined by the amount of time an individual spends watching television, playing a video game, or using an electronic device with a screen. A recent study on screen time usage in college-aged adults reported an average of four hours and twenty-five minutes a day. Although, screen time has been examined, there is limited research on the associations between screen time, perceived stress, and academic performance. Addressing these issues is particularly relevant at this moment in time because the COVID-19 pandemic has increased screen time considerably. The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of screen time on perceived stress and academic performance in undergraduate education majors. Furthermore, the types of screen time that students turn to in times of perceived stress were examined.
Method: Undergraduate education majors (n = 189, 75 males and 114 females) at a Midwestern University in the United States completed an online self-report survey. The survey requested participants to answer demographic questions, such as type of education major, age, and gender. Academic performance was assessed by cumulative GPA. Hourly screen time was assessed in the four categories: social media (face time, Instagram, twitter, etc.), entertainment (TV, Spotify, Netflix, YouTube, etc.), video games/apps, and productivity (e-mail, google docs, calendar, canvas, etc.). Respondents noted 0–2 hours, 2–4 hours and more than four hours for each category. The participants were asked to record how often they felt stressed in the past seven days using the following choices: never, almost never, sometimes, fairly often, and very often. The types of screen time used as coping strategies in high stress experiences was also collected.feeling stressed.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics revealed that 2% of the participants engaged 0–2 hour of screen time, 35% engaged in 2–4 hours per day of screen time and 63% engaged in more than 4 hours a day of screen time. Furthermore, participants favorite type of screen time was video games/game apps followed by entertainment. A logistical regression analysis was run for the two predictor variables, perceived stress and academic performance. Results showed that two hours or less of social media per day significantly decreased stress levels, but had no effect on GPA. Lastly, participants reported turning to social media when they felt stressed.
Conclusions: The results from this study suggest that perceived stress was minimized in participants who engaged in less than 2 hours of screen time a day. Given the drastic increases in screen time as a result of COVID-19 it is possible that students will experience much more stress. Somewhat surprisingly screen time did not impact GPA. This may be due to the fact that the participants used screen to excel in their studies. A recommendation for future action for college campuses is to create stress free zones for students to access both in person and virtually to help and encourage effective coping strategies. The impact these resources could have on the student’s physical, mental, and emotional safety could increase their success in their undergraduate college years.
Behavior Modification Strategies Impact on Activity During Consecutive Sport Education Seasons
Zachary Wahl-AlexanderF, Northern Illinois University
Background/Purpose: The benefits of engaging in physical activity for adolescents is commonly recognized, unfortunately, the vast majority of children do not accumulate adequate activity. The Sport Education pedagogical model is widely researched and is unlike other modes of instruction, due to an authentic experience, small-sided gameplay and emphasis on fair play. Embedded within the framework of Sport Education, behavior modification techniques have proven to successfully increase in-class physical activity both within and outside of school. Although these findings are positive, “future systematic replication across different Sport Education seasons and grade levels are needed to further strengthen the generality of this intervention. The purpose of this study was to explore the differentiated impact of prompting, and prompting combined with a group-oriented contingency on elementary students’ in-class step counts over the duration of four consecutive Sport Education season.
Method: The participants in this study were 67, 4th grade students, all of whom participated in four consecutive Sport Education seasons. The target behavior was the average quantity of in-class activity conveyed via step count. Over the course of these four consecutive Sport Education seasons, students’ in-class physical activity was assessed throughout three conditions. Specifically, this study explored the impact during baseline, prompting only and prompting plus independent group-oriented contingencies across the duration of four seasons. The current study employed an alternating treatment design (ATD; Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007) to allow for the comparison of multiple experimental conditions while reducing the impact of confounding or sequencing effects.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed by plotting on several graphs (by season and continuous), and visual analysis was employed to decipher functional relationships between the target behavior and the baseline, prompting only and prompting plus group-oriented contingency lessons. Students’ in-class physical activity levels remained fairly stable (slight increase as season progressed) within each condition during each individual season. Next, students routinely engaged in higher levels of physical activity when group-oriented contingencies were in place. Finally, there were several trends that occurred over the course of the study (four seasons), a) decrease in efficacy of prompting only condition, b) increase in effectiveness of prompting when combined with group-oriented contingency, and c) contradictory variability shifts among intervention conditions.
Conclusions: In this study, a group-oriented contingency (i.e., individually earning bonus points for meeting daily step count goals) was a reliable and effective technique for augmenting elementary aged students’ independent in-class physical activity levels. Over the course of the study, this intervention condition increased step counts by an average of 26% and almost 600 daily steps compared with baseline. However, in accordance with previous literature, offering this contingency was only slightly more impactful than the prompting only condition during the initial season, whereas benefits accelerated overtime. Students in this study had no previous experience with Sport Education, potentially justifying this preliminary lack of impact to early apprehension with the model, or initial lack of motivation. In-class physical activity increased during independent group-oriented contingency lessons in each concurrent season, providing further justification for employing consecutive season using Sport Education.
Challenging Preservice Teachers’ Subjective Theories About Teaching Through Twitter
Kelsey McEntyre, Tarleton State University; Kevin A. R. RichardsF, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Physical education teaching recruits bring with them subjective theories (Grojahn, 1991), or personal understandings about the purpose and goals of physical education developed through their own time as youth in schools, that are often based on flawed understandings of quality practice (Richards et al., 2014). Social media platforms, such as Twitter, have been utilized to engage preservice and inservice teachers in conversation for the purpose of pedagogical change and self-reflection (Goodyear et al., 2014; Wright, 2010). These platforms, therefore, could be adopted as pedagogical tools with the goal of helping preservice teachers (PTs) question and reconsider their initial subjective theories of the field as they are socialized into the profession. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a secondary physical education methods course and early field experience (EFE), supplemented with reflective discussions via Twitter, on PTs subjective theories of physical education.
Method: Participants included 22 PTs enrolled in a secondary physical education methods course and associated EFE. The PTs taught four on-campus practice lessons to their peers, followed by four lessons to seventh and eighth grade students at a nearby middle school. Content included team sports such as basketball, football, soccer, and hockey. Data collection included closed-group, bi-weekly Twitter chats focused on PTs’ in-class and EFE experiences, critical incident reflections (Flanagan, 1954) via Twitter after each lesson taught in response to the question “what did you experience during your teach that challenged your preexisting perceptions of physical education?,” and autobiographical essays outlining backgrounds relative to sport and physical education (Betourne & Richards, 2015).
Analysis/Results: Deductive analyses, guided by Occupational Socialization Theory (Lawson, 1986) and inductive analyses (Patton, 2015) guided the analysis process. Results suggested that PTs exhibited changes in their perception of and subjective theories regarding the purpose of physical education. They described becoming aware of marginalization, stigmatization, custodial practices, and the need for advocacy within the field. The PTs began to question the state of physical education, express concern for its future, and offer suggestions for advancing the field in a favorable direction. They were also able to identify concrete ways in which they could be agents of change when working in schools. In line with these ideological shifts, the PTs reported shifting from coaching to balanced orientations. The PTs believed that the culture of the class environment in which they felt comfortable expressing and dialoging through divergent experiences, was instrumental in these changes.
Conclusions: The results emphasize the importance of creating space for dialectical exchanges in PETE courses, particularly through the application of constructivist pedagogies that provide students space and voice in discussion (Rovegno & Dolly, 2006). The PTs became more aware of appropriate practices and, through discussion, were able to examine their beliefs related to physical education (Richards et al., 2013). While the students did note some challenges with using Twitter to facilitate many of these discussions, they generally supported the platform and believed it was an effective use of a tool with which they were already comfortable.
Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment Practices Among Physical Educators of Different Demographics and Dispositions Toward Change
Ben D. Kern, University of Wyoming; Wesley J. Wilson, University of Utah; Justin Bueche, Old Dominion University; Elizabeth A. Theriot, Grant Degravelle, University of Louisiana-Lafayette
Background/Purpose: Physical educators’ dispositions toward change are predictive of making future changes to teaching practice and are important factors in the design of continuing professional development (CPD). While dispositions toward change vary demographically among teachers (Kern & Graber, 2018), little is known about the pedagogical practices of teachers with different dispositions toward change. The purpose of this study was to examine teaching practices among physical educators with different dispositions toward the change process across demographic variables.
Method: Six hundred-ninety two physical educators completed an online survey that included the Teacher Change Questionnaire-Physical Education (TCQ-PE; Kern & Graber, 2017), a 15-item adaptation of SHAPE America’s 20 Indicators of Effective Physical Education Instruction (20-EPEI), items related to curriculum use and student grade assignment, along with a demographic questionnaire. The TCQ-PE was used to categorize participants as change-disposed (CD), neutral, or not change-disposed (NCD). Multiple one-way ANOVA were performed for each 20-EPEI item by disposition groups with post hoc Tukey-Kramer pairwise comparisons between groups. Categorical comparisons between demographic (gender, grade-level, years-experience, education-level) and disposition groups (CD, neutral, NCD) with curriculum use and grade assignment were made using cross-tabulation Chi-square test for independence and post hoc z-tests.
Analysis/Results: Results of ANOVA revealed NCD teachers provided feedback related to objectives significantly more frequently than CD teachers (F[2,691] = 3.76, p < .05, η2 = .01) and used assessment to differentiate instruction more often (F[2,691] = 6.18, p < .05, η2 = .01). NCD teachers were significantly higher than both CD and neutral teachers in ensuring 50% student moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA; F[2,691] = 3.92, p < .05, η2 = .01), using summative assessments (F[2,691] = 3.50, p < .05, η2 = .01), and setting student learning goals (F[2,691] = 7.06, p < .05, η2 = .02). Among all participants, 40.5% reported not using a written curriculum to teach physical education, and significantly more males than females (23.7% vs. 11.5%) and middle (21.1%) and high school (24.7%) than elementary teachers (10.6%) described their curriculum use as, “I do not use a written curriculum, but teach a variety of games, sports, and activities” (X2 [2, N = 692] = 21.68, 50.84, p = .003, .000). Overall, 41.6% of teachers reported assigning student grades primarily based on attendance, dressing, and participating, with significantly greatest proportions among high (64.1%) and middle school teachers (55.4%; X2 [2, N = 692] = 150.8, p = .000). Female teachers were significantly higher than males in reported assignment of grades based on student performance on tests of knowledge and skills (27.8% vs. 20.6%; X2 [2, N = 692] = 23.8, p = .000). No significant differences in curriculum use or grade assignment were observed among disposition groups.
Conclusions: Results suggest that NCD teachers may be more effective than CD and neutral teachers in providing feedback to students, ensuring adequate MVPA, and using assessment data. Disposition toward change appears unrelated to curriculum use or student grade assignment. Lack of use of a written curriculum and assigning students grades based on behavior expectations is inconsistent with recommendations for effective instruction, and prevalent among US physical educators, particularly among males and secondary teachers.
Developing Social-Emotional Learning in Physical Education Through Appropriate Instructional Practices
Liana Davis, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi; David Barney, Keven Prusak, Brigham Young University
Background/Purpose: The nature of physical education (PE) provides unique opportunities to instruct students in the affective domain of learning. Social-emotional learning (SEL) is closely related to the affective domain and has become an important topic in education. PE teachers can facilitate games, activities, and experiences that target SEL by implementing appropriate instructional practices (AIP) in PE class. The purpose of this article was to examine AIP that PE teachers can use to develop students’ SEL in PE class.
Method: This analysis was descriptive in nature. The authors relied on SHAPE America’s AIP documents for the elementary, middle, and high school levels as well as the SEL literature. The authors (experts in the area of AIP) examined each of the three AIP documents for appropriate practices that lent themselves to SEL. Ten appropriate practices were selected for further discussion- two from each of the five categories of the AIP documents (Learning Environment, Instructional Strategies, Curriculum, Assessment, and Professionalism).
Analysis/Results: The 10 AIP were as follows: (1) The teacher systematically plans for, develops and maintains a positive learning environment that allows students to feel safe (physically and emotionally), supported and unafraid to make mistakes; (2) Teachers promote exercise for its contribution to a healthy lifestyle. Students are encouraged to participate in physical activity and exercise outside of the physical education setting for enjoyment, skill development and health reasons; (3) Physical educators form pairs, groups and teams in ways that preserve every student’s dignity and self-respect (e.g., randomly, by fitness or skill level, or by a class system such as birthdays, squads, colors or numbers); (4) The teacher allows students guided choices in matters such as equipment, rule modification or type of skill practice (e.g., completing individual task sheets or small-group instruction); (5) The physical educator extends experiences from in-class activity lessons to community and family activities, promoting a physically active lifestyle; (6) Physical educators design activities throughout the program that provide students with opportunities to work together, for the purpose of developing social skills (cooperative and competitive) and learning responsible behavior (e.g., “good sport” skills are encouraged instead of trash talking). Situations are designed purposefully for teaching these skills; they’re not left for “teachable moments” only; (7) Physical educators make every effort to create testing situations that are private, nonthreatening, educational and encouraging (e.g., they explain what the test is designed to measure); (8) Test results are shared privately with students and their parents/guardians as a tool for developing personal goals and strategies for maintaining and increasing the respective fitness parameters; (9) The teacher continually seeks new information to stay current (e.g., reads journals, attends conferences and in-services); (10) The teacher helps create a school culture of physical activity.
Conclusions: The AIP documents can serve as a good starting point for incorporating SEL into PE class. Strategies for implementing each of the AIP above with a focus on SEL are discussed.
