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Articles

The structuration of comparative discourse and the imagination of knowledge spaces: Portugal, the ‘South of Europe’, and the ‘South below’

Pages 459-489 | Published online: 07 Feb 2019
 

ABSTRACT

The present article addresses the issue of structuration of the field of Comparative Education in Portugal. The narrative is constructed at two levels, one of a more descriptive nature, the other more interpretative. In the first part of the text, the construction of a comparative imagination is addressed on the basis of four main points in time: the impact of overseas echoes in education reforms (seventeenth to nineteenth century), the importance of the pedagogical experiences acquired in overseas missions (nineteenth to twentieth century), internationalisation of the educational question in the African colonies (late nineteenth century, mid twentieth century) and finally, the impact of international bodies on the modernisation of the Portuguese education system (50s, mid-70s). In the second part of the text, the emergence of the field of Comparative Education is discussed as a scientific research area, and as an autonomous formative component. Several disciplinarization dynamics and their institutional application points are identified, pointing to the importance of European Union funded projects for the integration of research groups in international comparative study networks. Towards the end of the text, several standard approaches that structure comparative discourse and the practices of Portuguese researchers are pinpointed.

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my gratitude to my colleagues, especially Luís Miguel Carvalho and António Nóvoa, but also to João Barroso, Natércio Afonso and Luísa Cerdeira, for their contributions which were essential to the writing of this text. I would also like to thank Tania Gregg for her thorough work in its translation.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes on contributor

Ana Isabel Madeira is in the Instituto de Educação, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal.

Notes

1 In the Law of 3 September 1759, Marquis of Pombal banishes the Jesuits from Portugal. This law enables Pombal to concentrate on a range of reforms deemed essential for the construction of the modern Portuguese state. See Nóvoa (Citation1987, 126).

2 See Carvalho (Citation1996, 393).

3 For more information in this regard, see Carneiro, Diogo, and Simões (Citation2000, 81–82).

4 The concept refers to a number of cosmopolitan Portuguese scholars who, having lived abroad and travelled around enlightened Europe, became carriers of the values upheld by the ‘polished and enlightened nations’ on their return to Portugal. Despised by a ‘backward’ society, in the words of António Sérgio (1883–1969), or archetypes of the Enlightenment, as opposed to the ‘castiços’ [those opposed to innovation and modernity], as referred to by Jaime Cortesão (1884–1960), the historical category ‘estrangeirados’ reflects the ‘light’/‘darkness’ contrast associated with ‘rescuing the country from decadence’. For more information in this regard, see Cardoso (Citation1989), Silva and Hespanha (Citation1998), Araújo (Citation2003) and Almeida (Citation2017).

5 La Chalotais, during the period of French Absolutism, a staunch defender of the secularisation of educataion and its State administration, praised the action of the Pombaline reforms highly, stating ‘peut-être que le Portugal qui reforme entièrement ses etudes, avancera beaucoup plus que nous à proportion, si nous ne songeons pas sérieusement à reformer les notres’ Machado (Citation2011, 63–64).

6 For more information in this regard, see Cipolla (Citation1969), Soysal and Strang (Citation1989), Graff (Citation1991).

7 For more information in this regard, see Nóvoa (Citation1987, 333) and Candeias (Citation2009, 205–232).

8 The by-laws of the Academy clearly pointed to its objective being the ‘advance of national education’, in tandem with an amelioration of the arts and sciences, a tendency expressed throughout the period of reign of Dona Maria I, by way of various initiatives indicating concern with the dissemination of scientific knowledge for non-specialised audiences.

9 The Constitutional Monarchy covers a period during which Portugal sees itself involved in social conflicts, coup d’états and civil unrest (1820–1851), involving the opposition of two large groups: the liberals and absolutists. It is in this unstable social and political climate, in the context of the eighteenth century Pombaline reforms, that the regime seeks to implement a compulsory, free and secular education system, controlled by the State and referred to as ‘basic popular education’.

10 See Nóvoa (Citation1987, 342).

11 With reference to the controversies regarding the Portuguese method of Mutual Education of Castilho the Cartilha Maternal, of João de Deus.

