Nationalism and Exile in an Age of Solidarity: Frelimo–ZANU Relations in Mozambique (1975–1980)

Abstract

This article contributes to our knowledge on the intricate relations between host governments and liberation movements and on the workings of transnational military partnerships in the anti-colonial struggles of the 1970s, through an examination of the political and military relationship between Mozambique’s Frelimo (host) and Zimbabwe’s ZANU liberation movement. There is a dearth of critical perspectives on the nature of host–liberation movement relations, more so from the point of view of hosts. The article begins to shed light on un-researched Frelimo evaluations of its relationship with ZANU. I utilise the perspectives of Mozambican political elites and non-elites to argue that Frelimo’s support for ZANU was partly motivated by feelings of genuine solidarity. Frelimo–ZANU relations were frosty at first because Frelimo regarded ZANU as an inauthentic liberation movement. ZANU won Frelimo over by demonstrating cogent commitment to armed struggle. However, improved Frelimo–ZANU relations were characterised by disagreements over guerrilla tactics, ZANU guerrillas’ objections to Frelimo soldiers’ relationships with Zimbabwean women at the warfront, and the unpragmatic approaches of some ZANU elements towards the possibility of a negotiated independence for Zimbabwe. In addition to Frelimo’s backing, ZANU received support from ordinary Mozambican citizens, particularly those who lived in areas along the Rhodesia–Mozambique border. The support of Mozambican citizens for ZANU was encouraged by Frelimo’s revolutionary ideology and by the common ancestry, language and culture of Mozambicans and Zimbabweans living in the border zones. The case of Frelimo and ZANU underlines the point that hosts’ influence on liberation movements’ internal politics must be seen as limited by the interests and agency of liberation movements themselves. But Frelimo held decisive authority on the right to withdraw support on its territory, which it used as an inducement on ZANU to agree a negotiated independence settlement in 1979.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the team of editors of this special issue of JSAS, Jocelyn Alexander, JoAnn McGregor and Miles Tendi, for their support, assistance and comments on this article. A special thank you to Professor David Hedges, who edited the first drafts of this article and discussed with me important aspects of my research, my supervisor, Paolo Israel, for his support and academic guidance, and Colin Darch, for his comments and for providing precious sources for my article.

I also thank Benedito Machava, Gerald Mazarire Fernando Machava and Daniel Kaiser for their friendship and invaluable comments on this article.

Notes

¹ T. Sellström, Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa, Volume 2: Solidarity and Assistance 1970–1994 (Uppsala, Nordic African Institute, 2002).

² J. Day, International Nationalism: The Extra-Territorial Relations of Southern Rhodesian African Nationalists (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967).

³ W. Mhanda, Dzino: Memories of a Freedom Fighter (Harare, Weaver Press, 2011); D. Martin and P. Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe (Harare, African Publishing Group, 2012); F. Chung, Re-living the Second Chimurenga: Memories from Zimbabwe’s Liberation Struggle (Harare, Weaver Press, 2007); N. Bhebe, The ZAPU and ZANU Guerrilla Warfare and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Zimbabwe (Gweru, Mambo Press, 1999); E. Tekere, A Lifetime of Struggle (Harare, SAPES Books, 2006); Z.W. Sadomba, War Veterans in Zimbabwe’s Revolution: Challenging Neo-Colonialism and Settler and International Capital (London, James Currey, 2011); A. Mutambara, The Rebel in Me: A ZANLA Guerrilla Commander in the Rhodesian Bush War, 1974–1980 (Pinetown, 30 Degrees South Publishers, 2014).

⁴ See J.P. Moiane, Memórias de Um Guerrilheiro na Frente de Combate (Maputo, King Ngungunhane Institute, 2009).

⁵ A.N. de Souto, ‘Memory and Identity in the History of Frelimo: Some Research Themes’, Kronos, 39, 1 (2013).

⁶ Martin and Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe.

⁷ Ibid.

⁸ Interview with Mariano Matsinha, Maputo, 9 October 2014. All interviews for this article were, unless otherwise stated, conducted in Portuguese and translated into English by the author.

⁹ M. Mboa, Memórias da Luta Clandestina (Maputo, Marambique, 2009); L.T. Ndelana, Da Udenamo à Frelimo e à Diplomacia Moçambicana (Maputo, Marambique, 2012); A. Bouene Mussanhane, Protagonistas da Luta de Libertação Nacional (Maputo, Marambique, 2012).

