A framework for integrating additive manufacturing into engineering education: perspectives of students and educators

ABSTRACT

Additive manufacturing (AM) and 3D printing (3DP) offer unique opportunities for experiential learning and practical application in engineering education. In developed countries, AM is integrated into engineering education to train mechanical engineers. However, existing research has not investigated the integration of AM and 3DP into higher education in developing countries. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with students and educators from mechanical engineering programmes in Vietnam to examine AM usage in engineering education. Our study revealed that no curricula or policies to integrate AM into classrooms exist in the participating institutions. Engineering schools are attempting to introduce 3DP to students through short courses, but educators have inadequate training. The lack of consistent communication among institutions has hindered the growth of 3DP education. Therefore, to meet the standards of Industry 4.0, it is crucial to have policies and funding in place to promote AM growth among first-year engineering students.

KEYWORDS:

• 3D Printing
• additive manufacturing
• developing countries
• engineering education
• STEM education
• additive manufacturing education

1. Introduction

Additive manufacturing (AM), often known as 3D printing, is a manufacturing technique that involves the fusion of materials to create items based on three-dimensional (3D) model data (Ngo et al. 2018). AM offers a cost- and time-efficient solution for the production of low-volume bespoke items that possess intricate geometries, sophisticated material characteristics, and functionality (Huang and Leu 2014).

Educational institutions worldwide are increasingly embracing 3D printing (3DP) technology because of its potential to improve teaching and learning across disciplines (Novak 2019; Steed 2019). Trust and Maloy (2017) consider 3DP technology to be a valuable new platform for bringing learning into the twenty-first century, as it allows students to design and create solutions for real-world problems. In addition, 3DP technology helps teachers enhance their students’ visual literacy. Visual literacy is a crucial component of technological literacy, and its development is one of the main goals of technology education (Verner and Merksamer 2015). Additionally, the integration of AM and 3DP within engineering education facilitates the cultivation of crucial abilities in computer-aided design (CAD) modelling, problem solving, critical thinking, and teamwork among students (Stern et al. 2019; Trust and Maloy 2017). These proficiencies are indispensable for professional pursuits in the field of engineering (Cotteleer et al. 2019). The utilisation of these technologies also fosters creativity and innovation (Go and Hart 2016), as students can explore novel design possibilities and conduct experiments with diverse materials and manufacturing procedures (Borgianni et al. 2022). Moreover, AM and 3DP have the potential to facilitate multidisciplinary collaboration (Pearson and Dubé 2022) owing to the fact that students hailing from diverse engineering disciplines can effectively collaborate in order to conceive and refine designs specifically tailored for additive manufacturing processes. The incorporation of these technologies into engineering education equips students with the necessary skills to meet the changing requirements of the industry (Ford and Minshall 2019), which is experiencing a growing utilisation of AM for purposes such as quick prototyping, customisation, and small-scale production (Malik et al. 2022).

Although there are extensive general studies on 3DP (Campbell et al. 2011; Chan et al. 2018; Delić 2020), little research has been conducted on 3DP technology in the context of higher education. The literature indicates that introducing 3DP technology in universities ensures creative teaching and learning methods (Ford and Despeisse 2016), including exploring opportunities for 3DP innovation and adaptation (Go and Hart 2016), thereby facilitating the development of multidisciplinary approaches (Cotteleer et al. 2019). Garcia et al. (2014) stated that 3DP technology has been adopted in libraries to engage, educate, and empower communities. Meyers, Morgan, and Conner (2016) demonstrated that incorporating 3DP into a cornerstone project increased the project’s significance as well as the students’ interest, learning levels, and familiarity with the design process, making it a valuable and efficient method for introducing engineering students to the design process. Moreover, Go and Hart (2016) indicated that addressing the disruptive potential of additive manufacturing (AM) and teaching students about its capabilities are some of the most popular topics in educational programmes.

1.1. Theoretical framework

Several studies have examined the application and adoption of 3DP in education in developed countries (Ford and Despeisse 2016; Go and Hart 2016). In addition to 3DP in education, it appears that design for additive manufacturing (DfAM) has not yet attained maturity or dissemination into mainstream design and engineering curricula, as it is mostly taught in North American, European, Hong Kong, and Australian institutions that are actively researching AM or DfAM (Borgianni et al. 2019; Borgianni et al. 2022). However, significantly less attention has been paid to how 3DP technology can be used to benefit HEIs in developing countries. Although incorporating 3DP into classroom settings is not a novel concept, integrating 3DP into the curricula of developing countries (such as the DfAM) is relatively new. At the time of this study, few studies have examined the impact of the introduction of 3DP in higher education institutions in developing countries. However, some studies have revealed the positive impacts of this endeavour, including enhanced innovative ideas and creative thinking (Alabi, De Beer, and Wichers 2019; Waseem, Kazmi, and Qureshi 2016), improved spatial abilities, augmented peer group learning, superior teaching aids (Inoma, Ibhadode, and Ibhadode 2020), and the development of a well-rounded generation of engineers (Wu et al. 2021). However, integrating 3DP into a developing country’s higher education institutions can entail major challenges and is hindered by several factors: (1) the high cost of equipment, (2) the waste of resources, (3) insufficient training, (4) educators not having adequate knowledge, and (4) a lack of governmental support for 3DP development (Alabi, De Beer, and Wichers 2019; Inoma, Ibhadode, and Ibhadode 2020; Waseem, Kazmi, and Qureshi 2016).

However, it is not known how these challenges can be overcome owing to the lack of in-depth research on integrating 3DP into classrooms, particularly in developing countries. Furthermore, the current literature does not offer clear guidelines or frameworks for integrating 3DP into the classroom from educators’ and students’ perspectives. The AM technology and education framework introduced by Alabi et al. (2020) may be suitable for investigating the 3DP implementation status in HEIs in developing countries. It may also be suitable for determining the barriers to 3DP integration in higher education institutions and comprises five factors: AM technology, AM research and development, AM in-house facilities, AM educational curriculum development, and AM technology transfer. The challenges and opportunities in implementing 3DP in universities can be better understood with the help of this framework; however, the extent to which the framework would be suitable for investigating the integration of 3DP in higher education in other developing countries remains unknown.

1.2. Study context and research questions

Vietnam was selected as the research context for exploring these problems. As a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Vietnam has achieved significant success in developing infrastructure and growing its economy by becoming a key hub for the electronics and other industries. However, this era of technological innovation, known as Industry 4.0, presents significant difficulties, such as adapting to the massive growth in AM technology (i.e. 3DP), and automation (Mitra 2019). Regarding domestic manufacturing, Hang (2022) asserts that 3DP has great potential as a major technology in Industry 4.0. However, Vietnam’s use of 3DP technology is still largely in the experimental stage, despite the substantial number of known benefits. Thus, this study aims to better understand the barriers to adopting 3DP in higher education in developing countries and to provide recommendations for overcoming these barriers. This was accomplished by answering the following research questions.

RQ1: What are the educators’ and students’ perceptions of the challenges of integrating 3DP education into engineering education?

RQ2: What measures should be taken to integrate 3DP into engineering education?

