Learning through informal spaces for technology integration: unpacking the nature of teachers’ learning and its implications for classroom pedagogy

ABSTRACT

The effectiveness and adequacy of formal professional development in equipping teachers with competencies required to transform pedagogy and improve student learning using technologies is often questioned globally, including in Ghana. Many teachers now learn informally to complement formal professional development; however, further research is needed to understand how they learn and what knowledge they actively seek to support technology integration. To that end, this qualitative study used open-ended questionnaires and interviewed 20 Ghanaian teachers to investigate their informal learning activities and knowledge acquisition preferences for teaching with technology. The findings revealed that teachers learn from both school and non-school activities to mainly acquire technical skills, leading to the predominant use of technology as a productivity tool to supplement routine teacher-centred, traditional teaching tasks. We suggest the need for professional development that reshapes teachers’ beliefs and interests towards learning activities that additionally develop their pedagogical knowledge and enable technology use in a more constructivist approach.

KEYWORDS:

• Teacher informal learning
• knowledge and skills
• professional development
• teaching practices
• technology integration

Introduction

This study investigates the nature of informal learning activities that teachers engage in to gain knowledge and skills, as well as its implications for technology integration in teaching practices. The primary goal of the study is to contribute to the development of teacher informal learning practices, promote the effective use of digital technologies and improve educational quality in schools. Ensuring quality education requires the development of teachers’ learning, knowledge, and self-efficacy to enhance their teaching skills, transform pedagogical beliefs and mindsets to use technology in a constructivist manner that facilitates meaningful instruction and advances student learning (Abedi, Prestridge, and Geelan 2022; Ackah-Jnr et al. 2022).

The advent of digital technologies in education has opened new possibilities for transforming pedagogical approaches and supporting student learning in the modern digital era (Antonietti et al. 2023; Backfisch et al. 2020). Teachers, including those in Ghana, face increasing expectations in education policies and curricula to act as agents of change by incorporating technology as cognitive and pedagogical tools to facilitate constructivist or student-centred pedagogy in classrooms (Abedi 2023). Students in such constructivist pedagogy-driven classrooms are empowered to take an active role in their own learning process, using technology as an intellectual partner to construct their own knowledge and potentially improve cognitive outcomes (Ertmer and Ottenbreit-Leftwich 2010; Jonassen 2005). The acquisition of contemporary skills such as collaboration, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving, facilitated by the meaningful use of technology, is essential for promoting students’ active input and competitiveness in the current digital world (Fraillon et al. 2019).

The potential impact of technology on engaging and stimulating students’ learning is not solely dependent on the type of technology, teachers’ familiarity with it, or frequency of use. Of significant importance is not only the use of technology in instruction but also how it is integrated and the extent to which it transforms the learning experience, curriculum, and teaching activities (Fütterer et al. 2022; Wekerle, Daumiller, and Kollar 2022). Teachers’ professional development and learning are considered critical antecedents for the effective integration of technologies to promote student engagement, cognitive activation, and deep-level learning processes. Consequently, Mishra and Koehler (2006) proposed the need to enhance teachers’ technological, content, and pedagogical knowledge and skills simultaneously to attain proficiency in meeting these expectations of technology use in education.

Formal professional development programs have garnered significant attention from researchers, teachers, and educational authorities as a means of elevating teachers’ capacity and skills for their professional practice (Kyndt et al. 2016). When employed correctly, these programs can impact teachers’ beliefs, professional knowledge, teaching practices, and students’ learning (Desimone 2009; Martin et al. 2010). However, many formal professional development programs are insufficient to equip teachers with the knowledge and skills required to advance meaningful pedagogy with technology (Lawless and Pellegrino 2007; Tondeur et al. 2016). The evolving landscape of digital technologies, the perceived disconnect of formal professional development from the learning needs and professional interests of teachers, and challenges to its sustainability and scalability are among the key constraining factors identified in research (Jones and Dexter 2018; Tondeur et al. 2016). These limitations of formal professional development, including studies (e.g. Xianhan et al. 2022) that found an association between informal teacher learning and teachers’ technology integration, have prompted calls for greater attention on informal learning to supplement formal professional development programs (Evans 2019; Kyndt et al. 2016; López-Crespo and Gairín Sallán 2023).

While formal professional development has been touted as the main conduit to enhance teachers’ preparedness for the uptake of technology, research shows a considerable proportion of teachers now engage in informal learning to integrate technology (Abedi, Prestridge, and Geelan 2021; Barton and Dexter 2020; Jones and Dexter 2018). Albion and Tondeur (2018) claimed most learning activities that bring about changes in teachers’ practices and beliefs about technology integration tend to occur outside of formal professional development settings. Similarly, in a mixed-methods study examining the perceptions of four teachers concerning ICT professional development, Jones and Dexter (2018) identified that teachers highly valued and mostly engaged in informal learning, which played a substantial role in their learning to use technology. In a recent study, Xianhan et al. (2022) found that informal teacher learning activities, such as learning through colleague and student interaction, as well as learning through reflection and media, were associated with Chinese K-12 teachers’ technology integration intentions and practices.

