Introduction: Histories and Legacies of Punishment in Southern Africa

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Notes

¹ See L. Landau, ‘Loving the Alien? Citizenship, Law and the Future in South Africa's Demonic Society’, African Affairs, 109, 435 (April 2010), pp. 213–30, and S. Hassim, T. Kupe and E. Worby (eds), Go Home or Die Here: Violence, Xenophobia and the Reinvention of Difference in South Africa (Johannesburg, Wits University Press, 2008).

² See B.-M. Tendi, Making History in Mugabe's Zimbabwe: Politics, Intellectuals and the Media (Oxford, Peter Lang, 2010) and J. Alexander, ‘The Political Imaginaries and Social Lives of Political Prisoners in Post-2000 Zimbabwe’, Journal of Southern African Studies [hereafter JSAS], 36, 2 (2010), pp. 483–503.

³ For an example of the power wielded by African agents of colonial states in French West Africa see E. Osborn, ‘Circle of Iron: African Colonial Employees and the Interpretation of Colonial Rule in French West Africa’, Journal of African History [hereafter JAH], 44, 1 (2003), pp. 27–49. Also see the classic study of M. Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order: The Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985), and wider discussion in K. Mann and R. Roberts, ‘Law in Colonial Africa’, in K. Mann and R. Roberts, Law in Colonial Africa (London, James Currey, 1991).

⁴ See especially D. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged: Britain's Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire (London, W.W. Norton, 2005); C. Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya (New York, Henry Holt, 2005); and D. Branch, Defeating Mau Mau and Creating Kenya: Counterinsurgency, Civil War and Decolonisation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2009).

⁵ Compare to A. Shutt, ‘“The natives are getting out of hand”: Legislating Manners, Insolence and Contemptuous Behaviour in Southern Rhodesia, c. 1910–1963’, JSAS, 33, 3 (2007), pp. 653–72.

⁶ Britain's representative in South Africa retained the prerogative of mercy in capital cases, however. See, R. Turrell, White Mercy: A Study of the Death Penalty in South Africa (Westport, CT, Praeger Publishers, 2004).

⁷ This was not, of course, limited to southern Africa. For a broader treatment see, F. Bernault (ed.), A History of Prison and Confinement in Africa (Portsmouth, NH, Heinemann, 2003).

⁸ For additional work on private violence see C. van Onselen, ‘The Social and Economic Underpinning of Paternalism and Violence on the Maize Farms of the South Eastern Transvaal, 1900–1950’, Journal of Historical Sociology, 5, 2 (1992), pp. 127–60; A. Jeeves and J. Crush, White Farms and Black Labour: The State and Agrarian Change in Southern Africa, 1910–1950 (Portsmouth, NH, Heinemann, 1997); and J. Steinberg, Midlands (Johannesburg, Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2002).

⁹ I. Evans, Cultures of Violence: Lynching and Racial Killing in South Africa and the United States (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2009).

¹⁰ For a discussion of both see R. Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001).

¹¹ See especially Fran Buntman's study, Robben Island and Prisoner Resistance to Apartheid (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003). On Kenya, see inter alia M. Clough, Mau Mau Memoirs: History, Memory and Politics (Boulder, CO, Lynn Rienner Publishers, 1998) and D. Peterson, ‘The Intellectual Lives of Mau Mau Detainees’, Journal of African History, 49 (2008), pp. 73–91.

¹² For recent work on the ANC and SWAPO see, inter alia, the first-hand accounts in P. Trewhela's collection, Inside Quatro: Uncovering the Exile History of the ANC and SWAPO (Auckland Park, Jacana Media, 2009), T. Cleveland, ‘“We Still Want the Truth”: The ANC's Angolan Detention Camps and Postapartheid Memory’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 25, 1 (2005), pp. 63–78; S. Hassim, ‘Nationalism, Feminism and Autonomy: The ANC in Exile and the Question of Women’, JSAS, 30, 3 (2004), pp. 433–55; C. A. Williams, ‘Ordering the Nation: SWAPO in Zambia, 1974–1976’, JSAS, forthcoming; and contributions to H. Sapire and W. Dooling (eds), ‘Special Issue: Liberation Struggles, Exile and International Solidarity’, JSAS, 35, 2 (2009).

¹³ H. Sapire, ‘Liberation Movements, Exile, and International Solidarity: An Introduction’, JSAS, 35, 2 (2009), p. 276.

¹⁴ See M.B. Munochiveyi, ‘“It was a difficult time in Zimbabwe”: A History of Imprisonment, Detention and Confinement During Zimbabwe's Liberation Struggle, 1960–1980’ (Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota, 2008).

¹⁵ See H. Macmillan, ‘The African National Congress of South Africa in Zambia: The Culture of Exile and the Changing Relationship with Home, 1964–1990’, JSAS, 35, 2 (2009), pp. 311–13 and Hassim, ‘Nationalism, Feminism and Autonomy’, pp. 437–8.

¹⁶ B. Ketelo, A. Maxongo, Z. Tshona, R. Massango and L. Mbengo, ‘A Miscarriage of Justice’, in Trewhela, Inside Quatro. Compare to Macmillan, ‘The African National Congress’, p. 321, who emphasises the nationalist rather than communist cast of the ANC's security department, and who notes that GDR training emphasised surveillance techniques and file-keeping and cautioned against forced confessions.