2. Materials and methods

A phenomenological research design (Colaizzi 1978) was employed because of the phenomenological emphasis on understanding the essence and meaning of human experiences and understanding across individuals (Streubert and Carpenter 2011, 78–85). This approach is suitable for this study because it aims to explore the lived experiences and perspectives of students and educators regarding the integration of AM into engineering education. Using a phenomenological approach, we can gain in-depth insights into the challenges, perspectives, and measures required to integrate AM into engineering education in developing countries, such as Vietnam. This research design allowed a rich exploration of the participants’ experiences and perceptions and provided a comprehensive understanding of the current state of AM integration in engineering education in Vietnam (Colaizzi 1978). The use of semi-structured interviews (Creswell and Creswell 2018, 254–278) in this study aligns with the phenomenological approach, as it allows participants (students and educators) to share their subjective experiences and perspectives in an open-ended manner. We followed the guidelines for the scope and rationale of Braun and Victoria (2013, 45) to formulate the research questions. The research questions concern understanding and perceptions, as they represent suitable types collected data to be collected from semi-structured interviews. Ethical approval was obtained from our institution (reference number: 20215549-8829).

2.1. Sampling of participants and research sites: inclusion and exclusion criteria

Educators and students from five Vietnamese universities who provided 3DP education in their mechanical engineering programmes were included. The primary exclusion criteria were universities that did not provide programmes related to 3DP and those that possessed well-established facilities for 3DP. The selection of the five universities was based on the criteria connected to accreditation, which included the provision of 3DP-related programmes and a well-established infrastructure for 3DP. We used the institutions’ learning management systems (LMS) to recruit undergraduate and graduate students as well as educators from the mechanical engineering programmes. This approach was selected because the LMS presents a platform for recruiting all students enrolled in relevant mechanical engineering programmes. Furthermore, during the COVID-19 pandemic, students studied online through their institutions’ LMS; thus, almost all students in the mechanical engineering faculty interacted with the LMS. On behalf of the first author, the faculty members of each institution sent out recruitment information, resulting in 21 students and 13 educators agreeing to participate.

The educators comprised lecturers, tutors, and the deans of the engineering faculties, and the minimum required 3DP experience was three years of experience pertaining specifically to the field of 3DP. The establishment of these criteria were implemented to guarantee that the educators who participated possessed an adequate degree of expertise and familiarity in the field of 3DP, thereby enabling them to make valuable contributions to this study.

To identify the diverse perspectives of students and educators, (as students might have some sort of experience from 6 months to 1 year), we employed maximum variation (heterogeneity) sampling (Patton 2015, 428–429) in this research to understand their perspectives and experiences. Maximal variation sampling is the deliberate selection of individuals who exhibit a diverse array of perspectives and experiences pertaining to certain subject matter (Creswell 2012, 207–221). This study used maximum variation sampling to collect a wide range of viewpoints on the incorporation of AM into engineering education. The research included individuals enrolled in mechanical engineering programmes at five public institutions in Vietnam at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. This ensured a diverse range of educational backgrounds and degrees of educational attainment. This study included the perspectives of both students and educators to capture a comprehensive range of perspectives on the use of AM in engineering education. The heterogeneous sample allowed for a thorough comprehension of the obstacles and suggestions for incorporating AM into tertiary educational establishments in developing countries, such as Vietnam. Maximal variation sampling ensured that the findings were not confined to a particular subgroup of participants, thereby augmenting the quality criteria of the results.

2.2. Procedure and data collection

Each participant was interviewed individually using Zoom. As the interviews were conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, we followed the Vietnamese COVID-19 safety measures. The interview questions were designed to gather information about the current barriers to implementing 3DP in classrooms and solutions to these challenges. Our semi-structured interviews used Alabi et al.’s (2020) research on potential barriers to and recommendations for 3DP implementation in higher education. The studies were selected based on their ability to offer significant insights into the obstacles and best practices associated with the integration of 3D printing in educational environments. The interview questions (provided in Appendix B) in this study were selected based on the insights provided by Alabi et al. (2020), such as AM technology, technology transfer, educational curriculum, AM in-house facilities, and AM research and development as well as those from Ford and Minshall (2019) for 3DP education, 3DP for educators, 3DP in the classroom, and 3DP as a tool for community engagement, which highlighted two important areas of concern, namely, barriers to 3DP Technology in the classroom setting and recommendations to integrate 3DP (e.g. 3DP facilities, 3DP curriculum, 3DP training and prospective jobs, 3DP creativity, innovation, research and development, and technology transfer). The interview questions were also designed to investigate comparable barriers and recommendations within the scope of this study, guided by the findings of Alabi et al. (2020) and Ford and Minshall (2019). The interview questions consisted of three main parts. For the students, Section A1 comprised four open-ended questions regarding barriers to 3DP technology, whereas Sections A2, A3, and A4 consisted of ten questions centred on recommendations for 3DP facilities, 3DP curricula, 3DP training, and potential jobs. For the educators, Section B1 comprised five open-ended questions about the barriers to 3DP technology implementation, whereas Sections B2, B3, and B4 comprised the same questions as Sections A2, A3, and A4 and Section B5 consisted of two questions on 3DP creativity, innovation, research and development, and technology transfer. Sections A1 and B1 aimed to investigate the barriers to incorporating 3DP technology into the higher education sector, thereby answering RQ1, whereas Sections A2, A3, A4, B2, B3, B4, and B5 were designed to determine the recommendations for adopting 3DP in academic settings, thereby answering RQ2. Appendix A presents the interview questions. As the majority of the participants were native Vietnamese speakers, we translated the questions from English to Vietnamese before the interview sessions. Each session was audio recorded using Zoom’s audio recording function and lasted for approximately 50 min.

2.3. Data analysis

The first author, a native Vietnamese speaker, contracted a team to translate the interview data from Vietnamese into English. The translated data from 34 interviews were transcribed verbatim using Microsoft Word. We used NVivo 12, a programme designed for qualitative analysis, to conduct the data coding, theme determination, theme-based data categoriszation, and data interpretation. We read the 34 interview transcripts several times. Subsequently, we initiated a deductive approach to identify common codes within the framework of Alabi et al. (2020). The five categories were listed as ‘AM Technology’, ‘AM Research and Development’, ‘AM In-House Facilities’, ‘AM Educational Curriculum’, and ‘AM Technology Transfer’. Following this, we performed several coding iterations during which we discussed and resolved discrepancies.

Then, in addition to the deductive process and using the same data (five categories), we conducted an inductive approach to identify themes. Based on the framework of Alabi et al. (2020), we formed three common themes: ‘3DP facilities, equipment, and technology’, ‘3DP industry’, and ‘3DP funding and policies’ (see Tables A1 and A2 in Appendix A).

We gathered all data pertinent to each theme by categorising them via thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke 2006). These themes served as the backbone of this analysis. Barriers and recommendations were mapped against the framework of Alabi et al. (2020), including needs assessment factors, awareness of barriers, utilisation of existing resources, and specific barriers and recommendations identified in the study. We counted frequencies from NVivo to understand the direction of a particular theme (Appendix A).