Despite the benefits and growing popularity of informal learning, Lohman and Woolf (2001) and Lohman (2006) suggest teachers may find it challenging to engage in and harness their full opportunities to improve professional knowledge and skills, and most importantly, to respond to educational innovation and change. To increase the impact of informal learning on teachers’ teaching and student learning, systematic support is required, which should begin with a thorough understanding of the specific ways and characteristics of such teacher-learning activities (Lecat et al. 2019) and what basic needs satisfaction drive teachers’ engagement in informal practices. Despite the increase in research on informal learning, Kyndt et al. (2016) and Gairín Sallán et al. (2022) assert that more research is required to understand the nature of these learning activities and their impact on teaching and student learning in different national contexts. This is a gap that this study seeks to address in the context of Ghana.

Teacher professional learning for technology integration in Ghana

This study was conducted in Ghana, where the limitations of formal professional development for technology integration are also evident (Tsapali et al. 2021). Formal technology professional development has also received little policy and leadership attention and has remained elusive for many teachers. Efforts to support technology use in schools often prioritise expanding access to technologies rather than adequately preparing teachers for more effective instruction with technology (Abedi and Ackah-Jnr 2023). Local research on practicing teachers’ professional development for technology integration is limited (Tsapali et al. 2021). Even more scarce is research and knowledge about how teachers learn informally to teach with digital technologies, which according to Xianhan et al. (2022), has limited our understanding of the relationship between informal teacher learning and technology integration. This article responds to the dearth of existing literature on teachers’ informal learning for technology integration. It investigates how Ghanaian practicing teachers learn in informal settings and the types of knowledge they typically seek to support their teaching practices with digital technologies. Given the lack of specified formal professional development for technology integration, it becomes even more critical to gain insight into the ‘how’, ‘what’ and ‘why’ aspects of teachers’ informal learning activities that support competence for technology integration. An understanding of these informal learning dimensions and the knowledge most sought may offer implications for policymakers to develop bespoke interventions that enhance teachers’ continuous learning to complement limited formal professional development for meaningful digital technology use in schooling.

Literature review

Teachers’ informal learning

Lecat et al. (2019) described informal learning as learner-initiated and continuous learning activities that occur outside formal training and professional courses. Malcolm, Hodkinson, and Colley (2003) made a clear distinction between formal and informal learning along four dimensions: the learning process, location and setting, purpose, and content. According to their framework, informal learning is characterised by learning processes that are incidental to everyday activities, often occurring in settings such as the workplace, local community, or family. Malcolm et al. differentiated informal learning, which is typically driven by personal professional interests, from structured and instructor-controlled pedagogical approaches that are characteristic of formal teacher learning contexts.

In the field of teacher education, informal learning is defined as unstructured and less systematically supported learning activities that teachers engage in, resulting in a change in their professional knowledge, beliefs, and teaching behaviour (Hoekstra et al. 2009). While informal learning has gained significant scholarly attention recently (Kyndt et al. 2016), Hoekstra et al. (2009) raised an important question regarding the study of teacher informal learning. Most studies tend to confine informal learning to activities occurring within schools or teachers’ workplaces (Hoekstra et al. 2009; Lecat et al. 2019). However, others, such as Malcolm, Hodkinson, and Colley (2003), Clarke (2005) and Jacobs and Park (2009) argue for a broader perspective, considering informal learning to be ‘elastic’ as it can occur either at the workplace or outside the immediate physical working milieu. In this study, we adopt the latter perspective, recognising that informal learning should be understood and approached from various contexts, both within and outside the school, where individuals, including teachers themselves, influence the learning process and activities.

Typology of informal learning activities

This study draws on Jacobs and Park’s (2009) framework for categorising workplace and informal learning, which includes three key aspects: (1) the location of the learning, (2) the role of the trainer or others, and (3) the degree of planning involved.

Location of learning, degree of planning and the role of others in learning

A criterion commonly used for examining and categorising workplace and informal learning revolves around the location and setting of the learning (Malcolm, Hodkinson, and Colley 2003). Jacobs and Park (2009) proposed a two-tier classification for workplace learning location: (1) off-the-job learning, and (2) on-the-job learning. Off-the-job learning entails activities occurring outside the workplace or away from the actual work environment, while on-the-job learning refers to learning activities that transpire within the workplace setting.

The second dimension discussed by Jacobs and Park (2009) in the context of workplace and informal learning is the role of others in the learning process. This aspect focuses on the degree to which individuals interact with others during the learning experience, both in and out of the workplace. Depending on the role of others in the learning, informal learning can occur either individually or socially in collaboration with others. Informal learning can take place in social settings either individually or collaboratively, depending on the involvement of others. Individual learning involves self-directed learning with little input from a trainer or facilitator, whereas learning from and with others entails one-way or two-way interactions within or outside the workplace. Similarly, in their 2013 study, Noe et al. identified learning from oneself and learning from others as essential components within the framework of informal learning.