¹⁰ Ibid.

¹¹ C. Williams, ‘Living in Exile: Daily Life and International Relations at SWAPO’s Kongwa Camp’, Kronos, 37, 1 (2011).

¹² Interview with Lopes Tembe, Maputo, 9 March 2015. Tembe was indicated as the official translator for Frelimo and ZANLA militants. Tembe speaks Shona, Ndebele and English because he lived in South Africa and Rhodesia during 1950s and 1960s.

¹³ Ibid.

¹⁴ Interview with Mariano Matsinha, Maputo, 9 October 2014.

¹⁵ Martin and Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe, pp. 16–17.

¹⁶ Ibid.

¹⁷ D. Dabengwa, ‘ZIPRA in the Zimbabwe War of National Liberation’, in N. Bhebe and T. Ranger (eds), Soldiers in Zimbabwe’s Liberation War (London, James Currey, 1995).

¹⁸ Interview with Mariano Matsinha, Maputo, 30 October 2014.

¹⁹ Moiane, Memórias de Um Guerrilheiro.

²⁰ ‘The War is Here, Everywhere!’, interview conducted by anon. with Josiah Tongogara, published in Zimbabwe News, 10, 3 (1978).

²¹ Interview with José Moiane, Maputo, 14 October 2012. Moiane was Frelimo’s Commander on the Tete front between 1970 and 1974.

²² ‘The War is Here, Everywhere!’.

²³ See J.P. Borges Coelho, O Início da Luta Armada em Tete, 1968–1969: A Primeira Fase da Guerra e a Reacção Colonial (Maputo, Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique, 1989).

²⁴ Ibid.

²⁵ Interview with Lopes Tembe, Maputo, 9 March 2015.

²⁶ Ibid.

²⁷ Interview with Tobias Dai, Maputo, 30 September 2015.

²⁸ Mhanda, Dzino.

²⁹ ‘25 June 1975: Independence of the People’s Republic of Mozambique’, Mozambique Revolution, 61 (Lourenço Marques, Frelimo’s Department of Information, 1975).

³⁰ ‘O Partido e as Classes Trabalhadoras Moçambicanas na Edificação da Democracia Popular: Relátorio do Comité Central ao 3º Congresso’ (Maputo, Departamento do Trabalho Ideológico, 1977).

³¹ Mhanda, Dzino.

³² Martin and Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe.

³³ Chung, Re-living the Second Chimurenga; Martin and Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe.

³⁴ Martin and Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe.

³⁵ Ibid.

³⁶ Mhanda, Dzino.

³⁷ B. Cole, The Elite: The Story of the Rhodesian Special Service (Durban, The Three Knights, 1984).

³⁸ Mhanda, Dzino.

³⁹ ‘Interview with President Machel’, Southern Africa, 9, 9 (November 1977), p. 7.

⁴⁰ Dabengwa, ‘ZIPRA in the Zimbabwe War’.

⁴¹ Martin and Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe.

⁴² Ibid.

⁴³ Tekere, A Lifetime of Struggle.

⁴⁴ Martin and Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe.

⁴⁵ Moiane, Memórias de Um Guerrilheiro.

⁴⁶ Interview with Mariano Matsinha, Maputo, 30 October 2014.

⁴⁷ Ibid.

⁴⁸ ‘Evolution of Patriotic Front’, Zimbabwe News, 9, 2 (January 1977).

⁴⁹ Interview with Mateus Zengeni, Maputo, 15 June 2016.

⁵⁰ Mhanda, Dzino.

⁵¹ Chung, Re-living the Second Chimurenga.

⁵² Interview with Mariano Matsinha, Maputo 30 October 2014.

⁵³ ‘Evolution of Patriotic Front’, Zimbabwe News, 9, 2 (January 1977).

⁵⁴ ‘Inspiration Corner: Presidente Machel and the Mozambican Revolution. Something New and Inspiring in the Third World’, Zimbabwe News, 9, 5/6 (July 1978).

⁵⁵ Interview with Mariano Matsinha, Maputo, 30 October 2014.

⁵⁶ Interview with Bistol Ruben, Boane, 4 March 2015.

⁵⁷ Estado Maior General das Forças Armadas de Moçambique, ‘Pontos Fundamentais sobre a Situação Inimiga e das Nossas Forças’, official report, 4 March 1977, cited in O. Saranga, ‘Internacionalismo Militante de Moçambique: Estudo de Caso Contribuição das FPLM para a Libertação do Zimbabwe (1975–1980), Licenciatura dissertation, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, 2005, p. 61.