12 Jules Simon (1814–1896), supported by the regenerators, and Jules Ferry (1832–1893), summoned by the republican factions, are frequently invoked by the parliamentarians to justify Portuguese state education reforms, in line with what France achieved, in the Third Republic, in moral and civic education and in the field of school compulsoriness, secularism and gratuity.

13 For more information in this regard, see Adão (Citation2002, 72).

14 See Célestin Hippeau. L’instruction publique aux États Unis (Citation1872a); L’instruction publique en Angleterre (Citation1872b); L’instruction publique en Alemagne (Citation1873a); L’instruction publique en France pendant la Révolution (Citation1873b); A Instrução Pública em Inglaterra (Citation1874).

15 For more information in this regard, see Deusdado (Citation(1909) 1995, 454).

16 To exemplify, with reference to the titles of the pedagogical press responsible for the publication of articles solely designed to disseminate features of foreign educational systems, during the period from 1820 to 1910: O Instituto (1853); Revista da Instrução Pública para Portugal e Brasil (1857); Boletim Oficial de Instrução Pública (1861); Gazeta Pedagógica (1869); Ensino Livre (1871); Gazeta das Escolas (1873); O Amigo da Infância (1874); Revista Municipal (1876); O Século (1876); Froebel (1882); Revista de Estudos Livres (1883); A Escola (1884); A Instrução Popular (1893); Educação Nacional (1896); Brotéria (1902); Boletim da Direcção Geral de Instrução Pública (1902); O Vintém das Escolas (1902); A Escola (1906); Revista Pedagógica (1906); O Ensino (1910) and Boletim de Propaganda (1910). For more information in this regard, see Nóvoa (Citation1993).

17 See Fernandes (Citation2007); Pintassilgo (Citation2007); Ribeiro (Citation2010); Adão (Citation2011) and Silva (Citation2013).

18 See Figueira (Citation2004, 31).

19 The missions promoted during the governance of João Franco (1906–1908), with a view to collecting information on the modern trends of education abroad, including the traineeships of João de Barros (Spain, Britain, France and Belgium); António Barbosa (Germany); Bettencourt Rodrigues (Belgium); Luís Cardim (Germany and Britain) and Albano Ramalho (France and Belgium). For more information in this regard, see Figueira (Citation2004, 31).

20 See Figueira (Citation2004) and Candeias, Nóvoa, and Figueira (Citation1995, 70).

21 As was the case, for example with the Treaty of Zaire (1884), with the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty (1891), following Britain’s Ultimatum to Portugal, on 11 January 1890, and with the Traety of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919). For more information in this regard, see Caetano (Citation1971, 90–91 e 149) and Jerónimo and Monteiro (Citation2014, 19–20).

22 See Fuchs (Citation2007b, 199–209).

23 See Paulo (Citation2000, 306).

24 The following works are examples of those cited in the various debate forums: Joseph Gallieni, Madagascar de 1896 à 1905 (1905); Edmond Demolins, À quoi tient la supériorité des Anglo-saxons? (1897); Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, De la colonisation chez les peuples modernes (1874); Pierre Leroy-Beaulieu, Les nouvelles sociétés Anglo-Saxones (1907); Jean-Louis de Lanessan, L’expansion coloniale de la France (1886); Léopold de Saussure, Psychologie de la colonisation française dans ses rapports avec les indigènes (1899); Harry Johsnton, A history of the colonization of Africa by alien races (1899); H. H. Van Kol, Condition politique et juridique des indigènes (s.d); H. H. Van Kol, Condition politique et juridique des indigènes (s.l/s.d); Lord Frederick Lugard, The Rise of Our East African Empire (1893) and The Dual Mandate (1922); Charles T. Loram, The Education of the South African Native; Albert Sarraut, La mise en valeur des colonies françaises (1923).