Discovering Memories That Matter: An International Physical Education Teachers’ Perspective
Jamie J. Brunsdon, Oleg A. SinelnikovF, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: Educational research grounded in autobiographical memory (i.e., the study of memories connected to places and times in a person’s life that are of immense significance) in the field of physical education (PE) is limited. K-12 students identify physical education as a time and place in which impactful memories develop (Casey & Quennerstedt, 2015; Farias et al. 2019; Sinelnikov & Hastie, 2010; Wahl-Alexander et al., 2017). Furthermore, of those memories expressed by student learners, there is a high value placed toward the inherent goals, structure, approaches and key components of PE and models-based practices (i.e., Sport Education) that facilitate enthusiasm for the subject area, and in turn, fostering positive development of memories. Notwithstanding these findings, there is no autobiographical research focused on the autobiographical memories of physical education teachers, as opposed to physical education students. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the autobiographical memories of physical education teachers.
Method: Participants were five secondary school PE teachers located in south eastern region of England. Three participants were male, and two were female. All were Caucasian, identified as able bodied, taught at state comprehensive schools, and had a minimum of 10 years’ full-time service working within the PE profession. Data were collected through four interpretive techniques (Johnson & Christensen, 2016). Each participant took part in two formal interviews (autobiographical memory interview and episodic interview, each lasting approximately 2 hours) focused on identifying the memories of physical educators and their significance. Participants completed an open-ended survey and supplied various artifacts to help illustrate their memories when teaching PE. Data were analyzed through standard interpretive techniques and trustworthiness was also ensured through data triangulation and member checking (Peterson, 2017).
Analysis/Results: Central to participants’ autobiographical memories as a collective were their moral endeavor for teaching PE. Aside from this however, physical educators seemed to espouse significant memories within core PE, academic PE and extra-curricular PE. Informing their memories through core PE were three themes, including critical geography, experiences for all and curricula re-engagement. Their memories, when related to academic PE were informed by two themes, including challenge, and pressure to produce results. Embedded within their memories of extra-curricular PE were three themes, including opportunities for participation, inner and outer school competition and expansions beyond PE. Memories emphasizing the impact of models-based practice, politics, funding, professional development and OFSTED were also found to be of high significance.
Conclusions: Following our investigation, it can be argued that like K-12 students, PE teachers maintain a plethora of autobiographical memories which continuously impact their engagement within the profession. The results of this study demonstrated that physical educators form knowledge bases that are consistent with autobiographical memory theory (Conway, Rubin, Spinnler, and Wagenaar, 2013) which theorizes the presence of lifetime, general events and event specific knowledge bases. With the rise of advocacy related to models-based instruction through PE, further research on how particular pedagogical approaches inform teachers’ and students’ autobiographical memories seems promising.
Early Career Faculty Members’ Transition Into Teacher Education: Sociopolitical Implications
K. Andrew RichardsF, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Chris John Kinder, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; Victoria N. Ivy, University of Alabama; Amy Mays WoodsF, University of Illinois; Casey Lane Cushing, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Doctoral education has been referred to as preparation for disciplinary stewardship (Golde & Walker, 2006). For physical education, this includes the education of future teachers, conduct of research disciplinary research, and promotion of physical activity in local communities (Richards et al., 2017). Questions have been raised, however, about doctoral students’ preparation for the teacher education component of their role (Ward et al., 2011). While it is known that university departments present sociopolitical challenges for new faculty members (McLoughlin et al., 2019), less is known about how these factors influence faculty members’ approach to teacher education (Ward, 2016). Through the lens of occupational socialization theory (Russell et al., 2016), the purpose of this study was to understand early career physical education teacher education (PETE) faculty members’ perspectives on their preparation for and experiences with their roles as teacher educators.
Method: Data were collected as part of a larger, four-year longitudinal study of doctoral students who have transitioned into PETE faculty roles. A total of 25 PETE faculty members (14 males, 11 females) contributed data to this study. The participants’ average age was 38.5 years (SD = 8.97), and the average years of K-12 teaching experience was 6.07 (SD = 4.15). Notably, a majority identified as White/Caucasian (n = 22; 88.00%). Each of the participants completed at least three of seven interviews scheduled between the Spring of 2016 and Spring of 2019 (M = 4.36). Further, 20 of the participants completed an interview in the Fall of 2019 focused specific on their experiences as early career teacher educators.
Analysis/Results: A three person team completed the data analysis process following recommendations from Richards and Hemphill (2018) and blending inductive and deductive analysis approaches (Patton, 2015). Three themes were developed through these analyses to communicate the PETE faculty members’ experiences. First, university sociopolitics were challenging for the early career faculty members, particularly given that many of them worked in environments that marginalized physical education and devalued PETE. Second, several participants discussed conflicts between their personal role expectations and those of their institutions as they were more motivated to engage in research than the time offered in their appointments. Finally, systems of support were important for the early career faculty members, particularly in relation to getting started as a teacher educator and navigating local policies and procedures that governed teacher education.
Conclusions: The results of this study provide some empirical support for Ward’s (2016) concern that PETE doctoral education programs may not be doing an adequate job preparing faculty members for their roles as teacher educators. This study also affirms, however, that the environment into which new faculty members are inducted is critical (Lumpkin, 2014). Supportive environments are more likely to build capacity, whereas those perceived as marginalized accentuate stressors related to role performance (McLoughlin et al., 2019). It is, therefore, critical for early career faculty members to seek mentoring and support as they take on new responsibilities related to teacher education and are socialized into university environments.
Examining High School Perceptions of Physical Education
Kenneth Allen Murfay Jr., Heather E. ErwinF, Aaron Beighle, University of Kentucky
Background/Purpose: “The goal of physical education (PE) is to develop physically literate individuals who have the knowledge, skills and confidence to enjoy a lifetime of healthful physical activity (PA)” (SHAPE America, 2014, p. 1). PE is the ideal environment to promote PA (Fairclough et al., 2002), which has been associated with many health benefits (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2017). Social cognitive theory explains that human thoughts and actions are based on the reciprocal causation of personal factors (cognition, affect, and biological events), behavior, and environmental factors (Bandura, 1998). This can help to explain how students develop perceptions about PA and PE, which can influence future behavior (Carlin et al., 2015; Corr et al., 2019). Studies measuring motivation in PE to PA found positive associations with autonomous motivation in PE and PA (Owen et al., 2014). The aim of the study was to better understand what motivates students in PE and how that relates to students’ beliefs about their abilities (self-efficacy) to be physically active.
Method: This qualitative study involved interviewing freshmen high school students (n = 25) from a lottery school in the southeast part of the United States and their PE teacher (n = 1). Due to COVID-19 there was only one interview performed for each participant. The student group interviews focused on students’ perceptions of PE before high school. The teacher interview asked about students’ perceptions of PE and how these perceptions impact teaching strategies that the PE teacher uses.
Analysis/Results: All interview data was analyzed using the constant comparative method. Three themes emerged from the interviews that had to do with the social climate that the PE teacher creates. They were teaching style, teacher’s attitude, and the curriculum/content that is taught. These factors can influence self-efficacy, which can ultimately impact students’ perceptions of PE.
Conclusions: This study found that according to students, PE teachers have the majority of the control when it comes to how students perceive PE. Students preferred a more autonomous teaching style that allows students to feel that they have some control over their time in PE. The students still wanted to be challenged, but wanted it done in positive and respectful ways. Students’ motivation in PE was influenced by teachers’ attitudes in positive and negative ways. The curriculum/content that the students preferred aligned with previous research on meaningful content (Beni et al., 2017). Students wanted a variety of activities that allowed for socialization that focused on increasing motor competence and health/fitness knowledge. The activities should be more fun than competitive to decrease social comparisons among the students. PE content should be designed for student success around the national standards. Improving students’ self-efficacy for PE skills makes it more likely that the students will participate in those activities in the future.
Fostering Physically Literate Students Through a SDT-Guided Pedagogical Workshop
Yang Liu, Wuhan University of Technology; Senlin ChenF, Baofu Wang, Stacy Imagbe, Louisiana State University
Background/Purpose: This study was to examine middle students’ physical literacy (PL) development trajectory as a result of receiving a pedagogical workshop guided by the self-determination theory.
Method: This study adopted a mixed methods research design. Forty eight students were selected from a larger study that assessed students’ PL level using the second version of Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy (CAPL—2) at a public middle school located in a Southeastern U.S. State. Of these students, 14 students in the high performance group and 24 students in the low performance group completed all four sessions of the SDT-based pedagogical workshop over eight weeks. Each workshop session included motivational and informational modules to foster students’ PL development across cognitive, physical, behavioral, and affective domains. Workshop sessions were delivered at the beginning of PE class and each lasted 20–30 minutes. The participants participated in two focus group interviews to reveal their trajectory toward a physically literate individual (before and after workshop). They also completed the CAPL-2 again upon receiving the workshop. Normality was examined using Shapiro-Wilk test for the quantitative data. Repeated measures ANCOVA or Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test, as the equivalent non-parametric test was conducted to examine time (pre vs. posttests), group (high vs. low PL groups), and time by group interaction effects(gender and grade as covariates). Interview data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using Nvivo11+ for inductive and deductive thematic analyses.
Analysis/Results: Shapiro-Wilk test showed that only behavioral domain score complied with normaldistribution. Box’s test of equality of covariance matrices did not indicate violation of the assumption of homogeneity of variances and covariances (Box’s M = 4.59, F3, 11,375.96 = 1.40, p = .24). Levene’s Test showed homogeneity of variances between group (i.e., high vs. low PL level) in behavioral domain score pretest (Levene Statistic1, 29 = 0.99, p = .33) and posttest (Levene Statistic1, 29 = 0.05, p = .83). Results from repeated measures ANCOVA showed groupmain effect (F1, 27 = 37.60, p < .01, ηp2 = 0.58) and time by group interaction effect (F1, 27 = 14.94, p < .01, ηp2 = 0.36). Wilcoxon Test results showed a pre to post difference in cognitive domain score (Z = −1.97, p = .05, d = 0.24) and a marginal difference in affective domain score (Z = −1.89, p = .06, d = 0.26). High-performing students’ PL and physical, behavioral, and affective domain scores decreased at the posttest (Hedges’ g: 0.02–0.53) but cognitive domain score increased (Hedges’ g = 0.15). Low-performing students’ PL and all four PL domains increased (Hedges’ g: 0.34–0.69). The interview data yielded four themes including (1) physical activity pattern (i.e., type, frequency, and intensity), (2) motivation, (3) barriers, and (4) workshop experience, which portrayed a positive trend of PL trajectory after receiving the pedagogical workshop.
Conclusions: PL is a malleable and dynamic state that can be improved through purposeful theory-based PE curriculum and instruction. The findings bear significant practical implications for future PE programing to develop and promote middle school students’ PL.
Global Teaching and Learning: Culture, Education, and Physical Activity
Dan Grube, Justin Menickelli, Western Carolina University
Background/Purpose: It’s imperative today that teacher candidates gain a much broader perspective of the world, their community and their future students. One way to gain perspective is through global teaching and learning experiences. Experiential education as a framework for those experiences can help teacher candidates learn more about the world outside their own personal contexts. The purpose of this study is to learn more about the readiness, openness, and changes in perspectives of teacher candidates in health and physical education through experiential learning in a global context. Subjects participated in an adventure-based learning class with German “peers” in teacher education. The experiential learning cycle (ELC) was used during in-class debriefings, along with their reflective papers and focus group interviews.
Method: This is a mixed-method study that incorporates qualitative data from reflective writings, focus group interviews, and blogs, and quantitative data that includes M5-120 personality test (M5) scores, cross cultural adaptability inventory (CCAI) scores, educators’ beliefs about diversity scales (EBAD), and activity tracker (Fitbits™) data. Data from 29 subjects were collected on study abroad trips to Germany across four summers.
Analysis/Results: Student reflection papers and a post-trip focus group interviews along with an analysis of blog posts during the trip were analyzed yielding common and inter-related themes centered around culture, education policy and schooling, and physical activity. Observations included a range of views about culture, particularly related to activity and social norms, along with the impact of current issues. Additionally, differences were acknowledged about education policy and the nature of schooling. Quantitative data provided a rich description and measure of the physical activity of the group members during the trip as well as a predisposition to openness and respect for others (M5 & CCAI) and a change in beliefs about diversity.
Conclusions: Results of data collected indicated teacher candidates had high M5 scores in Agreeableness (3.92) and Conscientiousness (3.80) and high CCAI scores in Perceptual Acuity (49) and Personal Autonomy (33). Additionally, the Educators’ Beliefs about Diversity scale, assessed at the beginning and end of each teacher candidates’ program indicated that all participants had increased posttest scores. Qualitatively speaking, teacher candidates displayed a change in thinking through their observations about culture, education and schooling, and physical activity. Observations about physical fitness and activity indicated a view of a healthier society that is more intentional about the importance of daily activity. Cultural perspectives were also noted, such as a higher level of trust and responsibility on children and young adults both in schools and society. Additionally, teacher candidates noted how students move through the educational system showed a society that understands its economic and workforce needs and is systematic in its approach to meeting those demands. Teacher candidates learned about the different pedagogical approaches both in k-12 schools and in higher education. These findings are all examples of how an emphasis on learning through experiences abroad can help teacher candidates develop skills for cultural competency, and expand their thinking on cultural diversity and perspective taking in a new and challenging environment.
Influence of a Summer Wellness Program on Bullying Reduction Among School-Age Children
Mengyi Wei, Kim C. GraberF, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: The purpose of the study was to examine the perceptions of children, camp counselors, and activity leaders about the effects of a four-week Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model-based summer learning and enrichment program on reducing bullying behaviors among school-age children.