Jacobs and Park (2009) distinguished a third category of workplace and informal learning based on the degree of planning, which they classify as either unstructured or structured. This dimension concerns the extent to which a systematic approach is used to define and specify the intended learning outcomes. Unstructured planning is characterised by a lack of initial concern for the learning outcomes or methods used, whereas structured planning necessitates the specification of learning outcomes prior to determining the methods, content, and support required to achieve those outcomes.

While workplace and informal learning can be described and classified in these three key aspects, this study mainly adopts the dimension of learning location and setting to categorise Ghana’s teachers’ informal learning activities for technology integration.

Teacher knowledge and approaches to technology professional development

The evolving landscape of education and increasing demand for student-centred pedagogy have sparked discussions regarding the training and knowledge teachers need to use digital technologies in meaningful ways to further develop their teaching practices and deepen student learning. Professional development content that emphasises learning about specific technologies and supports technical skills development is often contrasted with that which prioritises pedagogical development. The long-standing focus of most professional development has been to ‘retool’ teachers, where ICT skills levels are ‘topped up’ to improve skills in specific ICT applications and tools to supplement regular curriculum practices (Daly, Pachler, and Pelletier 2009).

Advocates for technical skills-focused professional development argue teachers must first possess basic technical skills and an understanding of the technology itself before they can meaningfully integrate it to progress student learning (Angeli and Valanides 2018; Webb and Cox 2004). However, ‘technologised’ professional development with techno-centric aims is increasingly seen as outdated in meeting the changing needs of teachers and students (Prestridge 2008). Prestridge (2008) noted the inadequacy of technical skills training approaches in helping teachers develop pedagogical knowledge and fully grasp the transformative potential of technology in enhancing student learning. Professional development with a strong focus on technical skills tends to direct teachers towards employing technology for traditional and regimented teaching practices, without instigating significant changes in pedagogy and student learning outcomes (Daly, Pachler, and Pelletier 2009).

Contemporary arguments, including those by Ertmer and Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2013) and Willermark (2021) propose that teachers need more than basic technical skills to effectively incorporate technology into pedagogy and advance student learning. Hence, technology professional development should go beyond focusing solely on technical skills and instead foster teachers’ pedagogical capacity to meaningfully leverage technology for deep student learning processes. Mishra and Koehler (2006) argue professional development programs capable of transforming teachers’ pedagogy should integrate the acquisition of technical skills within a broader framework of developing pedagogical knowledge. The focus is shifting away from professional development with ‘techno-centric’ orientations, which merely support traditional practices to that which cultivates teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and beliefs and enables them to engage in more sophisticated and constructivist technology use that stimulates deep cognitive learning processes. The latter is a key indicator and measure of the quality of pedagogy with technology, rather than simply evaluating teachers’ familiarity, comfort, or frequency of using digital devices and software in the classroom (Antonietti et al. 2023; Backfisch et al. 2020).

Research methodology

Study design and data collection

The methodology used in this study addressed the research question of how Ghanaian teachers participate in informal learning activities, the knowledge and skills they commonly seek, and the implications for their classroom teaching practices with technology. A qualitative design approach was chosen to be most suitable because it enables the acquisition of exploratory and comprehensive data regarding individuals’ experiences of a particular phenomenon (Denzin and Lincoln 2018). The study included 20 teachers as the main data source and used purposeful and snowball sampling techniques for the selection of participants. The teachers were located across two educational districts in Ghana’s Eastern Region: Fanteakwa-North District, where five teachers were selected from three schools, and Nsawam-Adoagyiri Municipal, which had 15 teachers chosen from nine schools. A non-probability convenience sampling method was used to select the two districts based on their accessibility and ease of data collection from an available participant pool. This decision was made, in part, because of the inability of the researchers to travel to the field for data collection. The selection of the two districts was not intended for comparison; instead, it was used to offer diverse contexts and a more widespread perspective for examining the study phenomenon. The geographical spread of the teachers ensured a diverse representation and enhanced the generalisability of the findings.

Because of travel restrictions and school closures stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic, it was not feasible to conduct physical visits to the field for participant identification and recruitment. Snowball sampling was employed as an alternative method, with the initially identified participants referring and guiding the researchers to other potentially relevant participants. This sampling method gradually expanded the participant pool for the study. Teachers in the study came from 12 different schools and they taught a variety of subjects, including mathematics, social studies, creative arts, Ghanaian language (Twi), and information and communication technology (ICT). Most teachers were within the age range of 30–34 and had two to twelve years of teaching experience. All teachers met the qualification criteria as certified teachers, holding at least a Bachelor of Education degree.