⁵⁸ Interview with Batissone Mabolessi, Boane, 4 March 2015.

⁵⁹ Interview with Abílio Alface, Mapai, 17 October 2015.

⁶⁰ Interview with Tiago Jatima, who accompanied ZANLA militants from Zumbo in Tete to Kanyemba in Rhodesia, Boane, 3 October 2015.

⁶¹ From March 1976 to March 1977 there were 143 acts of aggression against Mozambique territory: 54 in Gaza, 33 in Manica and 56 in Tete. For more details, see: ‘Letter from Permanent Representative of Mozambique to the United Nations’, United Nations Security Council, UN/SA collection, S/12350 June 1977.

⁶² See, for example, ‘Rhodesia Attacks Mozambique’, Southern Africa Magazine, 10, 2, 1977.

⁶³ ‘Rhodesian Raids Provocation for Foreign Help?’, Washington Star, 6 December 1976.

⁶⁴ Interview with Mateus Zengeni, Maputo, 2 November 2015.

⁶⁵ ‘Rhodesian Raids Provocation For Foreign Help’.

⁶⁶ Ibid.

⁶⁷ S. Soko, ‘The Confession of Mozambican Spy’, Zambia Daily Mail, Lusaka, 29 September 1977, available at http://www.mozambiquehistory.net/history/conflict, retrieved 21 October 2015.

⁶⁸ Interview with Mateus Zengeni, Maputo, 2 November 2015.

⁶⁹ Ministério do Interior, ‘Experiência de organização dos campos dos refugiados’, Maputo, February 1978. There were around 57,000 Zimbabwean refugees in Tete, Manica and Gaza. Most of them lived in refugee camps. Some were hosted by Mozambican families or by small social centres. See ‘Inspiration Corner: President Machel and the Mozambique Revolution’.

⁷⁰ ‘Representante do Alto Comissariado para os Refugiados Confirma Massacre de Nyadzonia’, Tempo, 308, 25 August 1976; ‘Rhodesian Attacks Mozambique’, Southern Africa Magazine, 10, 2 (March 1977).

⁷¹ Interview with Mateus Zengeni, 30 October 2015.

⁷² ‘Presidente Samora Machel Entrevistado por Órgãos Centaris de P.C. Europeu: A Luta de Classes Trabalhadora é para Derrubar a Burguesia’, Tempo, 325, 28 December 1976.

⁷³ See, for example, ‘Note Verbale Permanent Representing of Mozambique, United State Security Council, December 1977’, S/12466; ‘Letter from Permanent Representative of Mozambique to the United Nations’, United Nations Security Council, UN/SA collection, S/12350, June 1977; reference kindly supplied by Colin Darch.

⁷⁴ ‘Lei do Serviço Militar Obrigatório’, Boletim da República, República Popular de Moçambique, I, 35, March 1978.

⁷⁵ S. Emerson, The Battle for Mozambique: The Frelimo–Renamo Struggle, 1977–1992 (South Africa, 30° Publishers, 2013); K. Flower, Serving Secretly – An Intelligence Chief on Record: Rhodesia into Zimbabwe, 1964 to 1981 (London, John Murray, 1987).

⁷⁶ Emerson, The Battle for Mozambique.

⁷⁷ Ibid.

⁷⁸ W. Minter, Apartheid’s Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and Mozambique (London and New York, Zed Books, 1994).

⁷⁹ Emerson, The Battle for Mozambique, p. 48.

⁸⁰ ‘The Voice of Hyena’ is from Rhodesia’, Sunday News, Bulawayo, 3 October 1976.

⁸¹ ‘Radio’s Analysis of Machel’s Tactics’, Summary of World Broadcasts, 22 June 1977, available at http://www.mozambiquehistory.net/history/conflict/77/19770622_machel_tactics_analysed.pdf, retrieved 31 July 2016.

⁸² ‘Radio’s Analysis of Machel’s Tactics’. Escudos were the currency used in Mozambique before the introduction of metical in 1980.

⁸³ Emerson, The Battle for Mozambique.

⁸⁴ According to Minter, Renamo had grown from fewer that 100 in 1976 to 2,000 in 1979; Minter, Apartheid’s Contras, p. 33.