Method: Data collection included semi-structured interviews with 30 children and eight camp staff. Child participants also completed pre- and post-surveys, including Social Responsibility Questionnaire (PSRQ), Transfer of Responsibility Questionnaire (ToRQ), and the Illinois Bullying Scale (IBS). In addition, daily observations over a four-week period were recorded into a field notes log. Survey data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations, and all observational and interview data were coded using inductive and deductive techniques.
Analysis/Results: Bivariate correlations revealed negative associations between both post personal (r = −.578, p < .01) and social responsibility (r = −.607, p < .01) and post bullying behavior. Paired-samples t test results showed a significant decrease (t = 16.192, p < .01) in bullying behaviors at pretest (M = 6.85, SD = 1.791) and posttest (M = 2.04, SD = 2.752). Three emerging themes showed that the TPSR model can reduce and prevent bullying, facilitate social and emotional learning (SEL), and help children transfer life skills learned from the model to their daily lives.
Conclusions: Findings from the present study suggest that the TPSR model improved children’s personal and social responsibilities and played a role in preventing and reducing bullying behaviors during and outside of the camp. More evidence about how to better engage adolescents is needed. Future studies should examine the duration and intensity of bullying intervention programs, and consider interventions where students receive bullying prevention messages at all levels of their environment (home, school, peer settings), and in which the adults with whom they interact receive training and education related to bullying prevention.
Influence of Alternative Field-Based Experiences on PPETs’ Perceptions of Assessment
Rachyl Jane Stephenson, Jenna Rae Starck, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse; Xiaofen D. KeatingF, University of Texas at Austin
Background/Purpose: There have been recent developments of new approaches to assessment in physical education (PE), but due to an extensive history of assessment in PE as being an area of concern, there is still a high demand for research on the topic. The profession of PE needs to gain insight on how to better prepare assessment literate preservice teachers. This study employed Occupational Socialization Theory as a conceptual framework to explore three preservice PE teachers’ perceptions of assessment during an alternative based field experience. The aims of the study were to investigate how the alternative based field experiences, along with how their socialization experiences, influenced their assessment perceptions.
Method: A qualitative, phenomenological research design was utilized to gain an understanding of the participants lived experience of an alternative field-based setting within a methods course. The participants were recruited through their course as a convenience sample. All data were qualitative and collected through autobiographies, lesson plans, video recordings of teaches, and 3 rounds of interviews per participant.
Analysis/Results: The data were examined with a collaborative qualitative analysis approach. The findings from the study were described thematically. Data analysis resulted in three first order themes and eight subthemes. The first theme—out of sight out of mind: assessment disappears in actual teaching practices, with four subthemes: (a) disconnect from planning to implementation, (b) heavy focus on effective teaching behaviors, (c) no assessment regardless of environment and climate, and (d) PPETs focused on student enjoyment as the major outcome of teaching. Preservice teachers valued assessment was the second theme, with two subthemes; (a) valued informal assessment to promote learning, and (b) recognized the potential impact of assessment on student learning as a motivator or demotivator. The third theme of professional socialization impacted PPETs’ assessment implementation in alternative field experiences, had two subthemes: (a) positive influences on PPETs’ assessment perceptions through PETE programming, and (b) absence of assessment exposure and modeling.
Conclusions: The results suggested that preservice PE teachers valued assessment, and there were socialization factors that influenced their perceptions of assessment. However, even with supports that existed at the alternative field-based setting, there was still a lack of implementation of assessment.
Initial Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Preservice Teachers With Different Levels of Content Knowledge in Teaching Elementary
Insook KimF, Kent State University
Background/Purpose: Empirical evidence showed that physical education teachers could improve enacted pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) by promoting in-depth content knowledge (CK) in teaching physical education (Kim et al., 2018; Kim & Ko, 2020). However, little research has been conducted to examine how preservice teachers (PSTs)’ initial levels of PCK develop and how their PCK behaviors differ as a function of CK developed through their physical education teacher education (PETE) programs. The current study aimed to examine how PSTs’ initial levels of elementary PCK demonstrated by measurable PCK behaviors and the use of instructional tasks differ as a function of CK developed through their elementary physical education content course.
Method: Twenty-one PSTs enrolled in the elementary content course participated in this study. The PSTs’ high-, medium-, and low-CK identified from the CK tests were used as an independent variable. The PSTs’ teaching exemplars (n = 36, 12 lessons per group) that demonstrate the best teaching elementary teaching performances were collected. Three enacted PCK: appropriate task selections, mature task representations, and relevant task adaptions identified in the previous studies (Kim et al. 2018) and the use of four instructional task categories: informing, extending, refining, and applying (Rink, 1979; 2020) were directly measured. Using SPSS (SPSS Institute, 2019), both descriptive and inferential statistics were administered for data analysis.
Analysis/Results: Using SPSS (SPSS Institute, 2019), both descriptive and inferential statistics were administered for data analysis.Data from the descriptive analysis of the three PCK between the CK groups indicated that the PSTs with high-CK used more both developmentally and principally appropriate tasks (M% = 94.4) than the PSTs with medium- and low-CK (M% = 81.9 and 68.1). The PSTs with high-CK (M% = 84.7 and 87.2) used more mature forms of task representations and adapted an initial task than the PSTs with medium-CK (M% = 48.9 and 77.2) and low-CK (M% = 38.5 and 76.6). The univariate F tests showed there were significant differences in the CK groups for appropriate task selections (p = .020), mature task representations (p = .000), and relevant task adaptations (p = .016). Data from the descriptive analysis of the instructional tasks between the CK groups showed that the mean informing tasks used by the PSTs per lesson were ranged from 1.08 to 1.50. On average, the PTS with high-CK used 2.3 refining tasks, 3.9 extending tasks 2.3 and applying tasks, whereas the PSTs with medium- or low-CK used 1.5 or 1.0 refining tasks, 2.3 or 2.8 extending tasks, and 1.3 or 0.9 applying tasks. The mean content development index scores were 8.0 for high-CK, 4.0 for medium-CK, and 4.2 for low-CK. The univariate F tests showed there were the significant differences between CK groups for refining tasks (p = .043), applying tasks (p = .000) and content development index scores (p = .000).
Conclusions: The results of the current study provide significant evidence to support the essential role of strong CK possessed by PSTs and its impact on high-quality teaching behaviors in teaching elementary PE content.
Inservice Physical Education Teachers’ Content Knowledge of Health-Related Fitness
Jose A Santiago, Sam Houston State University; James R. Morrow Jr.F, University of North Texas
Background/Purpose: Fitness education has become increasingly popular in school physical education (PE) programs with the intention to teach children and youth the knowledge, skills, and confidence to become physically active for a lifetime. In spite of this increasing popularity, evidence suggests that health-related fitness knowledge (HRFK) in school-age children is insufficient (Keating et al., 2009). This lack of HRFK has been identified as contributing factor for the high rates of physical inactivity in children and youth (Keating et al., 2009). Thus, PE teachers must have a strong content knowledge of health-related fitness (HRF) to teach their students how to become physically active for a lifetime. The purpose of this study was to assess content knowledge of HRF in a convenient sample of inservice PE teachers.
Method: Participants in this study consisted of 440 inservice PE teachers (female = 210, male = 230) from the southwest of the United States ranging from 22 to 67 years of age. The Health-Related Fitness Knowledge test developed by Santiago and Morrow (2018) was used to assess content knowledge of HRF. Participants also completed a demographic information form.
Analysis/Results: KR20 analysis for the test administration yielded a 0.66 reliability coefficient which was considered to be an acceptable level of reliability. The mean percentage score for the HRFK test was 54% (M = 21.7, SD = 4.6). Teachers scored less than 50% correct on test items related to PA for adults, PA for children, behavior change, basic training principles, basic exercise physiology, assessments of HRF, and assessments of PA. Female teachers scored (M = 22.5, SD = 4.1) significantly higher than male teachers (M = 20.9, SD = 4.8), t(436) = 3.8, p = .000, d = .36. Teachers who received their teaching certification trough Physical Education Teacher Education Programs (M = 22.0, SD = 4.7) scored slightly higher than teachers who received their certification through Alternative Certification Programs (M = 21.3, SD = 4.4); however, the difference was not significant, t(438) = 1.7, p = .100. One-way ANOVA revealed no significant differences between categories of years of teaching experience, F(2,437) = .09, p = .953. Results suggest that levels of content knowledge of HRF is not a function of any specific demographic characteristic.
Conclusions: These findings parallel those of Miller and Housner (1998), Santiago et al. (2016), and Santiago and Morrow (2020) in preservice PE teachers, and Castelli and Williams (2007) and Santiago et al. (2012) in inservice PE teachers, all of which reported poor levels of content knowledge of HRF. The results of this study suggest that inservice PE teachers critically need relevant and ongoing professional development to enhance HRF content knowledge. Furthermore, the course content and instructional methods to deliver HRFK in PETE programs may need to be evaluated. The results of this study are concerning and call for action by the PE profession. If school physical education is going to play a role in the promotion of PA and HRF, it is critical that PE teachers demonstrate a strong command of content knowledge of HRF.
Inside a Quality Physical Education Classroom: Meeting Students’ Needs
Xiaoping Fan, Jaimie M. McMullen, University of Northern Colorado
Background/Purpose: The purpose of physical education is to develop individuals’ competence and confidence to a lifetime of healthful physical activity (SHAPE America, 2014). Taking a deep dive into a specific classroom can provide insight into a physical education program, contributing to understandings of how physical education teachers meet students’ needs and help students become successful (Le Masurier & Corbin, 2006). This study explored one physical education program using a qualitative case study design. Given the timing of data collection, which included remote learning during the global COVID-19 pandemic, this was explored in the context of a face-to-face environment and through a virtual classroom setting.
Method: The participant of this study was a male physical education teacher with 11 years of teaching experience, currently teaching at a middle school in the Western United States. Using a qualitative case study design, data sources included observations with field notes, informal conversational interviews, researcher journals, semi-structured interviews, and documents. The researcher observed the participant’s physical education classes, taking detailed notes, debriefing with the participant after each lesson, and then reflecting on the observations and conversations. Additionally, one semi-structured interview lasting approximately 75 minutes was conducted in April 2020, and the interview questions related to content from the field notes, conversations, and researcher journals. Documents included the physical education syllabus and seven weeks of lesson plans.
Analysis/Results: Open and axial coding was used to analyze the field notes, researcher journal, documents, and the teacher’s interview responses (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Four themes emerged: a) meeting students’ needs, b) teachers’ continuous learning, c) teachers’ passion, and d) mental health during the pandemic. First, the physical education program met students’ needs by implementing multiple curriculum models, utilizing assessment, modifying activities to include all students, incorporating literacy, considering students’ mental health, and emphasizing students’ social skills. Second, the teacher engaged in ongoing and continuous learning, and implemented innovative teaching strategies. Third, the teacher demonstrated passion for the profession in a variety of ways. Finally, the focus of physical education during the pandemic shifted to students’ mental health because students were experiencing stress due to the lack of social connection with friends, family issues and academic depression.
Conclusions: Quality physical education programs use a standards-based curriculum, align assessment with instruction and outcomes, teach skills effectively, and establish a safe and positive learning environment (Napper-Owen, 2008). The results of this study indicate that there is potential for a physical education program to promote a student-focused classroom in which teachers teach physical education based upon students’ needs. Thus, students have the opportunity to learn and improve their physical skills, knowledge, and social skills during physical education. Shifting the focus to mental health during the pandemic demonstrates the ability of the teacher to adjust in order to continue to meet students’ needs, as they experienced multiple stressors. Additionally, teachers’ professional development and passion for the profession play an essential role in providing quality physical education (Ormiston, 2011).
Issues and Challenges for Teaching Online Kinesiology Courses: Design Research Approach
Gi-cheol Kim, Rachel GurvitchF, Georgia State University
Background/Purpose: As online learning became prevalent in higher education, there is a need to better understand the concepts of effective pedagogy within online courses. Despite the increase of online courses in Kinesiology, very few empirical studies investigated teaching and learning via online settings (Graber & Chodzko-Zajko, 2014). More importantly, Kinesiology, as a discipline, accumulated limited instructional guidelines and principles specific to the online contexts. In Design research approach, a researcher’s rigorous analysis of an instructional problem leads to quite specific ideas for interventions (Walker, 2006). Taking Design research (Akker et al., 2006) perspective, the present study purpose was to identify instructional issues and challenges within the context of online Kinesiology courses. With identified issues, the researchers intended to formulate design principles.
Method: Participants in this study were four instructors teaching online courses within a Kinesiology program in the South-eastern region . Researchers collected data from semi-structured interviews focusing on the teaching experience within online settings. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. The researchers reviewed the transcriptions and coded the data using Nvivo software (QSR International, 2015). In this process, researchers conducted axial coding to identify generic themes across the participants. Investigation triangulation, member check, and peer debriefing were implemented to ensure the trustworthiness of the analysis.
Analysis/Results: The analysis yielded four themes of instructional issues and challenges: Meaningful learning, Transition from face-to-face, Instructional technology, and Engagement. Although acknowledging that the setting of online learning limited face to face interaction, it was important for the instructors to make their courses meaningful and provide a “valuable learning experience for all of the students.” The instructors experienced many obstacles, including lack of relevant activities, lack of the monitoring system, and lack of accountability (Meaningful learning). The instructors who developed online courses from existing face-to-face courses reported on apparent gaps between the two modes of interaction. Instructors acknowledged that creating duplicates of the existing face-to-face courses within the online environment is not necessarily effective (Transition from face-to-face). Through the interviews, instructors expressed concerns regarding their own repertoire of instructional technology knowledge and skills. It was clear that the instructors needed the support of the Center of Excellence in Teaching for the initial design of the online course (Instructional technology). Instructors felt that it was very challenging to motivate students to engage in the online courses. Interestingly, at times, the instructors felt a decrease in their own motivation for online teaching, perhaps due to lower students’ engagement rates (Engagement).
