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Abstract
The Boipatong massacre is widely regarded as a key moment in South Africa's transition to democracy. The massacre is also frequently cited as an example of state complicity in the political violence that shook the country during a period of negotiation and reform. Yet, limited scholarly attention has been given to the details of the event. This article examines the Boipatong massacre in detail, with particular emphasis on how the event's meaning has been contested by different individuals and groups. Analysis of these contestations gives insight into the dynamics of the South African transition, shedding light on the struggles that have defined it. Through the agency of various political actors, a dominant interpretation of the Boipatong massacre arose in its wake, with massive political impact. ‘Boipatong’ brought the South African transition much closer to culmination, because at a crucial point in negotiations it was successfully broadcast as an event that epitomised unending state-sponsored violence. This decisive interpretation remains widespread in scholarship and popular memory, even though repeated contestation has rendered it increasingly questionable. Because its truths made a profound contribution to what is now post-Apartheid South Africa, they continue to exert considerable influence upon knowledge of the event.
Notes
*While I take full responsibility for this article, it is important to acknowledge that academic endeavour is collective. I will always be indebted to Anne Mager for being my mentor since I was an undergraduate, and a tireless supervisor throughout my work on Boipatong. The Wits Historical Papers staff were very gracious and helpful during my archival research. Padraig O'Malley's online archive and the papers he donated to Wits Historical Papers were invaluable resources. Rupert Taylor, Piers Pigou, Rian Malan, Gary Kynoch and my anonymous reviewers all gave crucial advice. I am also extremely grateful to those I interviewed, only some of whom I have named, whose perspectives have added much depth to the account that follows.
1 A. Sparks, Tomorrow is Another Country: The Inside Story of South Africa's Negotiated Revolution (Sandton, Struik, 1994), p. 140.
2 A. Guelke, ‘Political Violence and the South African Transition’, Irish Studies in International Affairs, 4 (1993), p. 61; M.J. Murray, The Revolution Deferred: The Painful Birth of Post-Apartheid South Africa (London, Verso, 1994), p. 182; T.D. Sisk, Democratisation in South Africa: The Elusive Social Contract (New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 213–15; D. O'Meara, Forty Lost Years: The Apartheid State and the Politics of the National Party, 1948–1994 (Randberg, Ravan Press, 1996), p. 411; R. Taylor and M. Shaw, ‘The Dying Days of Apartheid’, in D.R. Howarth and A. Norval (eds), South Africa in Transition: New Theoretical Perspectives (London, Macmillan, 1998), p. 23; S. Ellis, ‘The Historical Significance of South Africa's Third Force’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 24, 2 (1998), pp. 289–90; M. Coleman (ed.), A Crime Against Humanity: Analysing the Repression of the Apartheid State (Johannesburg, David Philip, 1998); R.A. Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa: Legitimizing the Post-Apartheid State (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 67; D. Glaser, Politics and Society in South Africa (London, Sage Publications, 2001), p. 213; P. Bonner and N. Nieftagodien, ‘The Truth and Reconciliation Commission and the Pursuit of “Social Truth”: The Case of Kathorus’, in D. Posel and G. Simpson (eds), Commissioning the Past: Understanding South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Johannesburg, Witwatersrand University Press, 2002), p. 194; H. Giliomee and B. Mbenga, New History of South Africa (Cape Town, Tafelbeg, 2007), p. 405; A. Jeffery, People's War: New Light on the Struggle for South Africa (Johannesburg, Jonathan Ball, 2010), pp. 326–35.
3 South African Institute of Race Relations, ‘Boipatong: South Africa's Founding Myth’, 23 April 1999, available at http://www.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02039/04lv02133/05lv02139/06lv02143.htm, retrieved on 18 October 2010.
4 Bonner and Nieftagodien, ‘The Truth and Reconciliation Commission and the Pursuit of “Social Truth”’, p. 194; G. Cawthra, Policing South Africa: The South African Police and the Transition from Apartheid (Johannesburg, David Philip, 1993), p. 1; Ellis, ‘The Historical Significance of South Africa's Third Force’, p. 289; A. Sampson, Mandela, the Authorized Biography (Jeppeston, Jonathan Ball, 1999).