¹⁷ S. Davis, ‘The African National Congress, its Radio, its Allies and Exile’, JSAS, 35, 2 (2009), pp. 369–70.

¹⁸ Interview, Jaconia Moyo, Bulawayo, 6 August 2010.

¹⁹ Executions among liberation movements were embarrassing for host governments. Macmillan, ‘The African National Congress’, p. 310, argues that Kenneth Kaunda worked to prevent executions among liberation movements, including ZANU, the MPLA, SWAPO and the PAC, in Zambia, and punished those that threatened them or carried them out.

²⁰ Problems of guerrilla indiscipline on the battlefield were not of course unique to ZANLA. See J. Alexander, J. McGregor and T. Ranger, Violence and Memory: One Hundred Years in the ‘Dark Forests’ of Matabeleland (Oxford, James Currey, 2000) on ZIPRA, and N. Bhebe, Zapu and Zanu. Guerrilla Warfare and the Evangelical Church in Zimbabwe (Gweru, Mambo Press, 1999), for an interesting study of a region where ZANLA and ZIPRA interacted.

²¹ T. Scarnecchia, The Urban Roots of Democracy and Political Violence in Zimbabwe: Harare and Highfield, 1960–1964 (Rochester, University of Rochester Press, 2008).

²² See R. Moosage, ‘The Impasse of Violence: Writing Necklacing into a History of the Liberation Struggle in South Africa’ (MA Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2010), especially chapter two, which explores the ambiguous responses of ANC and United Democratic Front leaders to necklacing, including those of exiled ANC and MK leaders. Also see N. Nomoyi and W. Schurink, ‘Ukunxityiswa kwempimpi itayari njengotshaba lomzabalazo: An Exploratory Study of Insider Accounts of Necklacing in Three Port Elizabeth Townships’, in E. Bornman, R. van Eeden and M. Wentzel (eds), Violence in South Africa: A Variety of Perspectives (Pretoria, HSRC Publishers, 1998). For accounts of popular punishment related to liberation politics see B. Bozzoli, Theatres of Struggle and the End of Apartheid (Johannesburg, Wits University Press, 2004) and I. van Kessel, ‘Beyond our Wildest Dreams’: The United Democratic Front and the Transformation of South Africa (Charlottesville, University Press of Virginia, 2000).

²³ Also see S. Hynd, ‘Decorum or Deterrence? The Politics of Execution in Malawi, 1915–1966’, Cultural and Social History, 5, 4 (2008), pp. 437–48, for similar arguments regarding the death penalty.

²⁴ See W. Ncube, ‘Constitutionalism, Democracy and Political Practice in Zimbabwe’, in I. Mandaza and L. Sachikonye (eds), The One Party State and Democracy: The Zimbabwe Debate (Harare, SAPES Trust, 1991), pp. 155–78, and J. Hatchard, Individual Freedoms and State Security in the African Context: The Case of Zimbabwe (Harare, Baobab Books, 1993).

²⁵ For an overview of the often deplorable conditions in African prisons, see J. Sarkin (ed.), Human Rights in African Prisons (Cape Town, HSRC Press, 2008).

²⁶ J. Steinberg, The Number (Johannesburg, Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2004); S. Gear and K. Ngubeni, ‘Daai Ding: Sex, Sexual Violence and Coercion in Men's Prisons’ (Johannesburg, Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, 2002), available at http://www.csvr.org.za/docs/correctional/daaidingsex.pdf.

²⁷ See F. Bernault, ‘The Politics of Enclosure in Colonial and Post-Colonial Africa’, in Bernault (ed.), A History of Prison and Confinement in Africa for a discussion of post-colonial prison reform. Also see F. Buntman, ‘ Prison and Democracy: Lessons Learned and Not Learned, from 1989 to 2009’, International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society, 22, 3 (2009), pp. 401–18.

²⁸ For an introduction to the substantial literature on South African policing, see J. Brewer, Black and Blue: Policing in South Africa (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994); M. Shaw, Crime and Policing in Post-Apartheid South Africa (Bloomington, IN, Indiana University Press, 2002) and J. Steinberg, Thin Blue (Johannesburg, Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2008). Compare these with D. Anderson and D. Killingray, Policing the Empire: Government, Authority and Control, 1830–1940 (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1991) and J. McCracken, ‘Coercion and Control in Nyasaland: Aspects of the History of a Colonial Police Force’, JAH, 27 (1986), pp. 126–47.

²⁹ See for example, L. Buur, ‘The Sovereign Outsourced: Local Justice and Violence in Port Elizabeth’, in T. Blom Hansen and F. Stepputat (eds), Sovereign Bodies: Citizens, Migrants and States in the Postcolonial World (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2005); H. Kyed, ‘State Vigilantes and Political Community on the Margins in Post-War Mozambique’, in D. Pratten and A. Sen (eds), Global Vigilantes (London, Hurst Publishers, 2007); B. Oomen, ‘Vigilantism or Alternative Citizenship? The Rise of Mapogo a Mathamaga’, African Studies, 63, 2 (2004), pp. 153–71.