Conclusions: The analysis of instructors’ interviews identified 1) Meaningful learning, 2) Transition from face-to-face, 3) Instructional technology, and 4) Students’ Engagement as the main themes in this study. Using learning theories and relevant technology-based interventions, researchers suggest developing specific recommendations and guidelines for implementation within online learning environments. Future trial research could lead to the evaluation of effectiveness of the course design guidelines.
Jack and Jill Went to Instill: Did edTPA Cause Them to Falter?
Deborah S Baxter, Kennesaw State University; Oleg A. SinelnikovF, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: This study examined and deconstructed socialization experiences relative to the edTPA process of preservice teachers during their physical education teacher education (PETE) program and their induction year as a physical education teacher.
Method: Utilizing a multiple case study design, we investigated two physical education teachers who were purposefully selected from a PETE program requiring a passing score on the edTPA for graduation and certification requirements. Interviews, stimulated recall, and documents served as data sources which were analyzed using constant comparison.
Analysis/Results: The following themes were identified: (1) initial interactions and impetus for teaching—engaging and fun; (2) instruction in PETE—learning a ton; (3) internship—gauging, I’m stunned; (4) implementation of edTPA—raging, I’m done; (5) induction—waging has begun.
Conclusions: Jack and Jill believed edTPA “boxed them in” to teaching with direct instruction, which caused them to question effective teaching strategies and models-based practice.
Learning Communities and Physical Education Professional Development: What Is Known?
Melissa ParkerF, University of Limerick; Kevin PattonF, California State University, Chico; Luiza Goncalves, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul; Carla Luguetti, Victoria University; Okseon Lee, Seoul National University
Background/Purpose: Learning communities in a variety of formats have been touted as an effective strategy for continuing professional development (CPD) in physical education (PE) (Parker & Patton, 2017). The use of communities points to enhanced teacher empowerment, (i.e., Tannehill & MacPhail 2017), teacher learning (i.e., Parker, Patton, & Sinclair, 2015), and student learning (i.e., Hünük, Ince, & Tannehill, 2013). As such, learning communities are a “hot topic,” yet, the literature is scattered.
This study’s purpose was to conduct a scoping review of literature on physical education learning communities for professional development. The intent was to map the key concepts of this research area and the main sources and types of evidence available so as to provide a useful context for the conduct of future scholarship.
Method: A scoping review (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005) undergirded the research process. Search parameters included full-text empirical studies in 12 languages between 1990–2020 available online. Search terms were: “physical education” + “learning communities” OR “professional learning communities” OR communities of practice” OR “teacher communities” OR “professional communities.” Data bases included Academic Search Elite, ERIC, SportDiscus, Google Scholar, Dissertation abstracts, and Web of Science. The review process began with a search of electronic databases, then key journals, and finally reference lists of all papers from previous steps. Ultimately 86 studies were found meeting all criteria.
Analysis/Results: A descriptive analysis revealed teachers as the focus in 63% of the studies; fewer studies focused on initial teacher education students, teacher educators, and facilitators. Articles represented 34 journals. The largely qualitative studies reflected an international data base (18 countries; two multi-national studies) with South Korea, England, and the US dominating the literature. A variety of theoretical frameworks were used with situated learning/communities of practice being the most predominant. A substantial number of papers did not consider a theoretical framework that would explain the community development or practice.
Seven points spotlight thematic findings: the community development process, the product(s) of the community, community type, the purpose of the community, technology, and facilitation. In particular, the product of groups varied with respect to student learning, and teacher knowledge acquisition, empowerment, motivation, and identity. The purpose of the groups was most often CPD, though curriculum development and model implementation also provided focus. Community type was inconsistently defined.
Conclusions: Learning communities as a CPD approach in PE appears to be effective in a variety of ways. Little evidence, however, exists regarding their sustained nature over time, nor how teacher engagement in learning communities may result in substantive student learning. Contributing to the scattered nature of literature to date, was the interchangeable use of communities of practice (CoP) and other forms of learning communities. Often communities were not theoretically defined, the development process of communities not explained, nor evidence provided as to how the community studied contained the qualifying features of a CoP or learning communities. The contested use of the terms CoP or learning community is problematic. Future research, therefore, should detail the nature of community and fidelity to the theoretical framework.
Learning to Use the SKIP Curriculum: Teachers’ Reflections
Jongho Moon, University of South Carolina; Matthew Patey, Bridgewater State University; Hayes Bennett, Collin Webster, Ali BrianF, University of South Carolina
Background/Purpose: Successful Kinesthetic Instruction for Preschoolers (SKIP) curriculum is a motor development curriculum for children, which features a variety of instructional approaches, evaluation, task analyses, skill and task repetition cycles, and the development of proprioception. SKIP is intended to be implemented by a motor development or physical education expert. However, previous research has not considered the process by which teachers learn to use SKIP. In particular, an investigation into teachers’ thoughts and understandings while learning to use SKIP would aid future efforts to effectively train teachers to implement the SKIP curriculum. The Reflective Framework for Teaching in Physical Education (RFTPE) can be used to discern both the focus and level of teachers’ reflections. Using this framework, the purpose of this study was to explore the learning experiences of teachers implementing the SKIP curriculum for the first time. The research questions driving this study were “what is the nature of reflections for teachers using SKIP for the first time?” and “how does the nature of teachers’ reflections influence learning to teach the SKIP curriculum?
Method: Participants included two former physical education teachers who were full time doctoral students in a physical education program at a flagship university in the southeastern United States. Neither participant was familiar with implementing SKIP before this study. The participants co-taught the SKIP curriculum for eight weeks in preschool settings (2 times per week, 40 min). Following each lesson, participants reflected on the lesson individually and then together using a voice recorder. No reflection prompts were used. A total of 18 reflections (12 individual reflections and 6 co-reflections) were completed for this study. All recordings were transcribed by the researchers individually, followed by collaborative discussion. Transcriptions and reports were provided to participants as a member check, where participants were encouraged to correct errors and provide comments or further information.
Analysis/Results: Data were qualitatively analyzed using the RFTPE framework. Before beginning the theoretical coding process, three researchers were trained to use the RFTPE framework and consensus was reached regarding interpretations. Data were coded separately by the trained researchers, followed by collaborative discussion where agreement was reached. Through repeated examination of the transcriptions, the data were classified into one of twelve reflective categories represented by the RFTPE framework. Triangulation and member checks were used to ensure the credibility of findings. Findings revealed that participants’ individual reflections were technical (31%), situational (50%), and sensitizing (19%); co-reflections were technical (11%), situational (66%), and sensitizing (23%). In addition, levels of individual reflection were descriptive (30%), descriptive with justification (22%), descriptive and critical (18%), and descriptive with justification and critique (30%); co-reflections were descriptive (11%), descriptive with justification (4%), descriptive and critical (38%), and descriptive with justification and critique (47%).
Conclusions: Overall, teachers who are new to using SKIP may benefit more from co-reflection than individual reflection.
Movement in the Classroom: Contingent Factors Underlying Teacher Change
Annie E. Machamer, Ohio University; Andrea Taliaferro, Eloise M. ElliottF, Sean M. Bulger, Stephanie Lorenze, Yoav Kaddar, West Virginia University
Background/Purpose: Teachers’ use of classroom physical activity (PA) has been found to significantly impact students PA participation, time on task, and academic performance. However, teachers have continued to identify barriers affecting delivery related to professional development opportunities, learning environment, and experiences in practice. An understanding of the connection between these experiences and their impact on teacher change is needed. The purpose of this study was to investigate teachers’ perceptions of specific factors that have influenced their continued implementation of classroom PA. This study provides insight into the teacher perceptions, and aims to identify connections among orientation to learning and learning change that have supported this practice.
Method: This research employed two rounds of data collection and used Opfer et al.’s (2011) model of teacher change as a guiding theoretical framework. First, a questionnaire was administered to teachers (n = 26) who had experience integrating movement into the academic classroom. Next, semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants (n = 6) who have experienced success in continued delivery for three or more years, had implemented three or more days a week, and used both PA breaks and content-rich/standards-based PA.
Analysis/Results: Round One data analysis included frequency and measure of central tendency. Round Two data analysis included transcription, an inductive coding approach, jotting and memoing, and member checking. Survey results indicated that professional development, student reactions, and beliefs and attitudes of classroom PA had the greatest influence on teachers’ continued use of classroom PA. Five main areas of influence were identified: (a) social and environmental influences, (b) professional development, (c) integration practices, (d) student reactions, and (e) teacher beliefs and attitudes.
Conclusions: Results of this study provide insights into the connections of influential factors on teachers’ implementation of classroom PA and sustained use. This study provides a framework for further investigation in order to support teachers’ continued use of classroom PA.
Navigating Kansas Physical Education Together Through an Epidemic
Tiffany Anne Dirks, Washburn University; Verneda Edwards, Baker University; Ross Friesen, Washburn University
Background/Purpose: This research study is designed to gather information of personal teaching experiences that occurred during the spring 2020, the lack of resources and the current need for training and support to move into a successful school year utilizing virtual platforms for physical education.
Method: The physical education teachers in Kansas were surveryed utilizing a google form to acquire all information pertinent to the classroom teaching experience of Spring 2020. All were informed of their ability to remain anonymous and to withdraw from the survey at any time. At no time was any teacher subject to harm or discomfort during the survey or data collection. As data was collected from the survey, it was reviewed and divided into categories relevant to need. Teacher struggles and input were analyzed for consistency across the state and a plan was developed to be implemented as methods of resource, assistance, support and guidance. 106 teachers from all regions of the state of Kansas participated.
Analysis/Results: As data was collected and analyzed, a consistent trend of lack of district support and concern for the success of physical education during the virtual school existed. Teachers consistently stated their subject matter was irrelevant during the pandemic, forcing many to be transisitoned to creating alternative plans that neglected the subject matter. The overwhelming need for virtual training options, platforms to create learning opportunities for physical education, and online technology resources led the charge in our research study.
Conclusions: As a leader for KAHPERD, our state organization, we created virtual professional learning opportunities, free of charge, aligned to the needs of the Kansas teachers. Zoom round table discussions were offered for teachers to communicate their successes, struggles and fears moving into the uncertainty of Fall 2020. This research was directed at creating a needed community of support and a viable resource for all Kansas teachers, directly related to their specific needs.
On Priority of Professional Development of Physical Education Faculty
Ke Lv, Wuhan Sports University
Background/Purpose: Since Chinese authorities unveiled the document of Opinions on Implementation of Outstanding Teacher Education Program 2.0, professional development of PE faculty has become one of concerns in China’s present PE education reform in recent years. Relevant research findings are mounting in China, few of which yet resort to empirical paradigm in the analysis on the professional development of PE faculty. From such two dimensions as satisfaction and demand, this study is aimed at revealing the order of priority in professional development of PE faculty for reference of improving professional training on PE faculty in theory.
Method: Based on questionnaires targeting nine common professional faculty development activities in OCED Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), this study measures the satisfaction and demand of primary and middle school PE faculty by 5 Point Likert Scale. Through stratified random sampling, relevant questionnaires are given out to PE faculty from Eastern, Central and Western Hubei, 330 of which are validated and collected, followed by a reliability and validity test.
Analysis/Results: By score, Pearson Correlation Coefficient of satisfaction and demand is 0.35 (P = .22); by rank, Spearman Correlation Coefficient of satisfaction and demand is 0.459 (P = .098). Results show that demand and satisfaction of professional development of PE faculty have insignificant correlation. In addition, assuming that satisfaction score and demand score are observed values, it is found through systematically cluster analysis that nine professional teacher development activities may fall into three types: I. “medium demand but high satisfaction”; II. “high demand but medium satisfaction” III. “low demand and low satisfaction.”
Conclusions: Further to professional development of PE faculty, it is advised to follow the principle of “demand taking precedence over satisfaction,” more to the point, priority is given to Type III activities, Type II activities and Type I activities in order.
Online Teaching in College Physical Education During the COVID-19 Epidemic Period
Yumei Jiang, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Bo ShenF, teacher; Yingya Pu, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
Background/Purpose: With the new type of coronavirus pneumonia sweeping the world in 2020, many regular courses in universities were canceled but switched to teach online. As of April 7, 1.58 billion students in 191 countries suspended in-person classes, accounting for 91.3% of all students in school. There is a need to evaluate online physical education during this particular time. The purpose of this study was to analyze the condition of online physical education in Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), which is located in Wuhan, China, during the COVID-19 epidemic period.
Method: Using HUST online physical education as the research object, we observed 430 online public physical education classes, which involved 83 teachers and more than 14,300 students. The entire online teaching lasted 16 weeks. We designed and disseminated a questionnaire regarding satisfaction with online teaching to students at the end of Spring Semester. A total of 5368 valid questionnaires were collected. We analyzed the data with Microsoft Excel.
Analysis/Results: The results revealed that the online teaching primarily focused on low-to-medium exercise intensity without equipment application. The activities were suitable for home setting consisting of aerobic, strength and stretching exercises with both in-class content and afterschool assignment.