25 See Schriewer (Citation1995); Steiner-Khamsi (Citation2002) and Fuchs (Citation2007a).

26 See Madeira (Citation2007, Citation2008).

27 For more information in this regard, see Jesse-Jones (Citation1922, Citation1925).

28 See Alexandre (Citation2006, 10).

29 The constitutional reform of 1951, which revokes the Colonial Act of 1930, invokes vocation and the historical right to own and colonise overseas territories, and to replace the terms ‘colonies’ with the designation ‘oversears provinces’.

30 Clause 73 of the Charter obliges Portugal to regularly report statistical data or technical information to the Secretary General on the economic, social and educational conditions of the ‘non-autonomous’ territories. In addition to this information, as a member of the UN, Portugal was obliged to prepare these territories for their own self-governance and to secure the political, economic, social and educational progress of their people. Salazar responded by stating that Portugal did not possess colonies and that the ‘overseas provinces’, pursuant to the Constitution, were an integral part of the Portuguese State. In his display of unwillingness to subject his overseas administration to ‘any international censorship system’, the Head of State further added that ‘no information would be passed on’ to the UN. See Nogueira (Citation1980, 423), Castelo (Citation2014, 514) and Rodrigues (Citation2006, 171).

31 See Paulo (Citation2000, 321).

32 UNESCO (Citation1957). The data refer only to the colonies of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea.

33 Funding of the II Plano de Fomento para o Ultramar (1959–1964) for the first time provides for health and education funding (7.2%); the investments are directly transferred to the local governors; Rudimentary Education (1964), up to then under the control of the Catholic missions, is nullified; the school network and school positions are expanded; the secondary education network is broadened; Estudos Gerais Universitários are established in the main cities of Angola and Mozambique.

34 For more information in this regard, see Nóvoa (Citation1992, 456–460).

35 The Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was set up after World War II to administer the Marshall Plan from the European perspective and is the precursor to today’s Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Developemnt (OECD).

36 In 1950, the World Survey of Education estimated the illiteracy rate in Portugal to stand at 44%, ranking it in last place among the other European countries (UNESCO Citation1955, 14–15); in the mid 1950s, the rate of schooling of the population aged between 5 and 14 years stood in the order of 45%, thus relegating Portugal to last place in Europe (UNESCO Citation1958, 58–60); in a study relative to 1960, Portugal is also ranked as one of the last in a list of 72 countries, with only 9% of its gross domestic product assigned to education expenditure (UNESCO Citation1966). For more information in this regard, see Nóvoa (Citation1997, 178).

37 For more information in this regard, see Nóvoa (Citation1992, 460); see Miranda (Citation1981) for more information on the concept of ‘oecdism’.

38 The relationship between professional education and the demands of the Portuguese industrialisation project, according to international standards, became progressively secondary. It was the doctrinal and cooperative spirit of the central administration that prevailed over the management of the technical schools (Duque Citation2009, 59). As for the literacy levels, in 1960, 67.2% of the active population had not completed primary education, and the illiteracy rate stood at 20% (OCDE Citation1966).

39 The project was launched in 1959, under the coordination of Alves Martins, director of the Centro de Estudos de Estatística Económica do Instituto de Alta Cultura, and the team was complemented by António Alves Caetano, António Simões Lopes and Ludovico Cândido. Two reports were produced as a result of their work (PMR Citation1963, Citation1964); the final report of the Mediterranean Regional Project was published by the OECD in Citation1965.

40 See PMR (Citation1964, 19).

41 See PRM (Citation1964, 27–29).

42 Among whom, Prostes da Fonseca, Fraústo da Silva, Adelino Amaro da Costa, Teresa Ambrósio, Roberto Carneiro, Luís Valadares Tavares, Maria Emília Freire, Emília São Pedro, Maria José Rau, Mário Murteira and so many others who went on to assume responsibilities in the definition of educational policies after 1974.

43 For more information in this regard, see Stoer (Citation1983, 819) and Grácio (Citation1995, 477).

44 Herinafter referred to as EC.

45 The entry of Portugal in the European Community (1986) would also have significant implications for the funding of Education, through the availability of resources that had never before existed to support the advanced education of human resources. See Nóvoa and Ramos do Ó (Citation2007).