Multiple data sources and methods were adopted to develop converging lines of enquiry that could facilitate evidence corroboration, increase the trustworthiness of the qualitative findings, and lead to a more convincing understanding of the study topic. Two data collection instruments were used: semi-structured telephone interviews and open-ended written questionnaires. Both instruments were designed to gather teachers’ perspectives on how and what they typically learn informally to integrate technology. Some key questions for the interview and open-ended questions were: (1) How do you learn informally to integrate technology? (2) What are your learning needs in teaching with digital technology in the classroom? and (3) Why do you engage in informal learning activities to use technology?

The interview responses were digitally recorded and transcribed, and pseudonyms were created for each participant to ensure anonymity and confidentiality of personal informal information and interview responses. The study obtained formal approval to undertake the research from the Human Research Ethics Committee of Griffith University and the districts from which participants were drawn. Following official letters of approval and permission from the two education district offices, the teachers provided clear and informed consent, both in writing and verbally, before participating in the study and conducting the telephone interviews. Participants were made aware of the purpose of the study, the nature of their involvement, and their right to withdraw at any time. Measures were taken to ensure the protection of the audio recordings and interview transcripts against potential data breaches. These ethical procedures were implemented to ensure participant trust and support, as well as to safeguard the integrity of the research process and findings.

Data analysis

All relevant data from the semi-structured interviews and open-ended written questionnaires about teachers’ informal learning were first organised and combined into an integrated dataset before being thematically analysed to make meaning. Thematic analysis is a flexible and interpretive technique commonly employed in qualitative research to identify recurring patterns of themes within a dataset (Clarke and Braun 2013). Following Clarke and Braun’s (2013) six-step process for thematic analysis, the researchers systematically examined and analysed the data collected from the two data collection tools. This methodical thematic approach facilitated the identification and reporting of meaningful patterns that emerged from the amalgamated data from the semi-structured interviews and open-ended questions.

The integrated dataset was coded and analysed in two phases. During the first stage, the researchers read and reviewed the transcripts several times and coded the data using NVivo 12. Through an iterative comparison of data and themes, we identified commonalities in the teachers’ informal learning activities using an inductive approach. This process was guided by the research questions and informed by the existing literature. In the second phase, the initial codes and themes were analysed deductively and presented using Jacobs and Park’s (2009) framework, which classifies workplace or informal learning based on the location of learning (inside or outside the context of school and classroom settings), the degree of planning, and involvement of others. This conceptual analysis aided in identifying and categorising the informal learning activities that teachers engaged in to integrate technology, with a particular focus on the domain of ‘learning location’.

The second objective of this study was to investigate the knowledge and skills that teachers learn from informal learning engagements for technology use. Thus, during the second phase of analysis, the researchers further examined the initial findings, drawing on literature of technical and pedagogical development approaches to technology professional development. The analyses in this stage were based on what teachers sought to learn from informal learning and for what teaching practices with technology in the classroom.

Reflexivity

Reflexivity is critical in ensuring the trustworthiness of qualitative research (Olmos-Vega et al. 2023). In this study, the researchers demonstrated a commitment to self-awareness by acknowledging subjective experiences and personal biases that could influence the research findings. They openly disclosed their position and relationship with both the study context and participants, recognising the potential impact these can have on data collection and interpretation of the findings (Finlay 2002). The lead researcher positioned himself as an outsider because he did not work as a teacher and had no professional affiliation with any of the participating teachers. This ‘naïve’ stance was adopted to ensure the study was approached with objectivity, aiming for a deeper understanding and uncovering patterns in the data that an insider researcher might inadvertently overlook or disregard. Nonetheless, the lead researcher had an insider perspective due to his familiarity with Ghana’s context, and previous schooling experiences in one of the research sites. The co-researchers had past teaching experience in Ghana and knowledge of the education system and policies. Together, these insider positions allowed for contextual insight into the education system, local culture, values, policy expectations, and the study topic. While such an insider view could introduce subjectivity into the study, the researchers were committed to maintaining objectivity and adhering to ethics and trustworthiness in addressing the research questions.

Trustworthiness

The study followed Lincoln and Guba’s (1986) four criteria for assessing the quality and trustworthiness of qualitative research, which encompassed credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability. First, an independent analysis of the data was conducted, and the results were compared among the researchers to establish intercoder reliability. Second, multiple data collection methods were used to triangulate the findings, thereby reducing potential biases associated with relying on a single data source. Third, the researchers checked their findings with the participants to ensure they accurately represented their experiences and perspectives. Fourth, member checking was conducted, where the researchers verified their findings with participants to ensure an accurate representation of their experiences and perspectives. This involved providing interview summaries to five participants at random and seeking clarification on preliminary findings and interpretations. Finally, participant excerpts were integrated into the study to support the presentation of themes, enabling readers to assess the accuracy of the interpretations and findings.