In terms of online teaching platform, 93.24% of teachers used QQ (the most popular social interaction software), Tencent-online Conference (18.61%), and WeChat(12.22%). Also, majority of students were satisfied with their learning experience via online physical education with high satisfaction of teachers’ working ethic (93.40%), teaching content (93.75%), instructional method (93.48%), and activity intensity (93.40%). 87.43% of students believed that their health fitness had been improved through online PE while 85% believed that the online learning experience had enhanced their immune system. Furthermore, they believed that online learning in PE had promoted their Mental Health (68.74%), relieved the Stress of Learning(67.25), Relieved the Stress and Anxiety of Fighting the Epidemic(51.68%%) . 30.61% of the students reported that their PE online learning were taken with family together leading to the improvement of family relationships. Nevertheless, some students also revealed some types of weakness in online learning: such as Inconvenient Practice Space at Home (85.97%), Lack of Sports Equipment (66.67%), Exercise Noise interrupting Neighborhood(42.79%), and Slow Internet (28.28%).
Conclusions: Students were satisfied with overall online teaching platforms and instructional methods. Although there were obstacles, the advantages and benefits from online learning was well recognized, especially in improving students’ physical and mental health. From teacher perspective, it was suggested that online teaching assist to track the learning progress, record data, form a data set of learning and cognition. Also, teachers could adjust and differentiate their teaching process and teaching goals according to students’ personalities and abilities. In fact, the pandemic situation has forced collegiate physical education in China to integrate traditional classroom teaching and modern information technology and accelerated the transition from offline teaching to offline + online mixed teaching methods. It is urgent to develop a systematic curriculum based on online teaching characteristics and further evaluate the effectiveness of the “Internet +” teaching model in physical education.
PETE Faculty’s Perspectives of edTPA: The Range of Change
Deborah S Baxter, Kennesaw State University; Oleg A. SinelnikovF, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore the extent of changes taking place within the context, structure, and culture of university physical education teacher education (PETE) programs facilitating high-stakes edTPA policy.
Method: Utilizing a multiple-case study design framed by politics of policy and analytical dualism, eight PETE faculty from eight different programs who had direct involvement in the high stakes edTPA process were investigated. Data from semi-structured individual interviews, focus group interviews, and documents were interpretively analyzed.
Analysis/Results: Faculty reacted in three distinct ways to the process of change which were labeled: prevailers, conceders, or exceeders. The process of change appeared to be based upon an implementation continuum from isolation to internalization.
Conclusions: University programs have a responsibility to prepare effective physical education teachers who use the best practices for teaching. It is imperative for PETE faculty to reflect upon the impetus and impact of changes made to their programs in light of edTPA.
PETE/HETE Student Teachers’ Experiences Implementing an E-Cigarette Prevention Curriculum
Timothy Losee, Plymouth State University; Christie M. Gonzalez, Manhatten College; Michelle E. Moosbrugger, Springfield College; Colby Batkins, Plymouth State University; Leslie Beale, Marie Brady, Springfield College; Irene M. Cucina, Plymouth State University; Staci Rae Drewson, Monmouth University; Shawn Ladda, Manhattan College; Jeremy S. Lackman, Monmouth University; Tekeyah Sears, Manhatten College; Peter Stapleton, The Sage Colleges
Background/Purpose: Thirty-seven percent of high school students and 10.9% of middle school students reported vaping in the past year (Monitoring the Future Survey [MTF], 2018). Lippert et al. (2019) suggested that with the right resources, schools can be effective at delivering the message to youth that e-cigarette use is a serious health risk. The easy access to e-cigarette devices is a concern, as 45% of eighth graders stated that it is “fairly easy” or “very easy” to access a vaping device (MTF, 2018). Due to the growing concern for the health risks of e-cigarettes, prioritizing and targeting efforts such as the implementation of a health education curriculum in schools with high rates of use may help to reduce youth e-cigarette use (Venugopal et al., 2020). CATCH My Breath curriculum, is a four lesson e-cigarette use prevention unit for 5th-12th graders. Early field experiences consist of opportunities to deliver content in diverse ways which can be challenging for student teachers. Teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy, stemming from strong teacher behaviors, have more positive classroom experiences (Dicke et al., 2014). Thus, investigating student teachers’ self-efficacy and perceptions in delivering a novel e-cigarette prevention curriculum is beneficial to PETE/HETE programs. The purpose of this study was to investigate health and physical education student teachers’ perceptions of and experiences with implementing the CATCH My Breath curriculum.
Method: A basic qualitative research design (Merriam, 2009) was utilized to determine the perceptions of nine student teachers from two PETE/HETE programs in the northeastern United States. Student teachers completed semi-structured focus group interviews which were used as the primary source of data collection. To increase trustworthiness, Member-Checking and Peer Debriefing strategies were used for internal validity.
Analysis/Results: Following Merriam’s (2009) methodology, a line by line detailed analysis was conducted in which data found to be connected in meaning and/or similar in nature were grouped into themes: (a) confidence, (b) health education impact, (c) challenges and supports, and (d) recommendations and reflections.
Conclusions: Of particular interest, student teachers in this study perceived the CATCH My Breath lessons to be easy to teach overall. The student teachers felt confident in delivering the prepackaged CATCH My Breath lessons and the majority would teach these lessons in the future and other prepackaged health units. After teaching CATCH My Breath, student teachers expressed increased confidence and interest in Health Education. CATCH My Breath enhanced student teachers professional knowledge of the related content. The student teachers stated that some of the lesson content was repetitive and suggested a need for more real-world connections in the lessons.
Physical Activity and Game Play Ability in 3v3 Basketball
Toon Dehandschutter, Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven
Background/Purpose: Sport Education (SE) is a curriculum and instruction model that aims to develop students into competent, enthusiastic and literate sports players (Siedentop, Hastie & van der Mars, 2019). To date, research studying the MVPA levels of high school students during a Sport Education invasion games season as a function of game play ability is limited. It is generally accepted that high-quality Physical Education lessons engage children in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for at least 50% of class time (SHAPE America, 2015). Experimental research investigating the differential effects of Sport Education across different skill groups in high school is needed (Hastie, Calderón, Rolim, & Guarino, 2013). In this study we investigated high-school students’ moderate-to-vigorous physical activity as a function of game play ability during game play in a Sport Education basketball season.
Method: An experimental class with 21 high school students (age 16–18) participated in a 14-day Sport Education basketball season. Students worked in fixed, heterogeneous teams. All lessons had a duration of about 40 minutes and followed a standardized format with a team warming-up, a within team skill practice and formal game play between teams. A control group (n = 22) in another school didn’t receive a Sport Education season and was taught a unit in a different content domain. The teacher in the Sport Education group was male with a teaching experience above 20 years. In both groups students’ 3v3 game play performance was assessed by means of video analysis using the Team Sport Assessment Protocol (TSAP) (Gréhaigne, Godbout, Bouthier, 1997) prior to and upon completion of the unit and Sport Education seasons. The overall performance index was calculated using the following formula: (intercepted passes and succesful catches + succesful passes and scored shots)/(10 + lost passes). Students’ MVPA during game play was assessed using systematic observation. Trained observers collected data on game play ability and MVPA and interobserver reliability was 98% and 84% respectively, based on 100% of the sample for game play ability and 33% of the total sample for MVPA.
Analysis/Results: Related samples Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test detected a significant improvement of the overall performance index in 3v3 (1.00 vs. 2.05, p = .004) in the Sport Education group. The overall performance index for low-ability students increased from 0.86 to 1.95, whereas the index for high-ability students increased from 1.27 to 2.13. High-ability students engaged significantly more in MVPA compared to low-ability students during game play (49% vs. 34%, p < .01).
Conclusions: All students in the Sport Education group significantly improved their overall performance index in a 3v3 basketball. The median of the overall performance index for low-ability students improved with 55.9% while the median for high-ability students increased with 40.4%. This study confirms that working in fixed, heterogeneous teams is conducive to low-ability students. Future work could investigate graded competitions in a Sport Education season as a means to increase students’ MVPA levels, especially those with lower ability levels (Hastie, Ward & Brock, 2017).
Physical Education Teachers Transition to Distance Learning During the COVID-19 Shutdown
Josiah Johnson, Texas A&M International University; David N. Daum, San Jose State University; Jason Michael Norris, Texas A&M International University
Background/Purpose: In the Spring of 2020 forty-nine states transitioned to online learning as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Little is known about how physical education teachers use technology in their teaching or how physical education is taught online. A survey was sent to K-12 physical education teachers in California to examine how they managed their shift to distance learning and how the courses were designed.
Method: A quantitative and qualitative questionnaire was developed for this study. The questionnaire was based on previous research in online physical education and evaluated by experts to determine content and construct validity. The survey covered teacher demographics, instructional technology, physical education curriculum and assessment. Teachers were contacted by e-mail to fill out the questionnaire though the California Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (CAHPERD) membership database. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics.
Analysis/Results: There were a total of 194 completed questionnaires. Twelve responses were removed because two respondents were not physical education teachers and 10 declined to participate in the survey. The respondents were mostly female (n = 122; males = 68, non-binary = 3) with an average of 17 (sd = 9.7) years teaching experience. The teachers were mostly from suburban schools (n = 128; urban n = 43; Rural n = 19) and taught at middle schools (n = 105; Elementary n = 59; High School n = 68). Ninety-one percent of teachers (n = 175) had no training regarding distance learning techniques prior to the transition to distance learning. Teachers reported that the most common way for them to learn about instructional technology was on the job (n = 165) and through professional development workshops (n = 113). Most teachers used a learning management system, video and web conferencing and e-mail to deploy remote learning. Related, the teachers mostly used videos they found on the internet (n = 143), while some produced videos (n = 81) and conducted live sessions (n = 59). The distance learning physical education curriculum was focused on health related fitness (n = 160) and less on the affective (n = 130), psychomotor (n = 121) and cognitive domains (n = 104).Sixty percent of teachers reported that less than half of their students were competing assignments when the shelter in place orders began and that improved slightly by the end of the school year. Teachers were allowed to assess their students (n = 111) but only half of those teachers were allowed to assess for grading purposes. The most common method for educating students without a device at home was to use a district provided laptop or tablet.
Conclusions: The entire country had to adjust to distance learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic and this put everyone in an extraordinary situation. The results of this study demonstrate that physical educators where woefully prepared with the technology competencies to transition easily to distance learning. Certainty, having time to prepare for quality distance learning opportunities was limited especially considering the limitations teachers may have been facing (district mandates, family obligations, etc.). Regardless, teachers, administrators and teacher educators need to consider how to develop distance learning competencies for higher quality learning experiences for students not just if another pandemic should strike, but as online learning options become more prevalent.
Physical Education Teachers’ Autobiographical Memories of Models-Based Practice
Oleg A. SinelnikovF, Jamie J. Brunsdon, Hayden Mitchell, Richard F. Jowers, Jacob T. Peterson, Travis Bligh, Hunter Gross, Neika N. Morgan, Elizabeth A. Woodruff, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: The research on autobiographical memory, defined through the study of memories that are connected to specific places and times in a person’s life, are of immense personal significance (Burt, 2008. Tulvin, 2002). Autobiographical memory is vital to interpreting the meaning of experienced events (Conway, 1990) when retrieving augmented memories (Tulving, 1983). During the retrieval process, participants recall important memories (Rubin & Kozin, 1984; Rubin & Schulkind, 1997). Limited research of autobiographical memory in physical education suggests the usefulness of such examinations in determining vital and meaningful events that occur in physical education settings for all participants (Sinelnikov & Hastie, 2010; Wahl-Alexander et al., 2017).
Purpose: The purpose of the study was to examine the autobiographical memories of physical education teachers who used models-based practice in their teaching. Specifically, the following questions guided the study: (1) What are the autobiographical memories of physical education teachers of models-based practice? and (2) What impact, if any, do the identified memories have on their teaching practices?
Method: Conforming to this study’s longitudinal and autobiographical research questions, six participants in this study were purposefully selected (5 males and 1 female; age = 40 (SD = 7.3)) with criteria for participant selection including: (1) being a certified physical education teacher; (2) teaching or having taught K-12 physical education; (3) having at least 10 years of experience teaching physical education; and (4) having taught using models-based practice. Teachers’ autobiographical memories were gathered from surveys, twelve individual encoding-specific interviews (120 min. each),autobiographical reflections and aided by documents, artifacts and video records of lessons. Data collection procedures followed encoding-specific principal (Tulving, 1983) in which retrieval of memories was conducted in the physical context where memories were originally encoded.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using a constant comparison and analytic induction (Goetz & LeCompte, 1984) with the purpose of extracting common categories and themes (Patton, 1990). Data and researcher triangulation, members check and negative case analysis ensured trustworthiness.The results demonstrated three different levels of autobiographical memories stemming from physical education teachers’ lifetime, general event and event specific memories. It is on the levels of general and event specific memories levels of recollection where physical education teachers’ memoriesabout pedagogical models were housed. Teachers’ most significant memories related to students’ “progressions of learning,” “overcoming adversities,” “teaching triumphs,” and teachers “cultivating independent learners,” which collectively contributed to participants developing positive value-laden subjective warrants toward models-based practice and reinforced its use.
Conclusions: Model-based practice continues to be on the forefront of the effective contemporary physical education practices (Hastie & Wallhead, 2016; Sinelnikov & Hastie, 2016). This is the first study to date that examined and reconstructed teachers’ most significant memories of their teaching using models-based practice through the use of an augmented memory system, cue words, and using an encoding specific principle. Adding to research on students’ autobiographical memories in Sport Education (Sinelnikov & Hastie, 2010), this study demonstrated that physical education teachers who use models-based practice in their teaching employ event-specific levels of recollection (more vivid and meaningful) to recall their teaching episodes.