46 For more information in this regard, see Campos (Citation1993, 18).

47 The accomplishment of these studies was funded, first and foremost, by a private institution, the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation (FCG), and by the central administration bodies of the State, the Junta Nacional de Investigação Científica e Tecnológica (JNICT) and to a far lesser degree by the Instituto de Inovação Educacional (IIE), under the Department for Education. Support for research in the area of Education (missions, grants, publication support and scientific meetings) was also provided by other private institutions, namely the Luso-American Foundation, the Asia-Europe Foundation, the Aga Khan Foundation, the Fullbright Foundation and the Bernard Van Leer Foundation. For more information in this regard, see Fernandes and Esteves (Citation1995, 17–20).

48 The thesis was published the following year, entitled Le Temps des Professeurs: Analyse socio-historique de la profession enseignante au Portugal (Nóvoa Citation1987).

49 The text of the lecture was published the following year, in the Journal Les Sciences de l’éducation pour l’ère nouvelle, n° 2-3, pp. 9–61 (Nóvoa, Citation1994, Citation1995b).

50 For more information in this regard, see Nóvoa (Citation1998, Citation2001, Citation2005).

52 See Nóvoa (Citation1996, Citation2000b).

53 See Nóvoa and Yariv-Mashal (Citation2003), Nóvoa (Citation2010a, Citation2010b).

54 One of the most enlightening examples of this regulating mechanism is the so-called Bologna process, which, not being compulsory for any of the EU member states, represents a sine qua non condition for the integration (and survival) of the universities in the ‘European Higher Education Area’.

55 For more information in this regard, see Nóvoa and Popkewitz (Citation1992); Nóvoa and Schriewer (Citation2000); Nóvoa and Yariv-Mashal (Citation2003); Nóvoa and de Jong-Lambert (Citation2003); Lawn and Nóvoa (Citation2005) e Nóvoa, Carvalho, and Yanes (Citation2014).

56 For more information in this regard, see Nóvoa et al. (Citation2002 ) and Nóvoa and Schriewer (Citation2000).

57 International scientific collaboration in Europe saw a considerable boost with the broadening of funding from the Framework Programmes as of 1990, and particularly from the establishment of the European Research Area (ERA) in 2000, and the European Research Council (ERC) in 2007.

58 Coordination of the Prestige network fell under the International Institute of Education of Stockholm University (Sweden), under the supervision of Ingemar Fagerlind; the team from the University of Humboldt (Berlin), coordinated by Jürgen Schriewer, also participated; the team from the Complutense University of Madrid (Spain), coordinated by Joaquín Abellán; the team from Oxford University (United Kingdom), coordinated by David Philips; the team from Bourgogne University, in Dijon (France), coordinated by François Orivel. António Nóvoa coordinated the team at the FPCE-UL, consisting of Luís Miguel Carvalho, António Carlos Correia, Jorge Ramos do Ó and Ana Isabel Madeira. The findings of the research conducted by the various universities of the network were published by Educa in the Cadernos Prestige. In addition to the members of the Portuguese team, Prestige articulated approximately 20 doctoral students with a Seminar entitled “The School and Globalization Processes: Historical and Comparative Perspectives” (academic years 1998/1999 and 1999/2000).

59 With reference to the ICCTI/CAPES agreement, ‘Comparative Studies on the School. Portugal and Brazil (nineteenth and twentieth centuries)’, involving a research partnership between the University of Lisbon and the University of S. Paulo; the relationship with Mozambique (Eduardo Mondlane University – UEM) was funded by the FPCE – University of Lisbon.

60 For more information in this regard, see Soysal and Strang (Citation1989); Meyer, Ramírez, and Soysal (Citation1992); Nóvoa and Schriewer (Citation2000) and Meyer and Ramírez (Citation2003).