Findings

In this section, we apply Jacobs and Park’s (2009) ‘learning location’ framework to classify the informal learning activities teachers engage in for technology integration. The first domain, ‘on-the-job learning’, covers learning occurring within the school environment. ‘Off-the-job learning’, includes activities that take place outside the immediate school setting.

On-the-job learning (In-school)

Peer mentoring and knowledge sharing

Peer mentoring and knowledge sharing emerged as leading collaborative learning activities that contribute to the enhancement of teachers’ skills and knowledge for educational technology use. These learning activities fall within the category of informal learning, often referred to as ‘learning by getting ideas from others and on-the-job’ (Jacobs and Park 2009; Noe, Tews, and Marand 2013). Fourteen of the participants specifically noted the substantial role played by technologically adept colleagues and ICT subject teachers who possessed extensive knowledge and experience in ICT. These individuals often served as reliable sources of support for other teachers, particularly in navigating the use of technological tools such as projectors during lesson delivery. An ICT subject teacher pointed out that teachers acquire technical skills for technology use through interactions and exchanges with peers who are proficient in technology within the school environment.

We sometimes learn how to integrate ICT from our colleagues in school. I usually ask co-workers who are knowledgeable in ICT to help me. By so doing, I learn from them. Although teachers learn about ICT during pre-service training, others have studied it further at the university and have more knowledge of it. We learn among ourselves because teaching with technology is a collaborative effort. (ICT subject teacher 1)

Another ICT subject teacher recounted an incident from his initial teaching career whereby a tech-savvy colleague assisted him in presenting lessons using technology, allowing him to learn how to use projectors and PowerPoint to teach.

I learn from or consult colleague teachers when I need help, which can be helpful at times. When I started teaching, I was teaching social studies, and the topic was tourism in Ghana. At first, I had planned to take the kids to tourist attractions, but financial constraints prevented me from doing so. I asked a colleague with ICT knowledge to create powerpoint slides with pictures of the areas we were going to visit. Because of that teacher, I now use powerpoint to teach. Learning from colleagues is an important way to integrate ICT. (ICT subject teacher 2)

Experienced teachers who specialise in teaching ICT and are recognised as technology ‘experts’ play a significant role as mentors for both novice and experienced teachers seeking technical assistance. These ICT teachers are often considered the primary resource for educators interested in integrating technology into their regular teaching practices. As expressed by a third ICT subject teacher, they serve as the initial point of contact and offer support to teachers looking to incorporate ICT into their instructional methods. These findings indicate the significance of peer-to-peer knowledge sharing and mentoring by knowledgeable colleagues. Such interactions are instrumental in facilitating teachers’ continuous learning and the acquisition of technical skills essential for effective lesson delivery and demonstration.

Peer observation of practice

Eight teachers indicated the essentiality of participating in informal learning activities, which included activities such as listening, observing, and reflecting on the classroom practices of their colleagues to acquire knowledge about technology integration. In many cases, general subject teachers reported observing and listening to ICT subject teachers during their lessons, which provided them with valuable insights and practical skills on how to incorporate technology into their own teaching. A Social Studies teacher mentioned learning to use technology by observing ICT teachers teach. This practice enables her to gain firsthand experience and authentic knowledge of how to incorporate technology into her teaching.

I sometimes observe and listen to the ICT teacher when he is teaching, and then I ask him questions about things I do not know or understand. This assists me in learning and my use of technology for lessons. (Social studies teacher)

The first ICT teacher mentioned that he invites colleagues from other subjects who require assistance with technology integration to observe and learn from his classes.

Teachers who teach other subjects but need knowledge in ICT are invited to come and sit in our classes to learn certain things about ICT for them to be able to integrate ICT into their lessons. Teachers who do not understand some concepts in ICT join our classes to learn so they can teach [with ICT] and help students learn about it as well. (ICT subject teacher 1)

The teachers’ statements demonstrate that directly observing the teaching practices of other teachers, especially those with expertise in ICT, contributes to continuous learning and skill development in technology integration for educators. The quotes reflect the willingness of ICT ‘expert’ teachers to share their expertise with colleagues from other subjects, who, by attending such classes can, fill knowledge gaps and become more confident in using ICT tools in their teaching. This finding coheres with the claims of Lecat et al. (2019) and Kyndt et al. (2016) that teachers often participate in informal learning by observing and emulating the practices of peers. Jacobs and Park (2009) classify this type of observational learning activity as job-embedded or school-based, characterised by minimal interaction with others.

Classroom self-experimentation

The findings brought to light the practice of self-experimentation with technology during instruction as another significant avenue through which teachers learn and gain knowledge about educational technology use. Five teachers pointed out that by engaging in hands-on experimentation with technological tools, they were able to acquire new technical knowledge and skills, which empowered them to independently integrate technology into their teaching practices. A beginning ICT subject teacher stated how performing activities with students and experimenting with new software during ICT lessons contributed to her learning about ICT. Similarly, an ICT and Social Studies teacher mentioned that teaching and experimenting with new technologies alongside students provided an opportunity to learn and practice using technology in teaching.

