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International Interactions
Empirical and Theoretical Research in International Relations
Volume 49, 2023 - Issue 4
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Research Articles

Go arm me: How militant fragmentation affects external support

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Pages 557-586 | Received 06 Sep 2022, Accepted 03 Apr 2023, Published online: 07 Jun 2023
 

Abstract

Over the last 50 years, civil conflicts have grown increasingly complex due to the proliferation of new armed groups and rebel fragmentation. Yet, existing research on external support for armed groups often ignores this multi-actor dimension, overlooking the unusual amount of discretion sponsors have in deciding whom to support in any given target state. This paper explores how multi-militant conflict environments impact foreign state sponsorship decisions. Conventional wisdom predicts that shared ethnic and ideological ties increase the likelihood of external support for an armed group because these ties signal a lower risk of misuse (agency slack). In contrast, this paper highlights how an increasing number of armed groups in a conflict setting can decrease the importance of shared ties between state sponsors and militants. We argue this change occurs because multi-militant environments reduce a group’s willingness to misuse support and improve a sponsor’s options to shift support if misuse occurs. We utilize a mixed-methods approach to examine this logic, drawing on an original dataset of 1,402 armed groups and qualitative evidence from Iraq during Saddam Hussein’s rule. The results advance understanding of the consequences of conflict fragmentation and external support for non-rebel actors.

Durante los últimos cincuenta años, los conflictos civiles se han vuelto cada vez más complejos debido a la proliferación de nuevos grupos armados y a la fragmentación de los grupos rebeldes. Sin embargo, la investigación existente acerca del apoyo externo a los grupos armados ignora, a menudo, esta dimensión formada por agentes múltiples, y pasa por alto la inusual discrecionalidad de la que gozan los Estados a la hora de decidir a quién apoyar en un determinado Estado objetivo. Este artículo analiza cómo los entornos de conflicto con diversos militantes afectan las decisiones de apoyo de los Estados extranjeros. La sabiduría tradicional predice que la existencia de unos lazos étnicos e ideológicos compartidos aumenta la probabilidad de apoyo externo hacia un grupo armado debido a que estos vínculos indican un menor riesgo de uso indebido (holgura de agencia). Por el contrario, este artículo destaca cómo la existencia de un número cada vez mayor de grupos armados en un entorno de conflicto puede hacer disminuir la importancia de los lazos compartidos entre los Estados que proporcionan apoyo y los militantes. Argumentamos que este cambio ocurre porque los entornos con diversos militantes reducen la disposición de un grupo a hacer un mal uso del apoyo y mejoran las opciones de los Estados que proporcionan apoyo a la hora de modificar su apoyo en caso de la existencia de un mal uso. Utilizamos un enfoque de métodos mixtos para estudiar esta lógica. Para ello, nos basamos en un conjunto de datos originales de 1,402 grupos armados y en evidencia cualitativa obtenida de Iraq durante el gobierno de Saddam Hussein. Los resultados amplían la comprensión de las consecuencias de la fragmentación del conflicto y el apoyo externo a los agentes no rebeldes.

Ces cinquante dernières années, les conflits civils se sont complexifiés à cause de la prolifération de nouveaux groupes armés et de la fragmentation des rebelles. Pourtant, les travaux de recherche existants sur le soutien externe des groupes armés ignorent souvent ces acteurs multiples, et donc omettent l’ampleur inhabituelle de la discrétion des entités quand il s’agit de décider qui soutenir dans un État cible. Cet article s’intéresse aux conséquences des environnements conflictuels aux multiples militants sur les décisions de soutien d’États étrangers. Il est généralement admis que les liens ethniques et idéologiques accroissent la probabilité de soutien externe pour un groupe armé, car ils diminuent les risques de détournement. Par opposition, cet article met en évidence qu’un nombre croissant de groupes armés au sein d’une zone de conflit est susceptible d’affaiblir l’importance relative des liens qui unissent les États soutiens aux militants. Nous affirmons que cette évolution intervient parce que les environnements aux multiples militants permettent d’orienter les soutiens différemment en cas de détournement. Les groupes sont donc moins enclins à mal agir. Nous employons une stratégie aux méthodes mixtes pour analyser cette logique, en nous appuyant sur un ensemble de données original de 1,402 groupes armés et des éléments probants qualitatifs issus d’Irak à l’époque où Saddam Hussein était au pouvoir. Les résultats enrichissent notre compréhension des conséquences de la fragmentation des conflits et du soutien externe pour des acteurs non rebelles.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Ore Koren, Diane Zorri, Stephen Rangazas, Kaitlyn Robinson, Sara Plana, participants at the 2021 IS-ISSS conference, and the anonymous reviewers for insightful comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript.

Notes

1 We define an armed group as an organization that uses violence in the pursuit of a political goal against a state government. Consistent with previous research, we refer to armed groups that are violent enough to participate in civil war datasets as rebel groups (e.g., Cunningham, Gleditsch, and Salehyan Citation2009; Salehyan, Gleditsch, and Cunningham Citation2011; San Akca Citation2016).

2 See, for example, Cunningham, Bakke, and Seymour (Citation2012), Pearlman and Cunningham (Citation2012), Faulkner and Doctor (Citation2021), Duursma and Fliervoet (Citation2021), and Stein and Cantin (Citation2021).

3 See, for example, Salehyan (Citation2010), Maoz and San Akca (Citation2012), Salehyan, Siroky, and Wood (Citation2014), San Akca (Citation2016), and Meier et al. (Citation2022).

4 See, for example, arguments in Saideman (Citation2001, Citation2002), Salehyan, Gleditsch, and Cunningham (Citation2011), and San Akca (Citation2016). As Salehyan, Gleditsch, and Cunningham (Citation2011, 714) note, “supporting rebel groups will be more attractive when the costs of foreign aggression are high and the potential for agency slack is low.”

5 See discussions of this framework in Salehyan (Citation2010), Byman and Kreps (Citation2010), Bapat (Citation2012), Karlén et al. (Citation2021), and Thaler (Citation2022).

6 For more, see Mazzetti, Goldman, and Schmidt (Citation2017).

7 See Maoz and San Akca (Citation2012, 728) for a similar diagram summarizing the conventional wisdom, which they use to motivate the need for the sponsor-target-group triad unit of analysis.

8 This sample builds on the population of 2,750 candidate armed groups identified by Asal, Cousins, and Gleditsch (Citation2015). See Malone (Citation2022) for more information on population selection criteria, coding, and research procedures.

9 This is broader than the commonly-accepted definition of a “terrorist group,” which generally describes an organization that uses political violence against non-combatants (Hoffman Citation2006) or lacks territorial control (Sánchez-Cuenca and De la Calle Citation2009). It is also broader than the commonly-accepted definition of a “rebel group” which applies to a militant organization whose violence reaches a minimum lethality threshold.

10 We look at more granular types of shared ideological ties in the case study.

11 For further information on captured Iraqi state files, see Brill (Citation2020).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (Grant Award Number 20STTPC00001‐01).

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