61 The EGSIE project integrated 9 teams belonging to the following partner institutions: the University of Helsinki (Finland), coordinated by Hannu Simola; The Icelandic University College of Education (Iceland), coordinated by Ingolffur Johannesson; Keele University (UK) and Westhill College (UK), coordinated by Martin Lawn; Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universitat, Frankfurt/Main (Germany), coordinated by Edwin Keiner; the University of Granada (Spain), coordinated by Miguel Pereyra; the University of Lisbon (Portugal), coordinated by António Nóvoa; the University of Athens (Greece), coordinated by Andreas Kazamias; and the University of Newcastle (Australia), coordinated by James Ladwig. Coordination of the project fell under Sverker Lindblad, of Uppsala University (Sweden) and Thomas Popkewitz, of the University of Wisconsin-Madison (USA). The Portuguese team of the project was coordinated by António Nóvoa and included Rui Canário, Natália Alves and two research assistants, Carla Menitra and Maria João Sucena. The research findings were published in the Uppsala Reports on Education, nos. 34 to 38.

62 See Lindblad and Popkewitz (Citation2001).

63 João Barroso coordinated the team at the FPCE-UL. The Reguleducnetwork project integrated 6 additional teams belonging to the following institutions: GIRSEF, Université Catholique de Louvain, coordinated by Christian Maroy – general coordinator of the project; EPRU, Institute of Education, University of London, coordinated by Stephen Ball; CPPR, King’s College London, coordinated by Martin Thrupp; CERISIS, Université Catholique de Louvain, coordinated by Bernard Delvaux; OSC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, coordinated by Agnès van Zanten; IFRESI and Université des Sciences et Techniques de Lille, coordinated by Lise Démailly; ELTE, Faculty of Humanities of Lorand Eotvos University, Budapest, coordinated by Ivan Bajomi.

64 For more information in this regard, see Barroso (Citation2006) and Maroy (Citation2006).

65 The Portuguese team was coordinated by João Barroso, and included the participation of Luís Miguel Carvalho and Natércio Afonso, and António Nóvoa and Rui Canário as collaborators. The KNOWandPOL project was coordinated by the Université Catholique de Louvain (Belgium) and integrated the following partner institutions: Ludwig-Maximilian Universität München (Ger.), Université de Liège (Bel.), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (Fra.), Établissement Public de Santé Mentale – Lille (Fra.), Eötvös Lórand Tudományegyetem – Eötvös Lórand University (Hun.), Szociológiai Kutatóintézet – Magyar Tudományos Akadémia (Hun.), Høgskolen i Østfold – Ostold University College and Universitetet Bergen (Nor.), Norwegian Institute for Urban and Regional Research (Nor.), Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências de Educaçăo da Universidade de Lisboa (Por.), Sapientia – Hungarian University of Transylvania (Rom.), The University of Edinburgh (U.K.). Between 2005 and 2010, a group of doctoral students developed their research projects in articulation with the KNOWandPOL project (PhD in Education, specialisation area in Educational Administration and Policy).

66 See Barroso and Afonso (Citation2011).

67 For more information in this regard, see Carvalho (Citation2015, 315) and Barroso and Carvalho (Citation2008, Citation2012).

68 See Schriewer (Citation1995, 35–36).

69 The collection was compiled through cross data, available at the Scientific Open Access Repository of Portugal, and at the repositories of Portuguese state and private universities (15 universities). Broad criteria were adopted in order to include in this inventory theses (master and doctoral), articles, book chapters and complete works bearing the designations ‘comparative education’, ‘comparative study’ and ‘comparative approach’ in the abstracts, summaries and key-words. A screening process followed, where spurious situations with regard to the object of analysis were eliminated, given that in many of the texts no correspondence between the stated intentions and the presented findings was found.

70 For more information in this regard, see Nóvoa (Citation1995a, Citation1995b, Citation1998, Citation2000a); Resulting from a reorganisation of the University of Lisbon in 2013, the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences-UL became re-denominated Institute of Education of the University of Lisbon (IE-UL).

71 See Carvalho (Citation2000, Citation2001, Citation2003, Citation2005, Citation2007); Carvalho and Cordeiro (Citation2002); Nóvoa et al. (Citation2002) and Ramos do Ó and Carvalho (Citation2009).

73 See Pintassilgo (Citation2006, Citation2007, Citation2010); Mogarro (Citation2006) e Pintassilgo et al. (Citation2009).