I also learn when [I am] teaching the students certain new topics in ICT and using new tools, which I am able to practice and implement what I have learned from these tryouts when teaching them [students] in future classes. (ICT and social studies teacher)

The excerpt suggests that teachers acquire knowledge and skills for integrating technology into future classes through teaching and experimentation with technological tools. When teachers introduce new ICT topics and tools to their students, they are learning and experimenting at the same time. Teachers gain hands-on experience along with knowledge of how certain technologies work in an actual classroom setting. This finding, which reflects experiential learning, is consistent with other studies such as those conducted by Ertmer and Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2010) and Lecat et al. (2019), which indicate the benefits of experimenting with teaching tools in enhancing teachers’ confidence and knowledge for future educational technology use. These informal learning activities, in which teachers actively engage and experiment with new tools to broaden their understanding, are classified as job-integrated activities that take place at actual work sites (Jacobs and Park 2009). The focus of learning is primarily on the individual, and the participation of others is limited.

Off-the-job learning (off-school)

Families’ and friends’ support

Learning from or with others in the form of obtaining assistance from friends and, in some cases, family members who are considered knowledgeable about ICT, was found to be another informal learning outlet for teachers to teach with educational technologies. Ten teacher participants indicated that consulting friends and family presents a great way for teachers to learn to supplement their limited pre-service training and formal professional development to use technology. A primary school teacher found it useful to learn how to integrate technology from tech-savvy friends. He stated, ‘I visit friends who use ICT and are more skilled in integration to learn from and apply it in my teaching’. A beginning teacher who taught ICT echoed that he additionally learns about technology use in teaching by asking friends outside the school. ‘Most of the ideas that I have [about integrating technology] come from friends that are closer to me and not only from the school’ (ICT subject teacher 3).

Other educators cited the opportunity to learn from family and friends as a viable alternative medium of learning when seeking additional assistance in incorporating technologies into their instruction. The first ICT subject teacher had no trouble learning independently because he could rely on friends for support to use technology. He stated, ‘I have no problem learning on my own since I seek additional help from friends when I need the knowledge to integrate ICT’. Other teachers asserted learning to use technology from close family associates deemed proficient in ICT. A third primary school teacher, noted, ‘I learn at home from my husband, who is an ICT teacher [to use technology in my teaching]’.

These teachers’ excerpts highlight the contributions of friends and family members outside the school context in providing further learning openings for teachers to integrate technology. Previous research has found that chatting to and learning from non-colleagues and friends at home is a beneficial medium for teachers to learn from relevant people (Grosemans et al. 2015). The study findings corroborate Watson and Prestridge’s (2003) claim that learning from friends and family is increasingly becoming a key avenue for many teachers to learn about technology use in the classroom. Jacobs and Park (2009) classify these activities as off-the-job learning that involves others or learning from others, as defined by Noe, Tews, and Marand (2013).

Independent online research

The research data further revealed the importance of conducting personal research using Internet sources for teachers who want to incorporate technology into lessons. Seventeen participants identified the essentiality of online resources for teachers to obtain knowledge and skills related to lesson planning and delivery with digital technologies. Notably, teachers predominantly used their smartphones to access online teaching materials. The first primary school teacher’s statement exemplifies the importance of Internet research conducted on mobile devices to enhance various aspects of teaching, including lesson planning, preparation, and actual instruction.

I conduct research on my phone to prepare lesson notes and plans. I search the internet for information that I need to teach. Whatever I want to teach, I take my phone out and google [to] get the information. I do not limit myself to only textbooks. (Primary school teacher 1)

Other teachers noted that reading on the Internet and watching YouTube videos on their mobile devices provided an independent learning resource for keeping up-to-date with classroom technology use. An ICT and Mathematics teacher instanced:

I always search for information on the Internet through YouTube and reading […] online. We have textbooks that guide us to teach [with ICT], but these books are not updated, so surfing information online helps a lot with that [learning to integrate technology]. (ICT and Mathematics teacher)

These teacher accounts suggest that accessing online sources and conducting personal research plays a crucial role in empowering teachers with the necessary knowledge and skills to integrate technology into teaching. Using online platforms, teachers learn and broaden their knowledge of innovative teaching approaches and technologies to enhance instructional strategies. The ICT and Mathematics teacher’s statement implies that gathering information from online research and watching YouTube videos are key self-learning activities for teachers. A second primary school teacher’s account that ‘I rely on the Internet to study new and effective ways of integrating ICT into my teaching’ further supports the idea that self-study through information gathering on the Internet presents an important learning pathway for teachers.

These study results indicate that teachers are increasingly using self-directed learning methods supported by online resources and new digital technologies, such as smartphones, for off-school learning activities. The widespread accessibility of digital social platforms has also made it easier for teachers to engage in self-directed and continuous learning to teach with educational technologies. Noe, Tews, and Marand (2013) and Jacobs and Park (2009) categorised this self-initiated activity as learning from non-interpersonal sources that involve only the learner, with little or no contribution from others.