We followed guidelines and techniques, such as member checking and triangulation, as well as 15 checklist criteria suitable for ensuring the quality of the qualitative research (Braun and Victoria 2013, 282–287). To enhance the quality criteria of the data analysis, we used multiple qualitative validities (Carmines and Zeller 1979; Creswell and Creswell 2018, 274–276) to lessen the possibility of bias, rectify misperceptions, and increase confidence in our results. For the Vietnamese to English translations, an independent external transcription organisation was hired to review and translate the transcripts, and the first author checked the translations. Subsequently, our research team (English-speaking native speakers) checked the resulting translations. We summarised the major points to verify member checking and translated them into Vietnamese. Of those who were polled, 70% rated the accuracy of their responses. Finally, every research team member consulted the data to ensure accurate analysis.

3. Results

The barriers to and recommendations for integrating 3DP technology into the classroom were divided into four subthemes: (1) 3DP curricula and training; (2) 3DP facilities, equipment, and technology; (3) the 3DP industry; and (4) 3DP funding and policies. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the barriers to and recommendations for integrating 3DP into the classroom, respectively, as described by educators and students.

Figure 1. The barriers to Integrating 3DP into the classroom.

Figure 2. The recommendations for integrating 3DP into the classroom.

3.1. Lack of 3DP curricula and training

The lack of 3DP curricula and training was identified as an obstacle by most participants when asked about the status of teaching and learning 3DP at their institutions. This lack of curriculum and training limits educators’ ability to disseminate 3DP knowledge to students. Moreover, 3DP was only introduced in Vietnamese higher education in 2017; therefore, it is still relatively new and underdeveloped. Consequently, students do not have an in-depth understanding of the 3DP technology. Educator 10 expressed the following concerns:

Currently, the field of 3DP research is also limited: Educators have not been trained extensively because the universities themselves have not had much training in 3DP, the colleges or education centers have not had any guidance in 3DP training, and 3DP was only introduced in the classroom several years ago.

Both groups claimed that students only learned 3DP in short courses, usually in the second semester of their third or fourth year, resulting in a lack of profound 3DP knowledge. Educator 11 echoed this sentiment.

I teach 3DP design in the last semesters of my university. In the initial semesters, only two-dimensional drawing is taught. Students first learn about 3DP in the later semesters of training. At present, learning 3D drawing hinders design.

Despite the lack of 3DP curricula, training, and practical learning, 3DP is not a specific subject in most Vietnamese academic institutions. Student 8 stated that In Vietnam, universities have not specialised in 3DP yet, and there are not many modules on this technology’. Furthermore, the educators asserted that they learned 3DP from informal sources, such as direct technology transfer, attending 3DP conferences, watching videos online, self-learning, and technology transfer projects when their universities purchased 3D printers, as indicated by Educator 5, who stated that ‘About 20 years ago, there was not much equipment, and we mainly learned from the Internet, videos, and self-study’. Educator 9, the dean of a mechanical engineering faculty, also asserted that ‘Study materials are mainly in English, I only teach the basic knowledge, and reading in English is a weakness of specialised students’. Currently, all higher education 3DP study materials are in English, which is a barrier to students learning 3DP. Educator 9 also stated that a limited number of study materials were available in Vietnamese, and these were insufficient for Vietnamese students studying 3DP.

Educators also asserted that 3DP had not been integrated as a core module because the teaching time for 3DP is limited; 3DP has only been recently introduced to students and has been integrated into other subjects, resulting in the substandard quality of 3DP education. Educator 2 stated that ‘I teach 3DP that has been integrated into mechanical engineering, such as in electrical discharge machining or rapid prototyping technology, in limited timeframes because the subject has four credits and a total of 60 lessons for all methods’.

Owing to the rapid growth of 3DP technology, numerous educators have stated that higher education institutions’ 3DP technology is not updated consistently, making teaching 3DP difficult. This may be related to the English language barrier, as educators and students struggle to understand English language 3DP technological material. Educator 2 pointed out that ‘Universities are not able to keep up with the trends because of the fast growth of 3DP’.

The students also detailed some barriers to 3DP learning, such as 3DP learning being self-directed, curricula not being formalised, and learning about 3DP technology being difficult. Moreover, more than half of the students claimed that they had to conduct 3DP research at home or with their peers owing to a lack of equipment and facilities. For example, when they struggled to fix 3D printers or 3DP models, no help was available, with Student 7 commenting that ‘I have self-studied without documents as there are no official documents, sources, or references, and there are no professionals to give any advice’.

Furthermore, the curriculum is not formalised because 3DP is treated as an auxiliary subject, and 3DP technology is considered difficult to study because students have limited resources and support, with assistance mainly being sourced from the Internet, which has led to informal learning and affected their 3DP learning. Student 6 expressed that, ‘We have just learned about 3DP, so we have limited resources. We find sources of information mainly online, but they are very limited’.

3.1.1. Recommendations for overcoming the lack of 3DP curricula and training

Most educators and students suggested that 3DP should be integrated into the classroom by developing 3DP curricula and intensive training courses, conducting practical sessions, and hiring instructors. According to both groups, educators and universities should assist students with 3DP research projects and major 3DP assignments after teaching 3DP theory in the classroom. Educator 6 asserted that:

It is necessary to have 3DP curricula and subjects in training programs, rather than introduce 3DP technology as a glimpse.

Most educators said that universities could expand the use of 3DP technology in classrooms by offering training and reference materials. More than half of the educators and a few students said that the students needed an understanding of the latest 3DP technology. Educator 11 commented that ‘3DP technology should be used as a supporting tool in practice and learning as well as a manufacturing method in engineering students’ experimental manufacturing or models, with their methods, from easy to difficult, being supported’.

The majority of educators and some students recommended that lecturers practice and that students be supported, experiment with 3DP, conduct 3DP research, and work in groups. Both educators and students are encouraged to conduct research every year, as students in higher education specifically benefit greatly from experimentation because it allows them to practically apply the theoretical knowledge presented in class, challenges them to augment their theoretical knowledge, and affords them the opportunity to form communities of technology generalists who can share ideas and solve problems. Educator 5 indicated that ‘To support learners, especially in university, experimentation is very important because students can see the effect of technology design through applying theory to practice. Thus, they can discover new knowledge to supplement their theory’.

Educators and students also stated that higher education institutions should promote 3DP seminars and conferences to allow students and novices to gain a better understanding of 3DP technology. Furthermore, students had many opportunities to contact enterprises in the 3DP industry through these events. Educator 4 commented:

By holding conferences and seminars, learners and users can better comprehend 3DP and gain access to numerous educational materials and equipment that help university students learn about 3DP. Worker and learner information channels should be plentiful about 3DP technology and its pros and cons.

The interviewees also highlighted the importance of building do-it-yourself (DIY) 3DP printers, conducting their own research at home, and searching for material on the Internet that could aid in mastering 3DP technology. Educator 5 stated that with these measures, ‘The volume of teaching materials for self-study is increased and positively impacts learners’ practical ability to apply theoretical knowledge in real life’, and Student 9 asserted that students should ‘invest in a 3D printer and learn more online’.

Educator 8 stressed that there should be a cooperation and technology transfer programme between universities, businesses, and international research centres to develop this 3DP technology. 3DP lecturers at technical universities can implement study programmes at foreign universities in which the advantages of 3DP are explicated, thereby developing students’ 3DP expertise and increasing lecturers’ understanding of 3DP, thereby increasing the potential for additional 3DP applications. Educator 8 asserted that ‘Lecturers should participate in short 3DP courses at research institutes, universities, or enterprises that are developing and applying 3DP to promote 3DP in higher education’.