Physical Education Teachers’ Community of Practice in Korea
Bomna KoF, East Carolina University; Yun Soo Lee, Dankook University; Seok Yoon, Chowan University
Background/Purpose: Quality of teachers’ career-long professional learning is an essential ingredient for educational success (Armor et al., 2017; Atencio, Jess, & Dewar, 2012; Darling-Hammond, et al., 2009). Offering more and better continuing professional development (CPD) is suggested as “the solution to a range of education’s ill” (Armor & Yelling, 2007, p. 177). In the difficult situation to provide favorable CPD for physical educators, collaborative learning is proposed and highly valued as a powerful and effective form of CPD (Cordingley, et al., 2003; Keay, 2006). Teachers in collaborative culture of PD leads to match their needs and acquire new knowledge in a continuous timeframe. This study explored Korean physical educators’ engagement and success in the community of practice that has been created and sustained by teachers in region.
Method: A purposeful sample of six physical educators who were involved in creating and leading the physical educators’ professional learning community in Korea participated in this case study. They (F = 2, M = 4) were either members or facilitators of the community. This study collected several data: semi-structured one-on-one interviews, artifacts (e.g., any materials or website information regarding the professional learning community), and researcher’s journals. Each interview lasted about an hour and all interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Researcher’s journals were taken during and after each interview. Content analysis and constant comparative analysis were utilized to analyze the data. Trustworthiness and credibility of the data were examined and maintained through triangulation, peer review and debriefing, and member checking.
Analysis/Results: Four themes were emerged from the data collected in this study associated with participants’ perspectives and experiences in their learning community: 1) passion for good teaching, 2) widening professional network, 3) collaborating for teaching resources, and 4) expanding opportunities via technology.
Conclusions: Physical education teachers in this study who developed and actively engaged in the professional learning community demonstrated their strong passion to meet teachers’ needs for effective and good teaching. They collaborated to search, develop, and share diverse ideas of teaching resources, which contributed to increase of interactions between teachers in the community as well as to sustain the community. In addition, utilizing diverse technologies was beneficial for teachers to be actively engaged in the community. These teachers’ experiences in the collaborative learning community led to the development of empowerment, ownership and confidence in their teaching. This study supports Wenger’s (2015) elements of community of practice as an effective form of CPD for physical educators: domain, community, and practice.
Physical Fitness and Academic Performance in Chinese High School Students
Lingsong Kong, Southern Connecticut State University; Qingqing Yu, Lianyungang Teachers College; Weiwei Jia, Shanghai Experimental School; Xueke Zhang, Shanghai New Putuo Primary School
Background/Purpose: The researches have shown that higher-level Physical fitness (PF), especially the cardiorespiratory fitness, is related to better academic performance (AP). However, few of researches have focused on the population of high school students, most of which were conducted in the United States and some European countries. Chinese high school students face extreme academic pressure due to the competitive college entrance examination, which makes high school become a special stage across the learning career. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between PF and AP in Chinese high school students.
Method: The participants of this study are 526 (252 males and 274 females) students from a Chinese urban high school. All the participants took the PF test in the last two weeks of the 2019 Spring semester, which includes body mass index, 50-meter dash, sit and reach, standing long jump, pull-ups and 1000-meter endurance run for males or curl-ups and 800-meter endurance run for females. The Chinese national students’ physical fitness criteria was used to evaluate the performance of the PF test. The average grade of Chinese language, Mathematics, and English language in the final exams of the 2019 Spring semester was used to represent the AP of the students. Both the PF and AP test scores were transformed into standardized scores when performing the analysis. The statistical significance was set at P < .05.
Analysis/Results: The descriptive statistics showed that the prevalence of physical unfitness in the sample was 31.4% in body composition, 0.8% in speed, 1.5% in flexibility, 14.8% in explosive power, 42.4% in muscle endurance, and 5.0% in cardiorespiratory endurance. The Pearson correlation analysis revealed that body composition, explosive power, muscle endurance, and cardiorespiratory endurance (r = 0.1; r = 0.168; r = 0.122; r = 0.148, respectively, p < .05) are significantly related to the AP. Aiming at the different genders, the results showed that speed, flexibility, explosive power, muscle endurance, and cardiorespiratory endurance (r = 0.198; r = 0.161; r = 0.283; r = 0.127; r = 0.265, respectively, p < .05) were significantly related to the AP for female students, while no significant correlation between PF and AP for male students.
Conclusions: The findings suggest that body composition and muscle endurance need to be improved for these high school students. The PF of female students is more related to AP compared with the PF of male students. Teachers should pay more attention to improve the explosive power and cardiorespiratory endurance of female students by using related fitness practices in the PE class. More researches focusing on the relationship between PF and AP in Chinese high school students are needed in the future.
Preservice Teacher Socialization and Self-Efficacy While Learning to Teach
Jared Lawrence Anderson, Deb Sazama, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse
Background/Purpose: Research in physical education has explored self-efficacy and teacher socialization independently, however, research investigating the relationship of socialization and self-efficacy is lacking. The purpose of this study was to discover the relationship between preservice teachers (PTs) self-efficacy and their socialization while participating in an early field experience (EFE) class. Prior to the beginning of the study, informed consent was received.
Method: Participants were 28 college-age students (11 females and 17 males) enrolled in an on campus EFE course participated. The PTs completed the Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy, 2001) four times over the course of the semester. Following data analysis, nine PTs were purposefully selected (three with the highest mean change in self efficacy, three with a decrease, or lowest mean change, and three that displayed mean change) for interviews regarding their acculturation and professional socialization.
Analysis/Results: A Repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant differences with time, the self-efficacy constructs, and the interaction effect between time, self-efficacy, and time in program was also found to be significant. Four themes emerged from qualitative data analysis: (a)Time in physical education teacher education (PETE) influenced students with both positive and negative acculturation experiences; (b) hands on experience in PETE increased self-efficacy; (c) accountability of desired competencies increased self-efficacy; and (d) the self-efficacy survey acted as a positive reflective tool.
Conclusions: This study supports the idea that while acculturation is important to PT self-efficacy, professional socialization has a more significant impact on PT self-efficacy. Further research is needed to fully support these findings.
Preparation and Beliefs About SEL of Teacher Candidates
Morgan Daubert, Megan Adkins, University of Nebraska-Kearney; Nikolaus Stevenson, University of Nebraska at Omaha
Background/Purpose: Federal and state policy makers, school districts, and faculty recognize the importance of addressing the social-emotional learning (SEL) of students’ to assist with improving educational outcomes. Due to educational mandates at the Universities and maximum credit hour production for teacher preparation there leaves minimal amount of room for coursework for students in the educational field to be properly educated about best practices of implementing SEL in their classroom. The purpose of the research project was to evaluate preservice & first year teachers and assess general knowledge & comfort level of teaching social emotional learning in their classrooms.
Method: A total of 138 teachers (53 pre-professional, 85 first year teachers) from one Division II University participated in the study. The teachers represented elementary and secondary grade levels. All participants completed a 10- question online survey using a 5pt likert scale (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree) related to four categories a) knowledge of SEL, b) where the knowledge about SEL was received, c) level of training about SEL, d) feelings toward SEL & success of teaching. The survey was available to be taken one time for a three week time frame.
Analysis/Results: The Kruskal-Wallis Test on non-parametric data was utilized for data analysis, followed with a piecewise comparison, if a rejection on the null hypothesis (p < .05) existed to determine which group the rejection was present in. No statistical difference was found in questions related to the knowledge of, and understanding of SEL. The distributions of answers for questions related to teacher knowledge were the same across all groups, thus researchers failed to reject the null hypothesis with p-values of 0.993, 0.844, 0.456, 0.795, and 0.07 respectively. Self-management & self-awareness were categories in which participants indicated the desire to learn and receive additional assistance in teaching to their classes.
Conclusions: All participants felt they received an appropriate education through their coursework at their University in relation to SEL and teaching SEL to students. This indicates University faculty are incorporating SEL into all teacher education coursework without a stand alone course. Participants felt they received adequate professional development about SEL but the University should focus on self-management to assist in preparing future teachers. Future studies will include the expansion to additional Universities, and evaluation of perception of change in importance of teaching SEL skills to children prior and after being required to move into distance education setting due to COVID-19.
Preservice Physical Education Teachers’ Occupational Commitment and Intention to Quit
Jingwen Liu, California State University, Fullerton; Xiaofen D. KeatingF, The University of Texas at Austin
Background/Purpose: There has been a decreasing number of enrollments in physical education teacher education programs (PETE). Teacher educators have reported limited time and resources for retaining preservice physical education teachers (PPETs). These findings warrant a close examination of PPETs’ occupational commitment and quitting intentions. Previous studies examined broader concepts such as the various types of motivation for teaching and influencing factors, strategies, and barriers of PPETs’ retention. To date, it is unclear how PPETs’ occupational commitment and intention to quit change over the course of their initial PETE program, and whether there is a gender difference. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the differences in occupational commitment and intention to quit among PPETs by gender and class standing.
Method: A total of 461 PPETs from 54 PETE programs in the U.S. participated in this study (Mage = 21.51 years, SDage = 3.14 years). The sample included 261 male and 200 female PPETs and consisted of 125 freshman and sophomore, 137 junior, and 199 senior students. Occupational commitment and intention to quit the teaching career were measured by the pre-validated questionnaires of occupational commitment and intention to quit, respectively (Kassen & Chiu, 2011). In addition, demographic information of age, gender, and class standing was collected.
Analysis/Results: A two-way MANOVA was carried out in SPSS 26 to examine the differences in gender, class standing, and their interaction. For intention to quit, there was a significant interaction between gender and class standing, Pillai’s trace = .022, p = .042. Among freshman, sophomore, and junior students, male students reported significantly higher intention to quit than female students, p = .029 (freshman and sophomore), p < .001 (junior). No significant gender difference was found among senior students. This was confirmed by that senior female students reported a significantly higher intention to quit than junior female students, p = .012. Male students’ intention to quit did not change significantly over the course of four years. For occupational commitment, no significant interaction was found. Females reported significantly higher occupational commitment than males, F(1, 461) = 13.955, p < .001. Class standing also revealed significant differences, F(2, 461) = 5.272, p = .005. A post hoc analysis showed that occupational commitment decreased as class standing increased. Freshmen and sophomore students reported significantly higher occupational commitment than senior students, p = .014.
Conclusions: Teacher educators need to develop retention interventions as early as year one, especially for male PPETs. Teacher educators should also make a particular effort to retain female PPETs during their junior year. Researchers should consider gender and class standing simultaneously when examining related topics. Future research needs to further identify factors associated with gender and class standing differences in PPETs’ occupational commitment and intention to quit, in order to aid the retention endeavors.
Remote Lesson Study as Continuing Professional Development for PE Teachers
Jeffrey Allan Colburn, Robert Knipe III, Brooke Doherty, University of Texas at Austin; Rachyl Jane Stephenson, Unviersity of Wisconsin-La Crosse; Xiaofen D. KeatingF, University of Texas at Austin
Background/Purpose: The continuing professional development (CPD) of physical education teachers (PETs) is an ongoing important research agenda due to its potential impact to improve the learning outcomes for PE students. Unfortunately, there remains a gap between what we know about effective CPD, and the larger reality for PETs that often does not consider their needs as PETs, nor as adult learners.
This study was designed to build off of previous studies regarding PET’s successful CPD in learning communities, however, is among the first to use andragogy-based remote LS as a form of CPD for PETs. LS is a collaborative and cyclical process by which members of a learning community come together to research, plan, teach, observe, and reflect on the lesson taught, as a way to understand how students think and respond to lesson tasks. LS has shown powerful influence in core academic subjects all around the globe but has yet to become a well-known style of CPD within PE.
This study was framed with andragogy, a theory of adult learning, that has shown promise in other professional areas such as nursing and other medical fields
Method: This multiple case study design explored how five inservice elementary PETs learned in andragogy-based LS. Participants were selected using purposive sampling to depict elementary PETs at various stages of their careers. Data collection included pre-, mid-, and post interviews, remote online group meetings, online documents as vehicles for collaboration and lesson planning, and observations of PETs’ students’ responses to the online-delivered collaborative lesson.
Analysis/Results: The data analysis for this project followed a thematic, collaborative qualitative analysis approach. The findings of the study had three major themes that emerged: (a) structure of LS influenced experience of CPD, (b) professional community of LS supported a natural adult learning environment, and (c) LS facilitated a depth of learning increasing professional and individual growth. Across these themes, participants perceived a depth that was uncommon to their previous CPD as they all taught within the unusual circumstances of crisis teaching during a pandemic.
Conclusions: The results of this project are in line with previous research regarding successful PETs’ learning in professional communities, in that all participants reported that developing trust and respect in the group was a key to more in-depth conversations and productive collaborative work. Interestingly, the facilitators, employing principles of andragogy, played a strong role in helping the group to gain a sense of trust, mutual respect, and commitment to excellent teaching and learning. This study shows that PETs’ marginality may have made LS implementation even more valuable than in other content areas establishing LS as a viable structure for the ongoing CPD of PETs.
Research on Teachers, Teaching and Teacher Preparation in Physical Education: A Bibliometric Analysis
Adam Keath, Winthrop University; James D. Wyant, West Virginia University; Junhyung Baek, Gyeong-In National University of Education; Emi Tsuda, West Virginia University
Background/Purpose: Quality Physical Education has been shown to provide a myriad of benefits in the physical, affective, social, and cognitive domains (Bailey, 2006). However, many of these benefits are predicated upon the preparation and performance of physical education teachers that serve these students. The purpose of this study was to conduct a 30-year examination of physical education research studies that have explored teachers, teaching, and teacher education. Two research questions guided the study: (a) What are the most influential teachers, teaching, and teacher education publications over the last 30 years? (b) What are the trends in research on teachers, teaching, and teacher education over the last 30 years?