5 Taylor and Shaw, ‘The Dying Days of Apartheid’, p. 23.
6 Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa, p. 63.
7 Taylor and Shaw, ‘The Dying Days of Apartheid’, p. 20. Also see M.E. Bennun, ‘Boipatong and After: Reflections on the Politics of Violence in South Africa’, International Journal of the Sociology of Law, 21 (1993), p. 63, and Murray, The Revolution Deferred, p. 182.
8 Jeffery, People's War, pp. xxxiii–xxxv.
9 E. Laclau, New Reflections on the Revolution of Our Time (London, Verso, 1990), pp. 39–40.
10 D.R. Howarth, ‘Paradigms Gained? A Critique of Theories and Explanations of Democratic Transition in South Africa’, in D.R. Howarth and A. Norval (eds), South Africa in Transition: New Theoretical Perspectives (London, MacMillan, 1998), p. 201.
11 Althusser's term ‘interpellation’ provides a useful supplement to the discussion of social transformation. Interpellation refers to drawing subjects into an imagined designation, which they would not have otherwise imagined themselves to be in. L. Althusser, ‘Ideology and the State’, in L. Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy (London, New Left Books, 1971), p. 162.
12 Taylor and Shaw, ‘The Dying Days of Apartheid’, p. 13.
13 Bonner and Nieftagodien, ‘The Truth and Reconciliation Commission and the Pursuit of “Social Truth”’, pp. 184–85.
14 D. Reed, Beloved Country: South Africa's Silent Wars (Johannesburg, Jonathan Ball, 1994), pp. 32–33.
15 COSATU intelligence in local factories had warned that the rally was being planned with violent intentions. Comrades attempted to offset the violence they anticipated with their own belligerence. An IFP member was shot dead on his way to the rally. Rally organiser Bhula Khubeka's house was set alight. Comrades stoned those who took part in the rally and were waiting for a fight at the venue entrance. Police drove them off with teargas. Reed, Beloved Country, pp. 33–34.
16 Interview with IFP elder Moses Mandla Mthembu, Sharpeville, 6 May 2008, and Independent Board of Inquiry Into Informal Repression, ‘Report of the IBIIR for the Period August 1990’ (Johannesburg, 1990), p. 1.
17 Reed, Beloved Country, p. 34.
18 Reed, Beloved Country, p. 34, p. 34.
19 Reed, Beloved Country, p. 34, p. 35.
20 Bonner and Nieftagodien, ‘The Truth and Reconciliation Commission and the Pursuit of “Social Truth”’, p. 179.
21 Reed, Beloved Country, pp. 34 and 62.
22 South African Institute of Race Relations, Survey of Race Relations 1991/1992 (Johannesburg, 1992), p. 505, and Independent Board of Inquiry, Fortresses of Fear (Johannesburg, 1992), Appendix 2, pp. 1–2.
23 Truth and Reconciliation Commission Amnesty Committee, Amnesty Decision (AC/2000/209), 24 November 2000.
24 Independent Board of Inquiry, Fortresses of Fear, Figure 2.
25 Nicholls, Cambanis, Koopasammy and Pillay, ‘Attempts to Prevent the Boipatong Massacre’, p. 2.
26 Independent Board of Inquiry, Fortresses of Fear, p. 11.
31 A. Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa (London, Tauris, 1996), p. 273.
27 Coleman, A Crime Against Humanity, p. 195.
28 Ellis, ‘The Historical Significance of South Africa's Third Force’, p. 272.
29 Ellis, ‘The Historical Significance of South Africa's Third Force’, p. 272
30 The Argus, 31 January 1991, in Murray, The Revolution Deferred, pp. 83–84.
32 Ellis, ‘The Historical Significance of South Africa's Third Force’, p. 269.
33 Ellis, ‘The Historical Significance of South Africa's Third Force’, p. 269, p. 285.
34 The Goldstone Commission, ‘Interim Report on Criminal Political Violence by Elements within the South African Police, the KwaZulu Police and the Inkatha Freedom Party’, 18 March 1994.