3DP is commonly only integrated into subjects related to 3DP technology, which requires continuous innovation; the development of new majors, such as digital manufacturing; and the updating of technological knowledge every two years, which can then be incorporated into the course. Educator 8 noted the following:

In universities, there will usually be a major adjustment every two years based on satisfaction of actual needs. When such training programs are adjusted, it is necessary to increase the duration or add one more module that specializes in this 3DP technology.

3.2. Lack of 3DP facilities, equipment, and technology

All of the educators and most of the students indicated a lack of 3DP facilities as the main reason for their not being able to access 3DP equipment in classrooms and laboratories, with Educator 8 claiming that ‘There is not a lot of 3DP equipment for students to practice because the university’s capital is spread across many areas, so the investment capital for 3DP is currently very small’. Student 9 verified this by highlighting the lack of facilities: ‘Lack of facilities: My school lacks 3D printers and laboratories’.

Both groups claimed that the high cost of 3DP equipment was another obstacle; 3D printers were too expensive for their institutions. Furthermore, when discussing 3DP technology transfer and innovation, most educators stated that the high cost of equipment and materials and their low 3DP adoption led to slow technology transfer in 3DP. Indeed, Educator 6, said that the ‘3DP systems in Vietnam are still expensive, and the potential applications are limited’, and Student 5 claimed that ‘For a personal 3D printer, the cost is US$250–300. This is not cheap for students in Vietnam’.

Educator 7 also asserted that the long time taken to prepare and operate 3DP equipment is another barrier: ‘The class is three, four, or five lessons, and sometimes groups print products that take a day. This is longer than one lesson, so it is inconvenient to teach 3DP’. Moreover, both groups claim that owing to the limitations of 3DP technology, it usually takes several hours to print one or several pieces. Student 3 stated, ‘If I create a model using 3DP technology, it usually takes a few hours, but my course lasts a few lessons, so there is not enough time to create prototypes in one lesson’.

A few interviewees from both groups claimed that the limited facilities and high number of students in each facility (i.e. overcrowding) led to a limited amount of time available to use 3D printers. Additionally, because of the large class sizes, most did not have the opportunity to conduct 3DP research, as Educator 8 stated:

The institution has only six fused deposition modeling printers for 500 students in one mechanical engineering course, so it's congested. Each course includes 500 students. Future budgets must increase funding for these facilities to meet 3DP education objectives in a sustainable training program.

3.2.1. Recommendations for overcoming the lack of 3DP facilities, equipment, and technology

The majority of educators and students emphasised the importance of adequately equipping 3DP facilities by expressing that if there were sufficient equipment, students would be able to conduct their own research, study on their own, practice more, and increase their 3DP knowledge and skills more effectively. Educator 10 said that ‘We need to add more 3D printers, software, and computers in the classroom so that students can design, print more, and produce on-site products without using other devices’, and Student 5 stated that ‘I hope to have easier access to a 3DP lab to study the subjects related to manufacturing and machine parts’.

The interviewees suggested placing more emphasis on designing, manufacturing, and researching materials with improved durability according to the constraints and barriers imposed by 3DP materials. Educator 1 asserted that ‘Design and manufacturing as well as research on 3DP materials are some of the ways in which to ensure the development and mastering of 3DP technology in Vietnam’.

One educator and one student recommended that universities invest in and exchange knowledge with 3DP manufacturing enterprises to mitigate the high cost of equipment because 3DP manufacturing enterprises upgrade their 3DP systems every year. Therefore, if students join these enterprises, they can learn more about 3DP. Educator 10 stressed the following:

It is necessary to invest in and exchange knowledge with 3DP manufacturing enterprises as every year they upgrade their 3DP systems. This approach must be shared, and we should meet with leading experts in 3DP to learn more about it.

To overcome the problems encountered in the lengthy time required to prepare and operate 3DP equipment, the interviewees recommended organising separate sessions for students to practice. For example, Student 7 emphasised that ‘It’s better to have a printer for every lesson about processing as lessons include quick demonstrations of large or small projects, depending on the learners’ needs’. Furthermore, most educators (11) asserted that relationships with companies in the 3DP industry were necessary because students studying 3DP would greatly benefit from field trips to local manufacturing facilities.

Regarding the difficulties encountered in accessing 3DP equipment, Student 8 suggested that 3DP module devices could first be sourced from Vietnam and inexpensive 3DP components could then be ordered from China if they were unavailable in Vietnam. Many e-commerce websites, such as Taotac Forum and Shopee, can be used to build DIY 3D printers. Building a 3D printer from scratch is usually cheaper than purchasing a brand new one on the market (3DThinking 2022) from, for example, Ender Pro, Delta, or Prusa, which costs approximately US$150 for a DIY printer versus $200–250 for a pre-built one. Student 8 claimed the following:

I can buy microchip controllers for fused deposition modeling from China or download and integrate source codes from official open-source websites like Marlin. Some e-commerce websites like Taotac forum on Facebook, Shopee, and others sell module devices in our country. A market-priced 3D printer costs $200-250, whereas a DIY one only $150. Building a 3D printer takes six months, from researching, building, and running to software setup.

3.3 Students’ lack of awareness of 3DP industries

Participants from both groups claimed that the weak production capacity of the high-tech sector and the underdeveloped 3DP industry in Vietnam, compared to developed countries, resulted in the 3DP industry not becoming popular in Vietnam. Educator 6 stated that ‘The high-tech sector in Vietnam has not yet developed, and automobile and aircraft manufacturing depend on 3DP technology, which is not available in Vietnam’. Student 7 echoed this when explaining that ‘3DP technology in Vietnam had not been developed yet because 3DP is quite new’. Thus, as indicated by both students and educators, Vietnamese society views 3DP as still in its infancy, and limited information about this advanced technology is available. This results in few people paying attention to the features of 3DP technology. For the industry sector, 3DP is not yet an interesting industry to learners and enterprises as compared with traditional manufacturing, with Student 2 asserting that ‘3DP for students is quite new because this industry is not yet popular as it still has barriers, so companies have not used it in large-scale production; traditional industrial systems are still considered a better choice’.

3.3.1. Recommendations for increasing students’ awareness of the 3DP industry

The students did not have any recommendations for enhancing their awareness of the 3DP industry; however, the educators provided two recommendations: (1) promoting cooperation programmes and (2) having students visit enterprises in the AM industry. Educators stated that it is necessary to establish relationships with companies in the 3DP industry for students to gain access to real equipment and establish networks related to scientific research using 3DP technology. Additionally, students could visit these enterprises to gain a better understanding of 3DP. Educator 10 claimed that ‘It is necessary to invest in and exchange information with 3DP manufacturing enterprises as they upgrade their 3DP systems every year. This approach must be shared, and we must meet leading experts in 3DP to learn more about it’.

3.4 Lack of 3DP funding and policies

Most educators and students asserted that the most pronounced challenge in public universities is locating resources, especially financial resources, with which to conduct research on 3DP or invest in 3DP equipment and facilities. Educator 8 stated that ‘In terms of universities’ current facilities, especially autonomous universities, the capital is spread evenly, so the capital currently available for 3DP equipment is still limited’. Moreover, according to the educators, there is a lack of policies for supporting students as they learn about 3DP, with Educator 2 pointing out that ‘There are no policies to support students in learning 3DP at all: Only a few subjects currently are relevant to 3DP, so teachers guide students in learning and practicing by themselves’.