⁸⁵ Interview with Lemos Pontes, Maputo, 30 October 2015.

⁸⁶ Interview with Mateus Zengeni, Maputo, 2 November 2015.

⁸⁷ Ibid.

⁸⁸ Ibid.

⁸⁹ Swahili was the language of communication in most Tanzanian camps, where a number of ZANLA militants had trained. See Williams, ‘Living in Exile’, p. 69.

⁹⁰ Interview with Mateus Zengeni, Maputo, 2 November 2015.

⁹¹ Interview with Lemos Pontes, Maputo, 2 November 2015.

⁹² Ibid.

⁹³ Ibid.

⁹⁴ Ibid.

⁹⁵ Samora Machel et al., A Libertação da Mulher (São Paulo and Parma, Coleção Bases, 1979), cited by J. Santana, ‘A Participação da Mulher na Luta de Libertação Nacional de Moçambique’, Sankofa, 4 (2005).

⁹⁶ I. Casimiro, ‘Samora Machel e as Relações de Genéro’, Estudos Moçambicanos, 21 (2005).

⁹⁷ Chung, Re-living the Second Chimurenga; J. Nhongo-Simbanegavi, For Better or Worse? Women and ZANLA in Zimbabwe’s Liberation Struggle (Harare, Weaver Press, 2000).

⁹⁸ Ibid.

⁹⁹ Interview with Lemos Pontes, Maputo, 2 November, 2015.

¹⁰⁰ Interview with Mateus Zengeni, Maputo, 2 November 2015.

¹⁰¹ ‘Cumprida a Missão: Combatentes Internacionalistas Regressam a Moçambique’, Notícias, Maputo, Feburary 1980.

¹⁰² J.P. Borges Coelho, ‘Da Violência Colonial Ordenada à Ordem Pós-colonial Violenta: Sobre um Legado das Guerras Coloniais nas Ex-colónias Portuguesas’, Lusotopie (2003), pp. 175–93, available at http://www.lusotopie.sciencespobordeaux.fr/borges2003.pdf, retrieved 9 December 2016.

¹⁰³ Interview with Airessi Jacapu, Maputo, 6 February 2015.

¹⁰⁴ J.P. Borges Coelho, ‘Conceitos Operactivos, Perspectivas e Dinâmicas dos Movimentos Populacionais no Território de Moçambique, unpublished paper (mimeo) kindly provided by the author.

¹⁰⁵ Interview with Victória Canxixe, Maputo, 3 June 2015.

¹⁰⁶ J. das Neves, ‘Economy, Society and Labour Migration in Central Mozambique, 1930–c.1965: A Case Study of Manica Province’, PhD thesis, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1998.

¹⁰⁷ Interview with Mateus Zengeni, Maputo, 2 November 2015.

¹⁰⁸ ‘Tarefas Concretas e Imediatas a Realizar’, Circular da Sede Nacional da Frelimo, Maputo, June 1976, p. 17.

¹⁰⁹ Interview with João Miranda, Maputo, 16 June 2016.

¹¹⁰ This occurred when Rhodesian forces attacked Nyadzonia camp in 1976, and Mapai in 1976. For more details, see Chung, Re-Living the Second Chimurenga.

¹¹¹ Interview with Mateus Zengeni, Maputo, 11 June 2016.

¹¹² Interview with João Miranda, Maputo, 16 June 2016.

¹¹³ Interview (conducted in Changana and translated into English by the author) with Fenias Runguane, Mapai, 17 October 2015.

¹¹⁴ ‘Antecâmara do Zimbabwe Libertado’, Tempo, 12 February 1978.

¹¹⁵ Ibid.

¹¹⁶ Chung, Re-Living the Second Chimurenga.

¹¹⁷ ‘Progress in Mozambique’, Southern Africa, 10, 6 (August 1977).

¹¹⁸ Ibid.

¹¹⁹ Minter, Apartheid’s Contras, p. 32.

¹²⁰ Mhanda, Dzino.

¹²¹ R. Renwick, Unconventional Diplomacy in Southern Africa (London, Macmillan, 1997); P. Carrington, Reflect on Things Past: The Memoirs of Lord Carrington (London, Collins, 1988).

¹²² Carrington, Reflect on Things Past; Renwick, Unconventional Diplomacy; Flower, Serving Secretly; Tekere, A Lifetime of Struggle.