35 J. Pauw, Into the Heart of Darkness: Confessions of Apartheid's Assassins (Johannesburg, Jonathan Ball, 1997), p. 124.
36 Ellis, ‘The Historical Significance of South Africa's Third Force’, p. 284.
37 The IFP security guards were hired at ABSA by Andries ‘Brood’ van Heerden, an ex-C10 member employed at the bank as a senior security official. Goldstone Commission, ‘Interim Report on Criminal Political Violence by Elements within the South African Police, the KwaZulu Police and the Inkatha Freedom Party’.
38 In March 1989, a survey by South African research institute Markinor put De Klerk and then President P. W. Botha second in popularity (22 percent) to Mandela (41 percent) among urban blacks. De Klerk was also increasingly popular among whites. In March 1992, he dealt a crushing blow to white conservatives during the all-white referendum, in which whites were asked to vote either for or against continued negotiations toward a multi-racial democracy. H. Giliomee and L. Schlemmer, From Apartheid to Nation-Building (Cape Town, Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 199–200, and 205.
39 A. Butler, Cyril Ramaphosa (Johannesburg, Jacana, 2007), p. 294.
40 US Department of State, ‘South African Human Rights Practices, 1992’, March 1993; ‘Internal ANC Fights Add to S. African Strife’, The Christian Science Monitor, 15 June 1992; and ‘The Perfect Gentleman at the Centre of a Battle’, The Weekly Mail, 5 June 1992.
41 Jeffery, People's War, p. 324.
42 ‘Mandela Appeals to Members for Strict Discipline’, SAPA, 16 June 1992; and ‘Opponents’ Responses Contributing to Climate of Violence’, SAPA, 18 June 1992.
46 ANC statement to SAPA, 18 June 1992, in P. O'Malley, ‘Boipatong’ (unpublished manuscript, University of Witwatersrand Historical Papers Archive, April 2000), p. 3.
43 ‘The Agony of Boipatong’, The Star, 19 June 1992.
44 R. Malan, ‘Boipatong. A Question of Spin’, Frontiers of Freedom (Second Quarter, 1999), pp. 26–35.
45 Malan, ‘Boipatong. A Question of Spin’.
47 ‘Boipatong Carnage Leaves Host of Riddles in its Wake’, The Star, 27 June 1992.
48 Independent Board of Inquiry, ‘Boipatong Massacre: Brief Summary of Statements Taken Thus Far’, 26 June 1992, p. 4, and Nicholls, Cambanis, Koopasammy and Pillay, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’, pp. 1–2.
49 Nicholls et al, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’, pp. 2–3.
50 SAPA Wire, 19 June 1992.
51 The Goldstone Commission, undated document, ‘Facts which are not in Dispute, or Cannot be Disputed’, Witwatersrand University Historical Papers Archive, Goldstone Commission Collection, p. 1.
52 The Goldstone Commission, ‘Facts which are not in Dispute’.
53 The Goldstone Commission, ‘Facts which are not in Dispute’
54 IBI, ‘Boipatong Massacre: Brief Summary of Statements Taken Thus Far’, 26 June 1992, and Nicholls et al, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’.
55 The English translation of ‘is klaar’ is ‘it's finished’. New Nation, ‘Night of Terror’, 19 June 1992.
56 Reed, Beloved Country, p. 65.
57 B. Wilkinson, ‘How they Hacked my Wife to Death’, The Star, 29 June 1992.
58 The English translation of ‘moenie praat nie, skiet net’ is ‘don't speak, just shoot’. ‘Anatomy of a Massacre’, The Saturday Star, 20 June 1992.
59 ‘Boipatong Carnage Leaves Host of Riddles in its Wake’, The Star, 27 June 1992.