3.4.1. Recommendations for overcoming the lack of funding and policies

Both groups recommended funding for training and research in the form of financial support from the state and universities. This includes universities investing in facilities and maintenance, buying 3DP equipment, and providing new 3DP technologies to students and educators so that they can practice and research 3DP. Student 10 stated that ‘We should have enough to purchase equipment’, and Educator 8 explained that ‘I received funding of US$4000, which helped me and some students implement and deploy ideas as real models, thereby improving students’ and lecturers’ ability to practice using 3DP technology’. In terms of 3DP policies, educators made one recommendation: develop policies for 3DP training programmes.

In addition to funding, universities must have strategies in place to provide directions for training, research, and technology transfer based on the government's or policy planners’ assessments of 3DP’s relevance to future scientific and technological development. Educator 2 claimed that:

It is necessary to have policies that encourage the creativity of students in 3DP organizations in not only the application but also students’ designs and manufacturing of 3D printers. Some universities are doing this very well, but only on a small scale.

4. Discussion

This study explored the barriers to and recommendations for implementing 3DP in higher education institutions in developing countries such as Vietnam. This section discusses the barriers in terms of their interconnections and severity as well as recommendations for counteracting these barriers (Figure 3). Moreover, we compared our findings with a framework for integrating AM into education (Alabi et al. 2020).

Figure 3. barriers and recommendations and their interconnections in terms of implementing 3DP in higher education.

4.1 Spontaneous 3DP education and a lack of national curricula and guidelines for integrating 3DP into the classroom

Two major impediments have prevented the inclusion of 3DP in higher education. First, because 3DP is a supplementary subject, most institutions teach it spontaneously, which limits its use in higher education. In addition, mechanical engineering faculty teach 3DP but not other fields. Additionally, students were unaware of 3DP. Vietnamese private technology enterprises and foreign non-governmental organisations encourage elementary to high school students to engage in robot contests that support STEM education (Robot Steam Vietnam 2021). Informal training may result in students being unaware of traditional STEM education, which may worsen their outcomes when they are spontaneously introduced to information. Second, Vietnamese higher education institutions lack nationally integrated frameworks and standards for teaching 3DP. This supports the finding of Lee and Lee (2022) that STEM education has no clear objectives or explicit goals in developed countries, such as Germany and Taiwan, owing to policymakers’ inconsistencies and STEM educational practices. Without major curriculum improvement for twenty-first-century learning, Loy (2019) warned that students would remain unresponsive to the fundamental changes brought about by the digital revolution. One of the main reasons this barrier exists is the lack of skilled teachers to teach 3DP (Barrier 2). Thus, students may only learn about 3DP through short higher education courses (Barrier 3). Hence, solutions to this barrier need to be prioritised.

Unlike other developed countries, where students are exposed to 3DP technology at an early age in school (Chien 2017; Huang and Wang 2022; Kwon 2017; Nemorin and Selwyn 2017), students in Vietnam are only introduced to 3DP in higher education. This slow adoption of 3DP in K-12 education is due to a lack of understanding of 3DP technology and STEM education among educational policymakers (Light Ray 2015). Developed countries’ educational policies usually originate from educational research or macro-level policies on human resources (Lee and Lee 2022). Thus, the third barrier is a notable challenge in integrating 3DP into Vietnamese educational institutions. Therefore, the fundamentals of 3DP should be introduced to both first-year engineering students and K-12 students, and 3DP should be promoted through various channels to raise students’ awareness of 3DP technology, which will engage students who are not aware of 3DP technology and stimulate their passion for it. This finding is significant because Vietnam is actively concentrating on developing Industry 4.0. Surprisingly, 3DP was introduced only in engineering courses in the third and fourth years. For Vietnam to meet the standards of Industry 4.0, it is crucial to have policies and funding in place to promote the growth of 3DP among first-year engineering students and K-12 students.

3DP should be integrated into national curricula to foster its integration into higher education institutions, thereby more effectively guiding students toward fulfilling their careers in scientific research and the AM industry. As a subject, 3DP can only be incorporated into areas of study concerned with 3DP technology, with Cotteleer et al. (2019) suggesting that the first step toward the implementation of 3DP in AM curricula is to incorporate its principles into preexisting non-AM-focused courses. In Vietnam, 3DP has been integrated into other modules and practical projects that form the basis for AM electives across all engineering disciplines.

In recent years, universities have offered interdisciplinary, cross-disciplinary, multidisciplinary, and transdisciplinary programmes, suggesting that 3DP technology is useful in many fields (Cotteleer et al. 2019; Loy 2019). The latest AM curriculum emphasises a multidisciplinary approach with standard technical information. Vietnamese students must adapt to and learn in a changing world of economies and technologies. Many industries require students’ knowledge, talent, and methods in addition to 3DP technology. Hence, updating 3DP curricula and developing guidelines for incorporating 3DP into the classroom will improve educators’ 3DP teaching practices (Recommendation: Improve educators’ abilities to teach 3DP).

4.2 Lack of qualified educators to teach 3DP

Educators clarified that 3DP was only introduced to Vietnamese higher education institutions several years ago, meaning that the majority of educators are not formally trained in 3DP. Educators mainly learned about 3DP through various sources, including direct technology transfers, attendance at conferences and seminars, and the Internet. Therefore, few educators have obtained certifications or degrees in 3DP. Furthermore, there is no national curriculum on 3DP in Vietnam; however, students mainly learn about 3DP from educators. Surprisingly, there is no national curriculum for teaching 3DP. However, engineering schools are still attempting to introduce 3DP to engineering students. At the same time, institutions still need to prepare educators to teach 3DP in engineering education. Bourell, Rosen, and Leu (2014) and Eyers et al. (2018) indicated that despite substantial technical restrictions, the primary obstacle to the deployment of new technologies is frequently the human component, which includes a lack of knowledge and professional personnel in the case of 3DP.

To overcome this barrier, training and retraining must be provided to enhance the 3DP educational skills of teachers in higher education and improve students’ learning and practical abilities. Furthermore, because most educators have not been formally trained in 3DP, they should be divided into two categories: (1) core educators and (2) common educators. Core educators should be sent to neighbouring countries in which 3DP is highly developed (e.g. China, Singapore, Japan, and Korea) to obtain certifications and degrees in 3DP, gain up-to-date 3DP knowledge, learn about the industry’s requirements, and network with international institutions. Moreover, when these educators return to their universities, they will be able to train common educators in the latest 3DP technology. On the other hand, common educators should learn about 3DP through online courses or domestic technology transfers. Thus, students’ 3DP abilities could be substantially enhanced. It is also important to note that Recommendation 2 (i.e. improving educators’ abilities to teach 3DP) counteracts Barrier 2 (i.e. a lack of qualified educators to teach 3DP).