Method: A bibliometric analysis was used to identify the most commonly cited research in the field of physical education. Data sources for the study were identified from the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection. Further, this study adopted Albort-Morant and Riberiro-Soriano’s (2016) bibliometric analytical approach by progressing through the following steps: (a) establish the search criteria, (d) determine the bibliographic information of interest, (c) code the data and (d) analyze the bibliographic information. A general search on the WoS database was conducted to capture all of the publications that focused on teachers, teaching, and teacher education research in the field of physical education from 1990 through July 15, 2020. The search process yielded 17,115 publications. The researchers then deductively coded the publications to pinpoint the top 20 most cited articles that focused on physical education, teachers, teaching, and teacher education. Kirk, MacDonald, and O’Sullivan’s (2006) characterization of teachers, teaching, and teacher education guided the coding process.
Analysis/Results: The top 20 list of publications on teachers, teaching, and teacher education over the past 30 years have amassed 2,565 citations, with an average of 85.5 citations per year. 2016–2018 represents the most active years for citations of publications from the top 20 list. Papastergiou’s (2009) article on the potential of computer and video games for health and physical education is the most cited article. The most common themes that emerged from the top 20 studies were teacher socialization, teacher preparation, motivational strategies, and feedback. Systematic reviews were the most commonly used research methodology to examine the topic. The Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology was the most represented journal outlet among the influential list with 5 publications.
Conclusions: While many strategies have been discovered to improve teaching and teacher education over the last 30 years, there is still an ever-changing need to adapt to the generational needs of today’s students. The consensus from this analysis revealed an emphasis on socialization factors that influence best practices, shortcomings, and support systems. The literature identified in this review provides an impactful framework for preservice programs and practicing physical educators to reflect upon their teaching.
Social and Emotional Learning Among Preschoolers During Outdoor Play
Marcia A. Rosiek, Coastal Carolina University; Ben DysonF, Diane L. GillF, Erin J Reifsteck, Jennifer L. Etnier, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Background/Purpose: Preschoolers are known to spend hours each day engaged in play. Play for preschoolers contributes to physical activity (PA) and is known to be important for successful growth, socialization, and cognitive development. The outdoor environment offers many types of stimuli that encourage other forms of play that the indoors cannot provide. It adds to daily physical activity (PA) levels, socialization, and opportunities for learning outside of the classroom. Social and emotional learning (SEL) is a process of learning to manage emotions, feel and show empathy for others, establish positive relationships, and make responsible decisions. SEL is integral for early childhood development and provides a foundation for future academic success (Bridgeland, Bruce, & Hariharan, 2013; Denham & Brown, 2010). The purpose of this study was to investigate SEL competencies among preschoolers during play in the outdoor environment.
Method:
Participants & Setting
Participants included 26 preschool age (3–5) children, two certified teachers, and the director at an Early Childhood Education Center (ECEC) located in the Southeast US.
Research Design
The case study was conducted over eight weeks, including four weeks of piloting. An a priori approach was used to observe specific occurrences of the five key competencies outlined by CASEL.org (CASEL, 2019). The observational field notes followed the Schatzman and Strauss (1973) model for writing field notes. The researcher was the main instrument for qualitative data collection.
Data Collection
Observations and outdoor conversations were video recorded during piloting, then primarily hand-written by the researcher during the morning and afternoon outdoor play sessions. Researcher journaling and formal interviews were used in addition to the field notes.
Data Analysis
Data analysis included a theoretical thematic analysis (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). In addition, a content analysis was used for interpretation of the textual data. Trustworthiness was established by introducing researcher positionality, peer debriefing, rich description of the participants and the setting, extended time spent involved in the setting, and triangulation of the data.
Analysis/Results: Three themes were drawn through analysis of field notes, the researcher’s journal, and interview data and included: 1) the outdoor environment provides opportunities to practice SEL, 2) social interaction during outdoor play promotes SEL, and 3) teachers support SEL during outdoor play.
Conclusions: Outdoor play provides opportunities for preschoolers to be active and social. These findings indicate that children can and do practice SEL competencies during play in the outdoor environment, often without the assistance of a teacher. Time spent in outdoor play encourages preschoolers to use SEL competencies to build relationships and solve problems, and allows teachers to mediate when necessary.
State-Level Accountability Systems in Physical Education: A Multiple Case Study
Emi Tsuda, James D. Wyant, Eloise M. ElliottF, Junghun Han, West Virginia University
Background/Purpose: The Every Child Success Act (ESSA, 2015) formally recognized physical education as part of a well-rounded education. It is now important for physical education to demonstrate evidence of student learning to show the impact physical educators are making on students. Up until now, the lack of accountability systems in physical education has created questions regarding student learning (Rink & Williams, 2003). At present, approximately 20% of states have an accountability system in place (Tsuda et al., 2020). To promote accountability systems, understanding the development process, and the strengths and weaknesses of current accountability systems is critical. The purpose of this study was to explore the process of developing and implementing accountability systems and strengths/weaknesses of those systems for three states (GA, OH, and SC). Three research questions guided the study; (a) What was the process of developing accountability systems?; (b) What are the barriers and facilitators of developing and implementing accountability systems?; (c) What are the recommendations for developing and implementing accountability systems?
Method: The research design was a multiple case study (Yin, 2009), and data sources include semi-structured interviews and publicly accessible and shared documentation. Participants were recruited using snowball sampling. A total of 10 state representatives participated in the study (GA n = 3; OH n = 4; SC n = 3). Interviews lasted 40–100 minutes. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Publicly accessible and shared documentations included reports, legislation, and literature were analyzed. Triangulation of the data, member checking of the interview transcriptions, and peer debriefing established the trustworthiness.
Analysis/Results: A constant comparative method (Boeije, 2010) and content analyses (Bowen, 2009) were used to interpret interview data and documentation. Results are discussed using the logic model, which is a graphic depiction that frames what resources (input) and support (activities) are needed to collect student learning data (outputs), what short-, intermediate, and long-term outcomes are produced through the system, and what factors moderate those processes (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018). Consistencies and variabilities were found across the cases in each element of the model. Several participants claimed the importance of having legislation in place, and to do so, working with politicians in the state is vital. To translate legislation into practice, providing quality professional development helps teachers get on-board. Unless teachers buy-in, they are less likely to accurately implement the data collection (outputs). When outputs were successfully completed, there are numerous positive outcomes. In the short-term, the outputs not only illustrate the impact of physical education to the public, but other educators also treated physical educators better. For the intermediate outcome, teachers navigate their curriculum for improvement. Over the long-term, state mandates for data collection ensures that physical education remains in school and helps to save jobs for physical educators. Feasibility was a key moderator of the system with an emphasis on technological tools, financial and human resources.
Conclusions: As one of the participants commented, “what is not measured does not count. What does not count does not receive support.” Developing accountability systems require collective efforts in the field.
Teaching During a Pandemic: Physical Educators’ Reflections on Teaching Remotely
Brandon B. Foye, Boston University; Michelle Grenier, University of New Hampshire
Background/Purpose: To educators nationwide, the spring of 2020 was marked by the coronavirus pandemic, causing schools nationwide to shift to remote teaching. This study documents experiences of fifteen K-12 physical educators to understand what they learned through this experience.
Method: Fifteen physical education teachers engaged in semi-structured interviews conducted over Zoom videoconferencing software during spring of 2020. Interviews ranged from 30–60 minutes. Participants included six secondary, three K-8, five elementary and one adapted physical education teacher. Questions centered on teachers’ experiences with transitioning to remote learning. All interviews were recorded and transcribed. The co-researchers individually coded the transcripts, and then discussed themes that emerged.
Analysis/Results: Finding 1: Simplicity and Student Autonomy led to successful student outcomes. Simplicity manifested in several ways. Some teachers discussed transferring previously established routines from the in-person classroom to the virtual classroom. Other teachers spoke of revisiting material that was previously taught, rather than attempting to cover new material. Also, many teachers worked to streamline their content delivery to make it as user-friendly as possible. Short instructional videos and well-organized webpages became priorities for the participants. Student autonomy was another common theme associated with perceived success. Many teachers tried to offer a wide variety of activities to appeal to a broad base of students. These offerings frequently included more holistic wellness options, such as mindfulness or goal setting, rather than relying solely on physical activity.
Finding 2: Student Accountability was the greatest challenge to remote teaching. Most teachers reported that participation in physical education was optional, which led to a perception of minimal leverage to reach students who were unresponsive. As a result, many opted to exert their effort on the students who were engaging, rather than those who weren’t. Another challenge was that several teachers requested students submit physical activity logs, but acknowledged that accountability was problematic, as they suspected some students were fabricating activity records. Finally, many teachers reported great success with students submitting video evidence. However, this was problematic for one teacher whose school forbids video submissions, and also highlights inequity for students who lack access to reliable technology.
Finding 3: A Lack of Student Socialization presented itself in these conditions. Participants overwhelmingly stated that student-to-student and teacher-to-student connections were the most significant loss in the transition to remote teaching. Numerous teachers that hosted live Zoom classes reported regularly devoting portions of the period to allowing students to informally chat, to compensate for the loss of social interaction.
Conclusions: With the onset of remote/online learning in physical education, this research provides insight into the experiences of teachers’ adjustment to this pedagogical change. While ideally, teachers would receive copious training and preparation prior to beginning instruction, this unique circumstance did not allow for such conditions. These fifteen teachers approached virtual teaching in a variety of ways, but ultimately, many reported similar experiences. The results of this research can be applied in the near future to help chart success in online teaching, as well as understanding instructional gaps in teaching.
The Effects of the Physical Best Health-Related Fitness Curriculum on Physical Activity Levels and Knowledge Retention of Elementary Physical Education Students
Joe Deutsch, Roman Waldera, Jenny M. Linker, Ethan Schnabel, North Dakota State University
Background/Purpose: Daily physical activity(PA) benefits children’s and adolescents’ overall health while reducing the likelihood of obesity. Elementary school physical education (PE) classes not only provide opportunities to participate in PA but also to build the knowledge and skills needed to be physically active across one’s lifetime. Physical Best (PB) is one curriculum physical educators might use to develop students’ physical literacy and skills. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of PB curriculum inclusion on elementary PE students’ activity levels and intensities.
Method: Activity levels of elementary school students (n = 75, males = 30, females = 45) were recorded throughout six normally scheduled physical education class periods. Three activity games were each paired once with a PB fitness concept-based warm-up activity and once with a traditional warm-up activity. Activity levels were recorded with movement tracking bracelets and heart monitors; which, provided averages for movements and time in and above target zone (TZ) per class period. A health-related fitness knowledge (HRFK) assessment was given to students pre- and post-intervention to assess changes in fitness knowledge. Repeated measures ANOVAs were utilized to compare sex and grade differences in relation to Movements, TZ minutes, and HRFK assessment scores.
Analysis/Results: Overall, children had significantly more movements on the PB days compared to traditional (p < .05) and HRFK assessment scores increased from pre- to post-intervention (p < .05).
Conclusions: PB lessons can be used by PE teachers to promote physical activity participation and develop conceptual fitness knowledge.
The Impact of Integrating Mathematics Into Elementary Physical Education
Brenna Cosgrove, Sheri J. BrockF, Peter A. HastieF, Auburn University
Background/Purpose: Positive findings regarding integrated curriculum in the classroom setting (Chen & Yang, 2019; Kurt & Pehlivan, 2013; Vars, 1996) and movement integration during the school day (Donnelly et al., 2009; Duncan, Birch, & Woodfield, 2012; Mahar et al., 2006; Reed et al., 2010), suggest a movement-based setting, such as physical education, could be another site for successful integration. Of the few empirical articles integrating classroom content into physical education, two quantitative studies provided guidance for the present study (Cecchini & Carriedo, 2020; Derri et al., 2010). These studies found that integration in physical education resulted in increases in academic performance. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of integrating mathematics into physical education on mathematics performance.
Method: One-hundred and thirty-two fourth grade students from four physical education classes at two schools participated in this study. In-tact physical education classes were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups. In this seven-week study, ten-minute mathematics activities (Cosgrove & Richards, 2019) were integrated into the intervention group’s physical education classes while the control group participated in regular physical education. Data collection included three assessments of mathematics performance: mathematics grades, mathematics standardized test scores, and mathematics unit assessment scores. These data were collected pre- and post-intervention from both the intervention and control groups.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using a mixed nested ANOVA. Results showed that across all measures of mathematics performance students in both groups significantly improved from pre- to post-intervention. Significant differences based on the interaction of time (pre-/posttest) and group (intervention/control) were evident in mathematics unit assessment scores, where the intervention group outperformed the control group. No significant differences based on the interaction of time and group were observed in mathematics grades and mathematics standardized test scores.
Conclusions: Objective measures of academic performance have been widely excluded from the literature regarding integration in physical education. To address this gap, this study sought to examine the effects of integrating mathematics into physical education on mathematics performance. These encouraging findings support integration in physical education as a means of improving academic performance in the classroom setting. Results showed that the intervention group saw significantly greater improvements in the mathematics unit assessment compared to the control group, which confirmed previous research (Cecchini & Carriedo, 2020; Derri et al., 2010). However, there were no significant differences between the groups in the global measures of mathematics performance of mathematics grades and mathematics standardized test scores, which could be explained by the study timeline and content covered. Future studies should consider increasing the intervention length, integrating other subject areas into physical education, and continuing to objectively measure academic performance.