60 The Star, ‘Boipatong Carnage Leaves Host of Riddles in its Wake’, 27 June 1992
61 E. Ransdell, ‘South Africa's Night of Horror’, US News, 21 June 1992.
62 ‘Anatomy of a Massacre’, The Saturday Star, 20 June 1992.
63 IBI, ‘Boipatong Massacre: Brief Summary of Statements Taken Thus Far’, 26 June 1992, p. 2.
64 ‘Boipatong Carnage Leaves Host of Riddles in its Wake’, The Star, 27 June 1992.
65 ‘Anatomy of a Massacre’, The Saturday Star, 20 June 1992.
66 Mathibela most likely exaggerated the number transported in one casspir, designed to hold a crew of two plus twelve additional soldiers and associated gear. ‘Casspir’, available at www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/rsa/casspir.htm, retrieved on 4 January 2009.
67 IBI, ‘Boipatong Massacre: Brief Summary of Statements Taken Thus Far’, 26 June 1992, p. 3.
68 IBI, ‘Boipatong Massacre: Brief Summary of Statements Taken Thus Far’, 26 June 1992, p. 3, p. 2.
69 Nicholls et al, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’, p. 14.
70 Nicholls et al, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’, p. 14, pp. 9–10.
71 Nicholls et al, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’, p. 14, p. 13.
72 Nicholls et al, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’, p. 14, p. 14.
73 Nicholls et al, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’, p. 14, p. 14.
74 Nicholls et al, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’, p. 14, p. 20.
75 ‘Man Says Attackers Came in Police Vehicle’, The Associated Press, 6 August 1992.
76 Nicholls et al, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’, pp. 21–22.
77 J. Louw, ‘Anatomy of a Massacre’, The Saturday Star, 20 June 1992.
78 ‘Massacre Launched from ISCOR's Hostel’, The Weekly Mail, 19 June 1992.
79 Malan, ‘Boipatong. A Question of Spin’.
80 Nicholls, Cambanis, Koopasammy and Pillay, ‘Broad outline of argument relating to the terms of reference numbered (d) and (e)’, Witwatersrand University Historical Papers Archive, Goldstone Commission Collection.
81 P. Morris, ‘Development Bank of Southern Africa Urban Planning Unit Vaal Triangle Urban Strategic Perspective’, May 1992.
82 Nicholls et al, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’, pp. 9–10.
83 Nicholls et al, ‘Memorandum: Events of the Boipatong Massacre’, pp. 9–10, p. 10.
84 The Goldstone Commission, ‘Facts which are not in dispute, or cannot be disputed’, p. 1.
85 ‘ANC Charges Government Complicity in Massacre’, Reuters, 18 June 1992.
86 Reuters, ‘ANC Charges Government Complicity in Massacre’, 18 June 1992
87 ‘Don't take Revenge for the Massacre, Tutu Says’, Reuters, 19 June 1992.
88 ‘Tutu Blasts Police “Collaboration”’, The Star, 22 June 1992.
89 ‘10 IFP Members Died in Massacre, Says Chief’, The Star, 3 July 1992.
90 ‘De Klerk Flees from Angry Mob’, The Washington Post, 21 June 1992.
91 ‘Township Pivotal in Political War’, The Star, 22 June 1992.
92 F.W. De Klerk, The Last Trek – A New Beginning: The Autobiography (London, Pan, 2000), pp. 241–42.
96 Sparks, Tomorrow is Another Country, pp. 111–12.
93 ‘Residents’ version of Shooting’, The Star, 22 June 1992.
94 P.A.J. Waddington, ‘Report of the Inquiry into the Police Response to, and Investigation of, Events in Boipatong on 17 June 1992’, 20 July 1992, p. 15.
95 Waddington, ‘Report of the Inquiry into the Police Response’, p. 15.
97 Waddington, ‘Report of the Inquiry into the Police Response’, p. 15.
98 ‘Residents’ Version of Shooting’, The Star, 22 June 1992.