Online teacher learning communities

The study found evidence that teachers actively participated in online learning communities to gain knowledge about incorporating technology into the classroom. Six teachers reinforced the importance of participating in an informal learning community facilitated through a social media network. They indicated that online community platforms provide a collaborative space for teachers to learn from one another and exchange ideas involving technology integration. An example was given of an online learning community that connects teachers from different schools in the district to learn and was founded and directed informally by an education official who is the district’s ICT coordinator. The online learning community provides teachers with networking opportunities and a forum for sharing information on technology use. Teachers appreciated the chance to interact with peers and the ICT coordinator through this learning network, as it enabled them to engage in on-demand knowledge exchanges and receive guidance on technology integration. The ICT and Social Studies teacher reinforced the benefits of this learning network, noting its collaborative nature and the accessibility of peer support for enhancing teachers’ learning on technology use in teaching.

The whatsapp online chat room connects us [teachers] with colleagues from other schools in the district and the ICT coordinator, who always offers immediate guidance and shares information resources on updated teaching materials [about] ICT integration. (ICT and social studies teacher)

The findings illustrate the relevance of online learning communities that use social networking applications as an enabler for teachers to collaboratively learn, exchange ideas, and receive technology integration guidance and resources from experienced peers and coordinators. Such online communities offer ongoing opportunities for professional learning and support in the use of educational technology in instruction. Studies, including Trust, Krutka, and Carpenter (2016), concur that teachers increasingly find value in using social media resources and participating in learning networks. In particular, online communities are thought to present teachers with flexible opportunities for self-learning and collaboration with peers for professional development (Dille and Røkenes 2021). On the basis of Jacobs and Park’s (2009) and Noe et al.’s (2013) classification of workplace and informal learning, online communities may be classified as off-the-job (school) and social learning activities.

Discussion

The study provides insights into how Ghanaian teachers engage in informal learning activities to improve their technology integration skills and practices. Its remit included the sources and nature of learning activities, knowledge, and skills that teachers prefer and actively pursue and the implications of these for classroom pedagogy with technologies. The participants’ narratives indicate that teachers learn to use technology from themselves, with and from other colleagues in the context of their schools through personal classroom experimentation, observing other teachers’ lessons and classroom teaching practices, and peer collaboration and mentoring. The second category of learning activities consisted of those that occurred outside the school and involved learning from oneself through reading and surfing the internet for online resources, and from others through friends and families and online learning communities. The findings underline the multifaceted nature of teachers’ informal learning processes, where they draw knowledge and skills through a dynamic blend of personal learning experiences and interactions with others, both within and outside the school environment (Jacobs and Park 2009; Malcolm, Hodkinson, and Colley 2003). This multi-layered approach, implying that teachers’ learning practices extend beyond the school/classroom and are influenced by other external individuals and factors, reflects their adaptability as they strive to improve their capacity for effective technology use in teaching. The study findings echo previous results regarding the critical role that informal learning activities play in teachers’ technology integration practices and intentions (Barton and Dexter 2020; Jones and Dexter 2018; Xianhan et al. 2022).

The second aspect of this study’s objectives was to determine the nature of the knowledge or learning content that teachers mostly seek out, pursue, and acquire through participation in informal learning activities for technology use. Based on descriptions of the school-based activities in the findings, it can be inferred that teachers participate in independent learning and seek guidance from colleagues primarily to acquire information and receive mentorship on the operation of specific technological tools and computer programs for lesson planning and instruction presentation purposes. Teachers’ off-school learning activities on the Internet primarily involve using online search engines to access information on their smartphones, enabling them to update lesson notes and learn how to effectively deliver instruction with the use of technology. Collectively, these findings suggest teachers prefer and mainly engage in self-directed learning on the Internet and seek support from technologically proficient peers in school to acquire the needed technical skills to use technology as a tool for productivity and to supplement established teacher-centred teaching practices. This finding is consistent with the results of Lecat et al. (2019) in their Belgian study, which revealed many teachers participate in informal learning activities to acquire knowledge and skills that reinforce traditional teaching practices, such as the preparation and presentation of instructional content using technology. The finding further resonates with Malcolm et al.’s (2003) assertion that the main content emphasis in teachers’ informal learning is to improve existing or acquire new teaching skills that are consistent with their professional interests.