4.3 Lack of 3DP coalition networks in higher education to facilitate the development of 3DP education

Vietnam does not have a 3DP coalition network to help students choose 3DP job pathways or transfer and train in 3DP technologies. This is because educational, research, and business institutions do not communicate or collaborate with each other. Alabi, De Beer, and Wichers (2019) as well as Huang and Leu (2014) stressed university-industry partnerships and technology transfers. No Vietnamese businesses or research institutes have established hubs that bring together different areas of the same field, nor have they provided clear future directions or financial support to create these networks, according to the National Agency for Science and Technology Information (2022). A small set of institutions and research institutes have coordinated educator training. For instance, VinUni is the only Vietnamese organisation studying and developing surgical and orthopaedic products that uses 3DP technology to improve precision and personalised medicine (Vietnam Lawyer Journal 2022), and the Institute of Mechanical Engineering at Hanoi University of Science and Technology has developed biomedical polyether ketone and poly(methyl methacrylate) plastics for higher education. Commercial organisations and corporations can sponsor 3DP education initiatives, but such cooperation is not common or sustainable. As such, 3DP coalition networks among universities, corporations, and research institutes are essential for integrating 3DP into higher education. These networks should facilitate technology transfers and encourage 3DP technological collaboration and innovation.

Moreover, three deans of mechanical engineering who were interviewed emphasised the importance of students attending seminars and conferences on 3DP technology. Kolade, Adegbile, and Sarpong (2022) stated that these joint efforts to establish 3DP hubs and host conferences are an attempt to get the attention of key decision-makers and industry leaders by drawing attention to the emerging value chains that will be formed by the widespread use of 3DP technology. Furthermore, it is essential to organise conferences and seminars to make 3DP accessible to novice users and students to ensure that these groups gain a deeper understanding of 3DP technology. Moreover, to enable students to become familiar with 3DP technology and research, it is important to encourage them to attend annual conferences, as they will have many opportunities to interact with businesses operating in the 3DP industry. Moreover, Birtchnell, Böhme, and Gorkin (2017) indicated that expertise is disseminated and shared among members of the same industry through seminars, workshops, and conventions.

It is also essential to gain funding from the state and universities so that universities can invest in facilities and maintenance, buy 3DP equipment, and provide new 3DP technology to teachers and students for use in their 3DP teaching and research. Similarly, Cotteleer et al. (2019); Delić (2020); Fiaz et al. (2017); Waseem, Kazmi, and Qureshi (2016) indicated that using 3DP in manufacturing necessitates a substantial financial investment, particularly for equipment. In addition to financial support, universities should offer training programmes and reference materials that provide an in-depth understanding of 3DP to increase their use of 3DP technology in the classroom. However, Cotteleer et al. (2019) stated that most training programmes that are currently being offered do not provide the skills and information required for successful 3DP deployment. In addition, it is of the utmost importance that universities provide direction to support training, research, and technology transfer based on the government’s or policy planners’ assessments of 3DP’s role in future scientific and technological developments. With proper support and funding, Vietnamese universities’ abilities to ensure the future of 3DP will be guaranteed. Furthermore, funding from the state and universities could facilitate the introduction of 3DP into educational settings to address the lack of resources available to implement 3DP technology in higher education institutions.

In addition, because formal 3DP training is unavailable, it is essential to engage in self-directed learning when creating a DIY 3D printer at home for studying and research, which could allow individuals to become proficient in 3DP technology. Indeed, self-directed learning is highly prevalent in developing countries because of the lack of educators, with most of the students in this study (61.90%) preferring self-directed learning versus the 24.4% reported by Pearson and Dubé (2022). Although there is a need for formalised 3DP education in the form of degrees and training programmes (Alabi, De Beer, and Wichers 2019; Cotteleer et al. 2019; Lee and Lee 2022), most institutions in developing countries such as Vietnam still lack a wide range of 3DP technologies, national curricula, guidelines, and equipment. Therefore, students can benefit from informal opportunities such as self-directed learning and building DIY 3D printers when working on design projects because the outcomes are rarely predetermined. This means that students can take charge of their own education in response to the project goals. Innovation and creativity in 3DP technology can be promoted by encouraging students and instructors to practice 3DP, conduct 3DP research, and engage in self-directed learning and group work. Recommendation 5 can also be used to address students’ limited exposure to 3DP in higher education institutions.

4.4 A framework for integrating 3DP into higher education institutions

Based on these findings, we developed an updated framework for integrating 3DP into developing countries’ education institutions based on Alabi et al.’s (2020) framework for integrating AM into education (Figure 2), which has five factors: ‘AM technology’, ‘AM research and development’, ‘AM in-house facilities’, ‘AM educational curriculum development’, and ‘AM technological transfer’. Our updated framework introduces two new categories, namely, AM evaluation and AM needs assessment, as well as some subcategories under AM in-house facilities and AM education and AM curriculum development. The new categories, including their subcategories, are shown in italics in Figure 4.

Figure 4. The framework for integrating 3DP into developing countries’ higher education institutions.

Note: The italic text marks additions to the framework of Alabi et al. (2020).

The AM evaluation factor ensures that the framework successfully reaches its aims and caters to educators’ and students’ needs by ensuring that the curricula and framework are regularly evaluated. Evaluating the effect of the framework on learning outcomes and identifying areas for development are parts of this process. For a framework to succeed, it is essential to receive input from teachers and students. One way to do this is to have students complete short surveys on their experiences in class, the materials they can use, and the overall quality of their education (Fidalgo, Thormann, and Davis 2019). The ability of a framework to adapt to new requirements and situations depends on users recognising and fixing their weaknesses. Finding new avenues for growth and development as well as determining areas that may require more funding or assistance are parts of this process. The needs assessment factor refers to educators’ and students’ needs being identified so that the framework can be adapted to meet the unique requirements of various institutions. The possible uses of 3DP in different industries as well as the specific skills and knowledge students should acquire are considered in this factor (Malik et al. 2022). Awareness of these barriers facilitates the development of solutions for overcoming them. To ensure a smooth and successful rollout, it is also important to use the existing infrastructure and resources (Kolade, Adegbile, and Sarpong 2022). Educators’ and students’ technical knowledge and the accessibility of 3DP resources are also factors to be considered. Thus, any institution in a developing country can use the revised framework to meet its requirements when effectively integrating 3DP into its education system.

The findings of this study do not support the AM technology factor as a subfactor of AM technologies, and the development cycle and sustainability were not considered. However, the findings verify the importance of AM technology transfer as well as AM research and development. Moreover, two subfactors for AM in-house facilities and three subfactors for AM educational curriculum development were added based on the findings. The two subfactors for AM in-house facilities help teachers and students become comfortable with incorporating 3DP technology into their classrooms and curricula; if they are provided with access to training and support, they will be able to freely experiment with 3DP through access to 3D printers, materials, and software (Pearson and Dubé 2022). Therefore, they may gain new knowledge and develop novel approaches to resolve practical issues. Furthermore, the three subfactors of AM educational curriculum development will guarantee that the curricula are useful and applicable to educators and students through the design of curricula that consider educators’ and students’ needs. Thus, the potential uses of 3DP in various disciplines and the specific skills and knowledge that students need to gain can be determined (Santos et al. 2019). 3DP and its associated applications must be incorporated into curricula so that students can gain practical experience with these tools and apply them to real-world issues (Trust and Maloy 2017). Student learning and involvement in 3DP technology can also be bolstered through the creation of learning materials and resources, such as tutorials, case studies, and project ideas.