99 ‘Angry Crowd Chases De Klerk from Massacre Scene’, Reuters, 20 June 1992.
100 ‘Township Pivotal in Political War’, The Star, 22 June 1992.
101 ‘Township Pivotal in Political War’, The Star, 22 June 1992
102 N. Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (London, Abacus, 1994), p. 724.
103 ‘Comment – Day of Mourning’, Business Day, 24 June 1992.
104 N. Mandela, Nelson Mandela Speaks: Forging a Democratic, Non-Racial South Africa, S. Clark, Ed. (New York, Pathfinder, 1993), p. 175.
105 Nicholls et al, ‘Attempts to prevent the Boipatong Massacre’, p. 2.
106 Mandela, Nelson Mandela Speaks, p. 174.
107 Coleman, A Crime Against Humanity: Analysing the Repression of the Apartheid State, p. 196.
108 US Department of State Dispatch, ‘South Africa: Human Rights Practices, 1992’, March 1993.
109 ‘Where a Massacre is a Way of Life’, Weekly Mail, 3 July 1992.
110 Pauw, Into the Heart of Darkness, p. 129.
111 Jeffery, People's War, p. 327.
112 Statement of the Emergency Meeting of the National Executive Committee of the ANC, 23 June 1992.
113 ‘Mandela Back in Charge as Stage Set for New Talks’, The Ottawa Citizen, 6 August 1992.
114 D.G. Anglin, ‘International Monitoring of the Transition to Democracy in South Africa, 1992–1994’, African Affairs, 94, 377 (1995), pp. 521–22.
115 ‘Nats Wait for the Backlash’, The Sunday Star, 21 June 1992.
116 ‘Nats Wait for the Backlash’, The Sunday Star, 21 June 1992, 21 June 1992.
117 South African Consulate General, ‘De Klerk “Will Accept Mediation”’, This Week in South Africa, 24 June 1992.
118 R.J. Goldstone, For Humanity: Reflections of a War Crimes Investigator (Johannesburg, Witwatersrand University Press, 2000), pp. 19–20.
119 ‘Deployment of UN Observers Authorised for South Africa’, UN Chronicle, December 1992.
120 ‘Editorial Comment: Staring into the Abyss’, The Star, 23 June 1992.
121 T. Khumalo, ‘Gunshots Echo a Troubled History’, The Citizen, 5 July 1992.
122 D. Greybe, ‘Comment on Boipatong’, SAPA, 30 June 1992.
123 D. Greybe, ‘Comment on Boipatong’, SAPA, 30 June 1992
124 South African Consulate General, ‘Black Groups Pledge Unity at Funeral’, This Week in South Africa, 30 June 1992.
125 ‘Photographers Assaulted’, The Star, 30 June 1992; ‘Mandela Condemns Attacks on Journalists’, SAPA-Reuter, 1 July 1992.
126 ‘A Militant Mood in the Vaal’, The Saturday Weekend Argus, 2 July 1992.
127 Greybe, ‘Comment on Boipatong’, SAPA, 30 June 1992.
128 Khumalo, ‘Gunshots Echo a Troubled History’, The Citizen, 5 July 1992.
129 P. O'Malley, unpublished manuscript, Witwatersrand University Historical Papers Archive, p. 10.
130 Greybe, ‘Comment on Boipatong’, SAPA, 30 June 1992.
131 D. Greybe, ‘Comment on Boipatong’, SAPA, 30 June 1992
132 South African Consulate General, ‘FW calls for three-year interim rule’, This Week in South Africa, 3 July 1992.
133 ‘Mandela Back in Charge as Stage Set for New talks’, The Ottawa Citizen, 6 August 1992.
134 ‘Mandela Back in Charge as Stage Set for New talks’, The Ottawa Citizen, 6 August 1992
135 ‘Pretoria Forces Retirement of Many Officials in Police’, The New York Times, 27 August 1992.