74 See Correia (Citation2011, Citation2016), Correia and Fernandes (Citation2012).

77 For example, in the area of sociology of education, educational organisation and administration, educational policy and educational cooperation.

78 Master theses (Araújo Citation2006; Ferreira Citation2007, Citation2011; Santos Citation2008; Triches Citation2008; Albuquerque Citation2009; Costa Citation2013; Mendonça Citation2016); PhD theses (Azevedo Citation2000; Seixas Citation2000; Cardoso Citation2001; Marcondes Citation2005; Cruz Citation2008; Ehrensperger Citation2009; Neves Citation2009; Veiga Citation2010; Antunes Citation2003; Guimarães Citation2011; Costa Citation2011; Batista Citation2014).

79 See Carvalho (Citation2014).

80 See Stoer, Cortesão, and Correia (Citation2001).

81 See Antunes (Citation2003, Citation2004, Citation2005, Citation2006, Citation2008); Pacheco (Citation2001); Lima (Citation1998, Citation2002) and Esteves and Pacheco (Citation2014).

82 See Teodoro (Citation2001, Citation2002, Citation2010a, Citation2010b, Citation2015) Teodoro and Aníbal (Citation2008); the Lusófona University is a private higher education institution in Lisbon.

83 For more information in this regard, see Barroso and Sjorslev (Citation1991); Barroso (Citation1999, Citation2003, Citation2005, Citation2006); Barroso and Bajomi (Citation2002); Afonso (Citation2003); Barroso and Dutercq (Citation2005); Barroso (Citation2007); Madeira (Citation2009c); Barroso and Afonso (Citation2011); Barroso and Carvalho (Citation2008, Citation2011, Citation2012); Carvalho (Citation2011) and Carvalho, Costa, and Afonso (Citation2011).

84 Referring to Schriewer (Citation1995).

85 For more information in this regard, see Psacharopoulos (Citation1987, Citation1990), Hanushek (Citation1986, Citation1995), Johnstone (Citation1991), Johnstone and Marcucci (Citation2007), Sin and Neave (Citation2016) and Sin (Citation2015).

86 See Amaral et al. (Citation2002); Amaral, Jones, and Karseth (Citation2002); Amaral et al. (Citation2005) and Amaral and Magalhães (Citation2004).

87 A Portuguese State agency with the mission of ‘guaranteeing the quality of higher education in Portugal’.

88 See Amaral, Tavares, and Santos (Citation2012, Citation2013); Carvalho, Oskandi, and Machado-Taylor (Citation2012); Tavares, Cardoso, and Sin (Citation2014) and Magalhães and Veiga (Citation2016).

89 Nóvoa (Citation1996, Citation2000c, Citation2005); Lawn and Nóvoa (Citation2005); Carvalho (Citation2011); Barzanò (Citation2009); Derouet and Normand (Citation2007); Cardoso (Citation2003) and Barroso (Citation2007).

90 A clear sign of the ‘natural’ relationship between comparison and educational administration-related issues may be observed in the organisation of the ‘Educational Policy and Comparative Education’ office in 1993, within the context of the recently created Portuguese Educational Sciences Society (1990). This office saw absolutely no activity and was eventually removed from the Educational Policy office. In September 2014, a Comparative Education office was formally established within the Portuguese Educational Sciences Society (SPCE). In the regulations approved in the Assembly of the XII SPCE Congress, four taskforces were included in this office: ‘Comparative Studies on interculturality’, ‘Transnational regulation and educational policy’, ‘Colonial and post-colonial education’ and ‘Comparative studies in the area of curriculum’. The office has already organised two events: the I Comparative Education International Conference on the theme ‘Comparative Education beyond the figures: local contexts, national realities and transnational processes’, 25 and 26 January 2016 in Lisbon; and the II Comparative Education International Conference on the theme ‘A comparative perspective of the twenty first century teacher: transformations and challenges for the building of sustainable societies’, held in Madeira from 29 to 31 January 2018.

Additional information

Funding

This article received national funding from the FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, IP, within the scope of the Unidade de Investigação e Desenvolvimento em Educação e Formação - UID/CED/ 04107/2016.

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