4.5 Implications

In this section, we reflect on these barriers and compare them with those identified in studies conducted in developed countries. The implications of this study are also discussed. Our study revealed several barriers to integrating 3DP into engineering education: (1) the absence of national curricula and guidelines for integrating 3DP into the classroom, (2) a lack of training for educators to teach 3DP, (3) students being introduced to 3DP through short courses, and, only in higher education, (4) a lack of cooperation with AM companies and universities to facilitate the growth of 3DP education. Our results align with the aforementioned barriers to the integration of 3DP into developed countries. In developing countries, the integration of AM into engineering education is hindered by a lack of curricula and policies, the inadequate training of educators, and a preference for self-directed learning among students (Alabi et al. 2020; To, Al Mahmud, and Ranscombe 2023; Waseem, Kazmi, and Qureshi 2016). In addition, limited formal 3DP training and inconsistent communication between educational institutions, research institutions, and enterprises hinder the growth of 3DP education (Inoma, Ibhadode, and Ibhadode 2020). In Korea, a lack of digital literacy and confidence among teachers in teaching 3DP technology, an overemphasis on technological knowledge in teacher training, and limited access to 3D printers have contributed to the challenges in 3DP education (Song 2018).

In our study, these four barriers stemmed from a developing country such as Vietnam; however, researchers reported similar issues in a study conducted in developed countries, such as the USA. For example, a study by (Cheng, Antonenko, and Ritzhaupt 2023) on 3DP integration in science classrooms reported several challenges, such as technical issues, the limited availability of 3D printers, and a lack of time to integrate 3DP into the curriculum. In addition, other barriers to 3DP integration were observed, such as a lack of connection between 3DP and relevant curriculum standards owing to teachers’ technology readiness. These barriers are related to a study by Ertmer et al. (2012) that explored the misalignment between educators’ beliefs and their classroom technology practices by focusing on the impacts of internal and external barriers. A previous study found that educators’ beliefs and attitudes regarding the relevance of technology to students’ learning have the greatest impact on student success, whereas existing attitudes and knowledge levels are identified as barriers preventing other educators from using technology effectively. Although this study was conducted in the USA, the barriers were somewhat similar to those in our study, which was conducted in Vietnam. These findings suggest that our identified barriers are a common hindrance to integrating 3DP into engineering and science education. Therefore, it is imperative to overcome these barriers for the successful integration of 3DP into education.

This study provides several recommendations for overcoming these barriers. Training university staff in 3DP knowledge and developing national curricula are necessary. Cooperation with AM companies and technology transfers among industries, universities, and research organisations are needed, including government and university funding, which is recommended to improve 3DP education. Policy and funding support should promote AM growth among engineering students in line with Industry 4.0. Incorporating AM principles into non-AM-focused courses, encouraging self-directed learning, and providing practical projects can enhance student proficiency. Prioritising education training and collaboration among educational, research, and enterprise institutions can facilitate AM education growth. These recommendations are consistent with those reported by Cheng, Antonenko, and Ritzhaupt (2023). As outlined in our revised framework, such recommendations are vital for integrating 3DP into engineering education in both developing and developed countries. These suggestions can help overcome these challenges and enhance 3DP integration. However, we resonate with the ideas put forth by Cheng, Antonenko, and Ritzhaupt (2023), who stated that successful 3DP integration requires commitment and effort from universities and faculty members in addition to solving the barriers discussed above. Providing ongoing support to teachers may act as a positive catalyst for the successful integration of 3DP.

4.6. Limitations

Owing to COVID-19 restrictions, we were unable to recruit widely and include more female participants in our study. Only men participated in this study, which may have limited the viewpoints. To boost generalizability, future research should use a larger and more diverse sample. The interviews were conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, which may have hindered the participants from publicly discussing 3DP in their institutions. Because of their institutions’ requirements to study from home (at the time we conducted this study), most students attended the interviews virtually. We used Zoom to conduct and audio-record the semi-structured interviews. Additionally, this study did not consider factors such as the integration of sustainability into 3DP classrooms. Thus, in future studies, we will investigate these subfactors to gain more insights into integrating 3DP in developing countries.

5. Conclusion and future work

This study investigates the barriers to integrating 3DP into higher education institutions and provides solutions to counteract these barriers. Our study revealed several barriers to integrating 3DP into engineering education: (1) the absence of national curricula and guidelines for integrating 3DP into the classroom, (2) educators not being adequately prepared to teach 3DP, (3) students being introduced to 3DP through short courses and only in higher education, and (4) the lack of coalition networks to facilitate the growth of 3DP education. Moreover, although some students could access 3DP equipment in their institutions, they struggled to work on their 3DP projects because of a lack of qualified educators. Because 3DP is not yet integrated into curricula as a component of major subjects, educators are not well-trained in delivering 3DP curricula. Furthermore, 3DP courses are short, and students are mostly required to self-study 3DP learning materials in English. Finally, no 3DP networks in higher education exist to offer support to students.

To properly equip students with jobs in scientific research and AM, the national curriculum must include 3DP education. National 3DP curricula address the lack of a standardised curriculum by providing an organised method to incorporate 3DP into engineering education. Educators should improve their 3DP education skills to address societal and industrial requirements. Professional development for educators aims to equip underprepared teachers with the knowledge and abilities required to implement 3DP in their teaching methods. Cooperation with AM companies and technology transfers between industries, universities, and research organisations are also needed. Coalition networks enable educators, industry experts, and policymakers to share resources, knowledge, and effective 3D printing technology integration strategies. State and university funding is recommended to improve 3DP education. These approaches will aid Vietnam and other developing countries with higher education institutions. Through these proposed solutions, we aim to comprehensively address the highlighted constraints and improve the integration of 3DP technology into engineering education.

The findings of this study can be used to enhance the incorporation of 3DP technology into Vietnamese higher education. This study revealed new areas of investigation, a few of which are elaborated in this discussion. The primary objective of this research is to establish a foundation for integrating 3DP technology into Vietnamese universities, as seen by students and faculty members. However, further studies are necessary to substantiate its utility and authenticate its efficacy for STEM educators and policymakers in Vietnam. Additional research is required to investigate whether the suggestions provided in this study can improve the integration of 3DP into engineering education.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

The datasets used and/or analyzed in the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Thanh Tuan To

Tuan Thanh To is a PhD student at Swinburne University of Technology. Tuan has an MSc in Advanced Multimedia and 3D Technologies from Brunel University, United Kingdom. His research interests include 3D printing and higher education.

Abdullah Al Mahmud

Abdullah Al Mahmud is a design researcher and Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) specialist working at the intersection of design and health. His research interests include co-design, child-computer interaction, digital health, persuasive technology, and designing with and for marginalised communities living in low-resource regions.

Charlie Ranscombe

Charlie Ranscombe is an interdisciplinary researcher working in product design and new product development in the field of aesthetics and product brand identity. Charlie's primary research focuses on approaches to understanding better product appearance and how brands change appearance to stay relevant while maintaining core brand identity.

Appendices

Appendix A

Table A1. Barriers to Integrating 3DP into the classroom.