136 US Department of State Dispatch, ‘South Africa: Human Rights Practices, 1992’, March 1993.
137 J. Contreras, ‘Charges of a “Third Force” Plague De Klerk’, Newsweek, 14 September 1992.
138 Taylor and Shaw, ‘The Dying Days of Apartheid’, p. 23.
139 African National Congress and National Party, ‘Record of Understanding’, Section 2(a), 26 September 1992, available at http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/record.html, retrieved on 26 June 2009.
140 Goldstone, For Humanity, pp. 40–46.
141 South African Institute of Race Relations, Survey of Race Relations 1992/1993 (Johannesburg, 1994), p. 37.
142 South African Institute of Race Relations, Survey of Race Relations 1992/1993 (Johannesburg, 1994), p. 37, p. 37.
143 ‘Koevoet Link to Massacre’, The Star, 26 June 1992; ‘Denials are Put to Test’, New Nation, 3 July 1992, and ‘Massacre: Police Implicate Hostel’, The Saturday Star, 27 June 1992.
144 For further discussion of Koevoet allegations, see James G.R. Simpson, ‘The Boipatong Massacre and South Africa's Democratic Transition’ (Leiden, African Studies Centre, 2011), pp. 56–57.
145 Waddington, ‘Report of the Inquiry into the Police Response to, and Investigation of, Events in Boipatong on 17 June 1992’, p. 46.
146 Waddington, ‘Report of the Inquiry into the Police Response to, and Investigation of, Events in Boipatong on 17 June 1992’, p. 46, p. 31.
147 Waddington, ‘Report of the Inquiry into the Police Response to, and Investigation of, Events in Boipatong on 17 June 1992’, p. 46
148 ‘Policeman Puts his Gun to his Head’, The Star, 19 June 1992.
149 For further discussion of the tape erasures, see Simpson, ‘The Boipatong Massacre and South Africa's Democratic Transition’, pp. 61–63.
150 Translated directly as ‘Listen here, my old friend, this is now white neighbourhood’, The Goldstone Commission, ‘Memorandum on the Boipatong Tapes’, 30 December 1992.
155 Malan, ‘Boipatong. A Question of Spin’.
151 ‘South Africa: charges against 27 suspects in Boipatong case withdrawn’, BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 14 April 1993.
152 A. Jeffery, The Truth about the Truth Commission (Johannesburg, South African Institute of Race Relations, 1999), p. 140.
153 Malan, ‘Boipatong. A Question of Spin’.
154 Jeffery, The Truth about the Truth Commission, p. 140.
156 State v Zulu and others in Malan, ‘Boipatong. A Question of Spin’.
157 Buthelezi en andere v S [1999] JOL 5366 (A).
158 The Goldstone Commission, ‘Final Report’, 27 October 1994.
159 An earlier version of this article was emailed to Justice Goldstone in May 2011. In his response, dated 1 June 2011, Goldstone wrote: ‘I have read your paper with much interest. There is really little on which I feel competent to comment. Many years have passed since the inquiry into the Boipatong massacre. Your central thesis is very much a political reconstruction and I have no comment to make on that.’