The findings of this research show that the nature of what teachers prefer to learn and are interested in, as well as the teaching practices they seek to support with such learning activities, indicate that acquiring technical proficiency for productivity is a significant basic need and preference for most teachers in this study and likely in Ghana. This need motivates teachers to pursue more technical skills-oriented learning activities for regular traditional teaching practices. By focusing on attaining technical competencies, teachers aim to enhance their ability to support instruction and meet the learning needs of students. Teachers’ attainment of technical skills and familiarity with technological tools may be essential and a crucial first step for them to integrate technology into known practices and respond to student needs (Lawless and Pellegrino 2007; Webb and Cox 2004). However, these skills alone tend not to enable teachers to engage students in co-constructive technology use for deeper learning engagement and enhanced cognitive outcomes as is increasingly expected in many education policies and school curricula. Ertmer and Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2013), and Jonassen (2005) argue that techno-centric training, which mainly arms teachers with technical skills, may have limitations in enabling transformative pedagogy and encouraging constructivist learning with technology. Technical skills training is considered merely foundational and supports teachers’ low-level use of technology to supplement or replace existing traditional educational practices without any discernible difference in student learning outcomes (Daly, Pachler, and Pelletier 2009). This claim could explain why the teachers in this study mainly sought to supplement or support teacher-centred practices with the acquisition of technical skills from informal learning activities. The study acknowledges the potential limitations of a techno-centric approach to teacher learning, accenting that technical skills alone may not enable transformative pedagogy or deeper student engagement in learning.

Conclusion

The study contributes to our understanding of how teachers partake in informal learning activities to augment technology integration practices, with a specific focus on the nature of the knowledge and skills they actively seek. The findings showed that teachers essentially learn technical skills from school and non-school activities, and consequently use technology as a productivity tool to supplement traditional teaching tasks. Based on these findings, the study suggests that teachers’ learning and preference for technical skills should be combined with the development of pedagogical understanding and knooweldge. This suggestion is critical for enabling teachers' facilitation of meaningful student learning ‘with’ technologies as cognitive partners to nurture deeper engagement and active learning. Such integrated knowledge domain and holistic teacher learning are crucial to meeting the needs of twenty-first-century learners while also ensuring that Ghana’s ICT in Education policies and curricula, which call for pedagogy-focused teacher professional development and constructivist approaches to integrating technologies into instruction, are consistently enacted and practiced in the classroom context.

In summary, this study sheds light on the need for teachers’ informal learning to move beyond a narrow focus on technical skills and embrace a more holistic learning approach, despite the fact that technical proficiency is essential for teaching productivity and is of basic need and interest to many teachers. To increase awareness about learning to shift teaching practices, this paper makes a case for more comprehensive professional development that reorients teachers to learn towards a new understanding of instruction that includes the pedagogical use of technologies to promote constructivist learning, in addition to preparing them to meet their basic technical skills needs for teaching productivity. A change in mindset and belief through training can influence what teachers want to learn and steer their perceptions of the roles of technologies to that which transforms more complex learning experiences and empowers students to take ownership of their knowledge construction and deep learning.

The study findings, which highlight teachers’ informal learning as occurring at the school, community, or family levels, as well as through online resources, indicate the need to create a supportive ecosystem that encourages teachers to engage in informal learning both within and outside the school and classroom settings. The findings point out the role of significant others such as colleagues, family and friends in supporting teachers’ learning, shaping their beliefs, and renewing their motivation to learn to attain proficiency in meaningful technology integration. This finding underlines the need for school leaders and teachers to recognise, value, and support informal learning in multifaceted contexts to complement limited formal professional development that often exists to bridge the gap in teachers’ technology integration proficiencies not only in Ghana but also in other similar settings. The findings have implications for policymakers and teacher educators, especially in countries where formal professional development opportunities are scarce, discrete, and incomplete, and there is a need to support informal learning as a supplement to foster constructivist teaching practices with digital technologies. This article also contributes to existing knowledge by deepening our understanding of the relationship between the nature of teachers’ informal learning and their technology integration practices. It emerged from the study that the knowledge and skills teachers seek through informal learning influence their classroom pedagogy. The findings indicated that teachers focused on acquiring technical skills and this reinforced their use of technologies for traditional teaching practices. While the paper centred on Ghanaian teachers, its findings may have global relevance. The potential limitations of technical skills training and the need to combine such skills with pedagogical knowledge development may apply to education systems worldwide that seek to support teachers’ learning activities to integrate technology more effectively to advance meaningful student learning.

Regarding future research, it would be beneficial to explore further the intentions and factors that motivate teachers to engage in informal learning, including the knowledge they keenly seek for technology integration in other developing and developed country contexts. Also important is the need for further studies on the key antecedents that can stimulate teachers’ interest in ‘pedagogic-centred’ learning activities that could foster transformative change in teaching methods and progress students’ knowledge creation and cognitive outcomes. A nuanced understanding of these research areas can help in designing targeted interventions and effective support systems to inspire teachers’ interest in pedagogic-oriented informal learning beyond technical skills preferences to enhance teaching practices using digital technologies in classrooms. This research has limitations, primarily in its sample, as it does not include students and teachers from all districts in Ghana. It is essential to conduct a comprehensive study that encompasses teachers selected across all districts in Ghana. In addition, future research could include students and explore the direct impact of teachers’ informal learning practices on student learning outcomes with digital technologies in schools.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.