Themes and Subthemes		Number (n) and ratio (%) of participants
		Educators	Students
3DP Curricula and Training	3DP courses are short.	n = 13; 100%	n = 20; 95.24%
	There is a lack of 3DP curricula, training, practice, and instructors.	n = 12; 92.31%	n = 20; 95.24%
	3DP learning is self-directed.	n = 0	n = 11; 52.38%
	3DP learning is informal, and studying 3DP technology is difficult.	n = 0	n = 10; 38.10%
	There is no clear development path and no related 3DP job orientation.	n = 1; 7.69%	n = 3; 14.29%
	There are language barriers as most of the information and documents on 3DP are supplied in English.	n = 1; 7.69%	n = 3; 14.29%
3DP Facilities, Equipment, and Technology	There are limited 3DP facilities and maintenance.	n = 13; 100%	n = 16; 76.19%
	There is a limited range of 3DP applications and productivity.	n = 8; 61.54%	n = 6; 28.57%
	There are limitations and inaccuracies in 3DP materials.	n = 8; 61.54%	n = 10; 47.62%
	3DP equipment is expensive.	n = 7; 53.85%	n = 9; 42.86%
	It takes a long time to prepare and operate 3DP equipment.	n = 4; 30.71%	n = 5; 24.81%
	There are many students in the classroom.	n = 2; 15.38%	n = 2; 9.52%
	It is difficult to access 3DP equipment and components.	n = 1; 7.69%	n = 1; 4.76%
3DP Industry	3DP technology and the high-tech sector have not yet developed in Vietnam.	n = 5; 38.46%	n = 5; 23.84%
	3DP has not gained much attention from society and enterprises.	n = 3; 23.08%	n = 3; 14.29%
3DP Funding and Policies	There is a lack of funds, investment, and policies on 3DP.	n = 10; 76.92%	n = 4; 14.29%

Table A2. Recommendations for Integrating 3DP into the classroom.

Themes and Subthemes		Educators	Students
3DP Curricula and Training	3DP curricula must be developed, intensive training courses and practical opportunities must be offered, and instructors must be hired.	n = 8; 61.54%	n = 13; 61.90%
	Students and lecturers must be encouraged to practice, experiment, and join 3DP research seminars and conferences, and students must work in groups.	n = 10; 76.92%	n = 10; 47.62%
	Students should engage in self-study and build DIY 3D printers at home for studying and research.	n = 3; 23.08%	n = 13; 61.90%
3DP Facilities, Equipment, and Technology	3DP facilities must be supplied, and maintenance should be conducted.	n = 11; 84.62%	n = 14; 66.67%
	There should be a focus on researching, designing, and manufacturing materials that are more durable.	n = 1; 7.69%	n = 2; 9.52%
	3DP manufacturing enterprises should be approached to secure investment and ensure knowledge exchange.	n = 1; 7.69%	n = 1; 4.76%
	Guidance should be provided to support research and technology transfer, and institutions should cooperate with foreign direct investment enterprises and foreign universities.	n = 2; 15.38%	n = 0
3DP Industry	Cooperation programmes should be promoted, and the AM industry should be approached for 3DP equipment.	n = 11; 84.62%	n = 0
3DP Funding and Policies	Funds should be provided for training and research.	n = 10; 76.92%	n = 9; 42.86%
	3DP training programmes should be developed.	n = 11; 84.62%	n = 0

Appendix B

Open-ended questions

This interview study aims to investigate the implementation of 3D printing integration in the higher education sector.

Table

No	Section A1 – Open-ended questions – Barrier of 3DP Technology (This section aims is to investigate the barrier of 3DP technology in the higher education sector) – For Students
1.	Do you learn 3DP technology at your university? If yes, how do you learn 3DP? What are the best and worst parts?
2.	What are the benefits and challenges of learning 3DP in the classroom? What are the most important about cooperating with AM industry?
3.	What limitations do you think 3DP has in the classroom?
4.	What types of support have you received from your university?
	Section A2 – Open-ended questions – 3DP Facilities – 3DP Recommendations (This section aims is to investigate the 3DP Facilities in the higher education sector) – For Students
5.	How many resources are needed to support your 3DP projects? What knowledge and skills have you learned from the 3DP software training programme?
6.	What do you think about 3DP facilities at your university? What changes will you request for the 3DP facilities?
	Section A3 – Open-ended questions – 3DP Curriculum – 3DP Recommendations (This section aims is to investigate the 3DP curriculum in the higher education sector) - For Students
7.	What do you think about the 3DP curriculum in the class? What changes will you request for the current curriculum?
8.	What are your experiences studying 3DP in the classroom? What do you want to learn from 3DP? What are your recommendations for the 3DP integration in the classroom? How effective is the 3DP course in your classroom?
	Section A4 – Open-ended questions – 3DP Training & Prospective jobs – 3DP Recommendations (This section aims is to investigate the 3DP curriculum in the higher education sector) - For Students
9.	What types of training do you want to have?
10.	What practices/ skills are you learning that are important for your future jobs? How do you prepare for your 3DP future job?
No	Section B1 – Open-ended questions – Barrier of 3DP Technology (This section aims is to investigate the barrier of 3DP technology in the higher education sector) – For Faculty and Staff
11.	Do you teach 3DP technology at your university? If yes, how do you teach 3DP? What are the best and worst parts?
12.	What are the benefits and challenges of learning 3DP in the classroom? What are the most important about cooperating with AM industry?
13.	What limitations do you think 3DP has in the classroom?
14.	What types of support have you received from your university?
15.	What are the barriers to teaching 3DP as one tool for prototyping in the overall context of design and manufacturing education?
	Section B2 – Open-ended questions – 3DP Facilities – 3DP Recommendations (This section aims is to investigate the 3DP Facilities in the higher education sector) – For Faculty and Staff
16.	How many resources are needed to support your 3DP projects? What knowledge and skills have you learned from the 3DP software training programme?
17.	What do you think about 3DP facilities at your university? What changes will you request for the 3DP facilities?
	Section B3 – Open-ended questions – 3DP Curriculum – 3DP Recommendations (This section aims is to investigate the 3DP curriculum in the higher education sector) - For Faculty and Staff
18.	What do you think about the 3DP curriculum in the class? What changes will you request for the current curriculum?
19.	How is 3DP being taught in the context of higher education? Can you describe the teaching methods?
20.	What are your experiences teaching 3DP in the classroom? What do you want to teach from 3DP? What are your recommendations for the 3DP integration in the classroom? How effective is the 3DP course in your classroom?
21.	What changes would you make regarding the 3DP curriculum and pedagogy? What approach can be taken and improved to make it efficient in 3DP or support students in learning 3DP?
22.	What contents are students being taught in the classroom? What activities are students engaging in the classroom?
	Section B4 – Open-ended questions – 3DP Training & Prospective job – 3DP Recommendations (This section aims is to investigate the 3DP curriculum in the higher education sector) – For Faculty and Staff
23.	What types of training do you want to have?
24.	What practices/ skills that are important for students’ future jobs? How does your university prepare for students’ 3DP future careers?
25.	What are 3DP training & prospective jobs happening in Vietnam universities?
26.	Section B5 – Open-ended questions – 3DP Creativity, innovation, Research & Development and Technology transfer – 3DP Recommendations (This section aims is to investigate the 3DP curriculum in the higher education sector) – For Faculty and Staff
27.	What do you think about 3D printing technology becoming a platform for technology transfer and innovation between your university and AM industry? What’s your understanding of technology transfer and innovation in 3DP?
28.	What should the government and your university need to provide support or resources for research & development using 3DP technologies in higher education? What measures are needed?