The Importance of Relationships in Education: Reflections of Current Educators
Grace Macomber, Cathy McKayF, James Madison University
Background/Purpose: Relationships in education are said to be just as important as the content that students are learning. In the words of Rita Pierson, the well-known “Every Kid Needs a Champion” Ted Talk Speaker, “ … kids don’t learn from people they don’t like.” (Pierson, 2013). Relationships are more than just knowing the student’s names; they encompass mutual respect, building trust, and feelings of safety. Building effective relationships with students can maximize their learning inside and outside of school. Thus, the purpose of this study was to seek to understand and describe current educators’ perceptions of building strong relationships in the classroom.
Method: This study utilized a phenomenological approach, and a purposeful sample of 35 current educators acted as participants. Data in this study were in the form of reflective writing responses. Writing allows teachers to evaluate feelings, perplexities, and understandings, and is a means to support teacher comprehension (Bangert-Drowns, Hurley, & Wilkinson, 2004). Utilizing reflective writing responses allows participants to make meaning of personal experiences (McKay, Haegele, & Block, 2018). Reflective writing responses were collected from each participant through open-ended questions sent via an online document that allowed participants to complete the questions on their own time.
Analysis/Results: After data were collected, a three-step inductive thematic analysis was employed. The thematic analysis revealed four interrelated themes: (a) “students are motivated to learn when strong relationships are formed”: the intersection of motivation and relationships; (b) “if they don’t trust you and don’t think you care, learning decreases”: the value of trust in learning; (c) “teachers had a great impact on me that I admire deeply- these teachers are the reason I went into education”: paying it forward and (d) “they can always google the content”: the importance of social emotional development. The first theme highlighted relationships as a vital underpinning of student motivation, engagement, and achievement. The second theme focused on the role of trust in education, and the correlation between trust and learning. The third theme displayed the power and impact of relationships in education, some which impact the life trajectory and career pathways of students. And finally, the fourth theme highlights that that content will always be secondary to the classroom environment, and supports the profound need to develop quality humans who can collaborate, work in teams, and function in an ever-changing social world.
Conclusions: It is important to examine teachers’ perceptions of relationships in education, and to analyze the impact relationships can have on future professionals. Importantly, impactful experiences from the years of experience of the educators surveyed were often listed in the reflective responses, bringing to light the powerful moments that relationships can have on both teachers and students. In addition, many critical moments were brought to life in the reflection responses, bringing clarity to the depth of the teacher involvement in the lives of their students, and the manner in which these events have a lasting impact on both parties involved.
Tracking Physical Activity in Adventure Based Learning: The Next “Steps”?
James Ressler, Zachary Wahl-AlexanderF, Northern Illinois University; Jared Lawrence Anderson, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse
Background/Purpose: Obesity rates have been rapidly rising among youth, causing PETE faculty to place a greater emphasis on ensuring higher levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) within physical education classes. There have been several widespread studies in the last 25 years exploring in-class physical activity in physical education contexts. Unfortunately, research indicates students are oftentimes sedentary, not achieving 50% of class time engaged in MVPA. More recently, scholars have begun to explore the impact of curricular models and pedagogical approaches on physical activity levels. Specifically, employing Teaching Games for Understanding, Sport Education or behavior modification techniques can positively impact student activity. Adventure Based Learning (Sutherland & Legge, 2016) is another model that emphasizes teaching and learning in the affective domain. To date, little is known about ABL to provide adequate physical activity while maintaining an emphasis on interpersonal relationships and interactions. The purpose of this study was to explore students physical activity patterns throughout an ABL unit.
Method: Participants in this study were 75 undergraduate students enrolled in an ABL course at a university in the Midwestern portion of the United States. The course involved 16, 50-minute lessons with activities organized for participants that emphasized themes of building community, intra- and inter-personal communication, establishing full-value norms, and cooperation. The instructor of this course was an experienced facilitator of over 15 years in ABL in settings that included K-12 physical education, higher education, and summer sport camps. Physical activity was assessed by using NL-1000 accelerometers during two separate 16-lesson units to track step count. Accelerometers were attached before the start of the lesson, and were worn throughout the entirety of each class period.
Analysis/Results: The average step count per lesson was 1219 per student and an average of 20.3 steps per minute across the 16 lesson units. Male and female participants had similar step counts per lesson. Lessons with higher step counts were those that integrated instant activities with simple and straightforward instructions with regular, brief checks for understanding. Activities that promoted more physical activity in ABL sessions were selected icebreakers and cooperative games.
Conclusions: The focus of ABL programming is naming and developing affective and social outcomes. A relatively low step count emerged when compared to other instructional models and pedagogical approaches. However, step counts per minute are lower but less noticeable relative to other models.
ABL facilitators can identify specific behaviors to promote more physical activity in lessons that dually benefit ABL and PA outcomes. Planning and implementation of ABL as a unit of instruction should include time to establish norms of the pedagogical approach (instructional model) and some differences compared with norms of other content areas and models employed in a PE program.
Physical Activity outcomes need to be contextualized in ABL programming to avoid a reduction or erosion of tenets central to effective ABL instruction. Future research should explore MVPA and step counts specific to segments of ABL could better illustrate the components of teaching and learning that are least and more conducive to high levels of physical activity.
Unintentional Outsourcing? Teachers’ Use of an Externally Provided “Blended-Learning” Curriculum
Kacie Lanier, Chad M. Killian, Georgia State University
Background/Purpose: Blended learning (BL) uses online modules to expand learning beyond the school day, which should allow for extended active-learning opportunities during face-to-face classes. This feature represents a key potential mechanism for increasing physical activity opportunities during physical education (PE). However, it also presents a departure from traditional pedagogical approaches in PE and requires an expanded set of teacher skills and competencies to implement optimally. Despite the potential of BL, there is limited research that documents the extent of BL usage in PE or that contributes to building an evidence-base for effective practice in PE. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore how teachers applied BL within their secondary PE classes, and particularly how implementation may vary during use of one externally provided BL curriculum.
Method: This study employed a qualitative descriptive design. A total of 28 PE teachers from 12 high schools in two Midwestern states participated in this study. All used or were using the same externally provided BL health-related fitness (HRF) curriculum. Semi-structured, open-ended phone interviews were conducted, audio recorded, then transcribed verbatim. Data were initially coded using a standard interpretive approach grounded in inductive analysis and constant comparison methodology. During subsequent deductive analysis, the Mixed Instructional eXperience (MIX; Margulieux, et al., 2016) taxonomy served as the guiding framework to facilitate categorizing teacher application of the curriculum.
Analysis/Results: Four main themes were generated. First, the curriculum was implemented in a variety of courses and settings, not all of which had an HRF focus. It was most often used to add supplemental HRF content to traditional team-sports courses. The curriculum was integrated into a life guarding course, served as PE credit for students in band and ROTC, and acted as an online substitute for face-to-face summer PE. Teachers’ involvement was mainly passive. The extent of most teachers’ involvement was introducing students to the curriculum, helping students log-in, and prompting progress through the modules. Several teachers mentioned attempting to integrate online content into face-to-face lessons, however most expressed difficulty doing so due to the automated nature of the learning management system (LMS). Teacher passivity effectively outsourced their HRF content to an external provider. Teachers’ responses indicated that few provided the minimum 25% of teacher instructional support to qualify as BL (Margulieux, et al., 2016). Rather the approach was most aptly categorized as “technology-transmitted,” which is defined as technology-delivered instructional support while students receive content. Finally, several factors may have contributed to teachers’ passive implementation. The automated LMS inhibited teachers from dictating the rhythm of the online modules, which made it more difficult to blend online content during face-to-face classes. Most teachers also acknowledged limited experience previously applying BL pedagogies and few had received professional development (PD) support.
Conclusions: To optimize BL in PE, and minimize an unintentional outsourcing effect, school districts should provide PD opportunities to support teachers’ use of innovative pedagogies and promote alignment with course objectives. This could also be addressed by PE teacher education programs more readily preparing teachers to appropriately use technology-enhanced, innovative pedagogies like BL.
Validation of the Resource Management Strategies Scales Among Preservice Physical Education Teachers
Jiling LiuF, Ping XiangF, Ron E. McBrideF, Texas A&M University; Han ChenF, Valdosta State University
Background/Purpose: Self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies are critical to academic success. Among a few assessment instruments of SRL, the Motivated Strategies of Learning Questionnaire, especially the Cognitive and Metacognitive Learning Strategies Scales, has been frequently examined and implemented across disciplines. Its sub-scale, the Resource Management Strategies Scales (RMSS), however, has received little attention. The RMSS assesses four SRL strategies including Time and Study Environment, Effort Regulation, Peer Learning, and Help Seeking. Validating this instrument may assist educators to assess students’ use of learning strategies and design SRL-based instructions. This study, therefore, examines construct validity and scale reliability of the RMSS among preservice physical education (PE) teachers.
Method: Participants included 475 preservice PE teachers (Mage = 22.93, SD = 3.93; Females = 276, Males = 184) from five teacher preparation programs in the Southwest U.S. The majority of ethnic groups were White (210; 45.7%), followed by African-American (149; 32.4%), Hispanic (71; 15.4%), Asian (4; .9%), and others (18; 3.9%). All participants completed the 18-item RMSS (Pintrich, 1991) on a 7-point Likert scale, from 1 “not at all true of me” to 7 “very true of me.” One sample item measuring Time and Study Environment states, “I usually study in a place where I can concentrate on my course work.”
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using SPSS and MPlus. Data screening resulted in 460 cases remaining in the final analysis. Descriptive statistics showed all items were approximately normally distributed (Skewness = −1.24—.69, Kurtosis = −.1.10–2.54). Most items were moderately correlated (rs = −.23—.59). The original proposed 4-factor CFA model did not fit the data, (χ2(149) = 451.04, p < .01; CFI = .85; RMSEA = .07; SRMR = .07). EFA parallel analysis was then conducted, and three latent factors emerged. Based on the factor loading patterns, CFA and bi-factor CFA models were compared and model respecifications performed. With three cross-loading items removed, a 3-factor CFA model generated marginally acceptable model fit indices (χ2(101) = 256.64, p < .01; CFI = .91; RMSEA = .06; SRMR = .06). Scale reliability (ω) values for the three factors are .76, .81, and .83. Its nested 3-factor bi-factor model fit the data with better indices (χ2(88) = 209.61, p < .01; CFI = .93; RMSEA = .05; SRMR = .04; and the Satorra-Bentler test was significant, p < .01); however, the second sub-factor of this bifactor model lacks interpretability.
Conclusions: Although the original 4-factor model is theoretically sound, it does not fit the current data. Among this group of preservice PE teachers, a 3-factor model appears to be the best choice. Based on our results, we suggest interpreting the three factors as Ineffective Time & Effort Management Strategies, Effective Time & Effort Management Strategies, and Collaborative Learning Strategies. For future research, we recommend validating the RMSS among other preservice PE teacher populations in the U.S. We also suggest colleagues and questionnaire developers invest more effort in revising the scales to effectively measure the theoretical constructs proposed in the SRL literature.
Wisconsin Physical Education Teachers’ Job Satisfaction and Its Correlates
Yoonsin Oh, Saori Braun, Tyler Vogt, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire
Background/Purpose: There has been an increase in teacher shortage and a high attrition rate of teachers in the state of Wisconsin (WI). The purpose of this study was to investigate WI physical education (PE) teachers’ overall job satisfaction and strengths of the correlates/themes (i.e., teaching environment, professional development, coaching, student relations, workload, coworkers relations, salary/benefits, administration, parents, resources) that were identified previously.
Method: A total of 199 Wisconsin K-12 PE teachers participated in the study during Fall 2018 semester. Each participant took a 51-item Qualtrics online survey. Questions were adopted and modified from the physical educators’ job satisfaction survey (Mäkelä, Hirvensalo and Whipp, 2014). Fourteen participants who did not complete at least 50% of the survey were excluded from the analyses. Subsequently, N = 185 was our sample size. The original overall job satisfaction rating (1 = extremely dissatisfied; 10 = extremely satisfied) was dichotomized using the mean value of 7 as a cutpoint. A binomial logistic regression was employed to examine the impact of identified themes on individuals’ overall job satisfaction. IBM SPSS version 24.0 was utilized for all analyses.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics revealed 49.2% and 44.9% were males and females, respectively, with 95.1% identified as Caucasions, 48.6% reported as having a Master’s Degree as their highest level of education, and 69.7% having coaching responsibilities (5.9% mandated). Thirteen percent reported as oftentimes considered changing their current job. Mean (standard deviation) years of teaching PE was 16.22 (10.30) years. Average class size was 24 students per class with 6.76 (2.18) classes taught each day on average. The binomial logistic regression revealed that higher the Administrative support they received (p = .008), the better the student relations (p = .011), the more adequate the workload was (p = .037), the higher the overall job satisfaction. Overall, 73.5% of the observed job satisfaction was correctly classified by the model (Nagelkerke R-squared = .401). Teachers expressed what satisfied and dissatisfied them at work in their own words at the end of the survey. Common themes from their answers were Act 10 changes from the previous WI governor Walker, changes on their retirement packages, and state requirements including addition of reading and literacy strategies, student learning objectives, educator effectiveness, curriculum focus groups, IEP demands, and other core subject priority over physical education. A lot of these “extra” responsibilities have been put in place by the WI Department of Public Instruction. What was most apparent in their comments, was that these standards and expectations are not tailored to PE content, more focused toward benefiting core subjects.
Conclusions: The current study demonstrated that administrative support, student relations, and workload significantly correlated with overall job satisfaction of the WI PE teachers. Early education of preservice teachers on job duties within the profession as well as continued conversations regarding importance of PE between PE teachers, school principals, and district administration may increase or maintain job satisfaction levels to potentially reduce the attrition rate of educators.