161 TRC Report, Vol. 3, Ch. 6: ‘Regional Profile Transvaal, 1990–1994’.
160 The Supreme Court of Appeal dismissed their appeals in September 1999 (Buthelezi en andere v S [1999] JOL 5366 (A)).
162 Jeffery, The Truth about the Truth Commission, p. 142.
163 Malan, ‘Boipatong. A Question of Spin’.
164 Jeffery, The Truth about the Truth Commission, p. 143.
165 State v Zulu and Others, p. 3,702 in Jeffery, The Truth about the Truth Commission, p. 144.
166 Amnesty Hearing, Victor Mthandeni Mthembu (Application # AM 1707/96), 13 July 1998.
167 Bonner and Nieftagodien, ‘The Truth and Reconciliation Commission and the Pursuit of “Social Truth”’, p. 176.
168 Amnesty Hearing, Victor Mthandeni Mthembu (Application # AM 1707/96), 13 July 1998.
169 Amnesty Hearing, Mplupeki Tshabangu (Application # AM 7391/97), 13 August 1998.
170 Interview with IFP MP Abraham Mzizi, Alberton, 18 April 2008, and Anonymous interview, Braamfontein, 17 April 2008.
171 Interview with IFP elder Moses Mandla Mthembu, Sharpeville, 6 May 2008.
172 P. Laurence, ‘Doubts Deepen over Boipatong Killers’ Motives', Irish Times, 29 June 1992.
173 R. Malan and D. Beckett, ‘On the Inside Looking Out’, Saturday Star, 28 June 1992.
174 Malan and Beckett, ‘On the Inside Looking Out’, Saturday Star, 28 June 1992, and P. Laurence, ‘Public Outrage at Township Killings has been Selective’, Irish Times, 27 June 1992.
175 P. Harries, ‘Imagery, Symbolism and Tradition in a South African Bantustan: Mangosuthu Buthelezi, Inkatha, and Zulu History’, History and Theory, 32, 4 (December 1993), p. 121.
176 Amnesty Hearing, Victor Mthandeni Mthembu (Application # AM 1707/96), 13 July 1998.
177 Malan, ‘Boipatong. A Question of Spin’.
178 Amnesty Hearing, Victor Mthandeni Mthembu (Application # AM 1707/96), 13 July 1998.
179 TRC Report, Vol. 3, Ch. 6: ‘Regional Profile Transvaal, 1990 – 1994’, para. 564.
180 Anonymous interview, Braamfontein, 17 April 2008.
181 Reed, Beloved Country, p. 60.
182 G. Kynoch, ‘Crime, Conflict and Politics: An Historical Account of Township Violence in Transition Era South Africa’, p. 13, available at wiserweb.wits.ac.za/PDF%20Files/wirs%20-%20kynoch.pdf, retrieved on 25 July 2009.
183 Reed, Beloved Country, p. 62.
184 ‘Khetisi: Feared “Vaal Monster” says he is innocent’, 26 July 1991, Vaal Weekblad.
187 G. Kynoch, ‘Killing and Dying in Thokoza/Katlehong: Narratives of Conflict, 1990–1994’ (paper presented to the North Eastern Workshop on Southern Africa, Burlington, Vermont, 2008), p. 4.
185 TRC Report, Vol. 2, Ch. 7: ‘Political Violence in the Era of Negotiated Transition, 1990–1994’, para. 91.
186 Reed, Beloved Country, p. 64.
188 Kynoch, ‘Killing and Dying in Thokoza/Katlehong’, p. 5.
189 ‘Cracks in Boipatong Story’, Africa News, 22 January 1999.
190 ‘Suspected Mass Killer Had Links to Right-Wing Group’, The Associated Press, 15 July 1993.
191 TRC Report, Vol. 2, Ch. 7: ‘Political Violence in the Era of Negotiated Transition, 1990–1994’, para. 91.
192 E-mail interview with Rian Malan, 19 August 2010.
193 ‘Boipatong: Uncovering the Real Conspiracy’, Weekly Mail and Guardian, 21 May 1999.
194 Truth and Reconciliation Commission Amnesty Committee, Amnesty Decision (AC/2000/209), 24 November 2000.
195 E-mail interview with Rian Malan, 29 December 2008.
196 ‘Address by Deputy-President Jacob Zuma, to the Boipatong Peace, Cleansing and Healing Ceremony’ (27 March 2004), available at http://www.info.gov.za/speeches/2004/04032909461007.htm, retrieved on 17 October 2010.
197 Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa, p. 200.
198 M. Maharaj, ‘With the Benefit of Hindsight’, The Sunday Times, 21 June 2009.
199 ‘We Must Never Forget that Lives were Shattered in Boipatong’, The Sunday Times, 5 July 2009.
200 G. Orwell, Homage to Catalonia (Markham, Penguin, 1980), p. 296.