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Abstract
The Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) emerged from the smouldering ashes of the intra-party violence that followed its break away from the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) in 1963 and the clampdown by Rhodesian authorities. Its structures were barely consolidated when it was banned in 1964, and its efforts in exile suffered a crisis of recognition, as the key sponsors of African liberation movements continued to view it as an ‘inauthentic’ and ‘separatist’ movement. This article traces the structures and strategies that ZANU used to manoeuvre through these obstacles to become a fully-fledged liberation movement by the mid 1970s. It pays particular attention to the work of individuals and organisations that facilitated this transformation by tracing a wide range of regional and international networks, including military, financial, humanitarian and diplomatic roles. The main sources are the growing corpus of oral reminiscences and published memoirs of the main players. It argues that ZANU was a beneficiary of the contradictions in the international solidarity movement. As it grew in stature, however, its own internal contradictions as a movement threatened to consume it and render the efforts and sacrifices of its exiles worthless. Yet, as the war escalated, these exile networks were the very basis on which an effective diplomatic offensive was launched, which complemented the successes that ZANU had in the battlefield. This aspect of the ZANU war effort is often conveniently omitted by ZANU itself.
Acknowledgements
I wish to extend special thanks to Wilson Nharingo and the National Archives of Zimbabwe Oral History Section for facilitating some of the interviews cited here. Clinarete Munguambe and JoAnn McGregor shared unpublished material, while David Moore and two anonymous reviewers gave comprehensive comments.
Notes
1 See I. Soiri and P. Peltola, Finland and National Liberation in Southern Africa (Uppsala, Nordic African Institute, 1999); T.L. Eriksen (ed.), Norway and National Liberation in Southern Africa (Uppsala, Nordic African Institute, 2000); T. Sellstrom, Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa, 2 vols (Uppsala, Nordic African Institute, 1998), H.G. Schleicher and I. Schleicher, Special Flights: The GDR and Liberation Movements in Southern Africa (Harare, SAPES Books, 1998).
2 T. Scharnecchia, The Urban Roots of Democracy and Political Violence in Zimbabwe 1940–1964 (Woodbridge, University of Rochester Press, 2008).
3 Ibid., p. 150.
4 Shadreck Musara Gatula, interviewed by Munyaradzi Huni and Tendai Manzvanzvike, Sunday Mail, Harare, 27 December 2015.
5 M. West, ‘Global Africa: The Emergence and Evolution of an Idea’, Review, 28, 5 (2005), p.101; A. Biney The Political and Social Thought of Kwame Nkrumah (New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), p. 138.
6 J.S. Ahlman, ‘Road to Ghana: Nkrumah, Southern Africa and the Eclipse of a Decolonizing Africa’, Kronos, 37 (2011), p. 26.
7 Such as SANWI dissidents from Ivory Coast and Nigerian exiles wanted for subversion. Ghana was implicated in an assassination attempt on the President of Niger and for supporting Togolese dissidents against President Sylvanus Olympio.
8 Biney, The Political and Social Thought, p. 148.
9 K. Nkrumah, Rhodesia File (London, Panaf, n.d.), p. 5.
10 A. Olayiwola, ‘Nigerian Foreign Policy Toward Southern Africa Liberation Struggles: A Case Study of the Zimbabwean Independence Struggle’ (PhD thesis, Howard University, 1979), p. 34.
11 Ibid., p. 78.
12 F. Chung, Zimbabwe: Looking East (Harare, Mlilo weFundo, 2015), Chapters 2 and3; Schleicher and Schleicher, Special Flights, p. 95.
13 ZANU representative to the AAPSO 1967 meeting, A.H. Mombeshora, was denied official recognition. W.C. Reed, ‘Global Incorporation, Ideology and Public Policy in Zimbabwe’, Issue, 15 (1987), p. 51.
14 Schleicher and Schleicher, Special Flights, p.100.
15 K. Somerville, ‘The USSR and Southern Africa Since 1976’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 22, 1 (1984), pp. 91–2.
16 I. Taylor, ‘Ambiguous Commitment: The People’s Republic of China and the Anti-Apartheid Struggle in South Africa’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 18, 1 (2010), p. 95.
17 Ahlman, ‘The Road’, p. 36.
18 D. Mitchell and R. Cary, African Nationalists in Rhodesia: Who’s Who? (Bulawayo, Books of Rhodesia, 1977). In December 1965, he moved back as representative to Malawi for six months, then transferred to Lusaka as a member of the Dare ReChimurenga. Parirewa joined Frolizi.
19 J. Day, International Nationalism: The Extraterritorial Relations of Southern Rhodesian Nationalists (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967), p. 99.
20 Ahlman, ‘The Road’, p. 36, identified around 25 letters in the BAA Archives from Robert Mugabe to Parirewa between 1964 and 1965.
21 N. Sithole, African Nationalism (London, Oxford University Press, 1968 [1957]), p. 182.
22 N. Shamuyarira, Crisis in Rhodesia (London, Andre Deustch, 1965), p. 184.
23 Day, International Nationalism, pp. 97–8.
24 J. Nkomo, The Story of My Life (Harare, SAPES Books, 2001), p. 105.
25 Ibid., p.98.
26 N. Bhebe, The ZAPU and ZANU Guerrilla Warfare and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Zimbabwe (Gweru, Mambo Press, 1999), p. 28.
27 Interview between Ngwabi Bhebe and Emmerson Mnangagwa, Harare, 17 October 2002.
28 Ignatius Chigwendere, interviewed by Gerald Mazarire and Wilson Nharingo, Harare, 25 August 2015.
29 T.O. Ranger, ‘Violence Variously Remembered: The Killing of Pieter Oberholzer in July 1964’, History in Africa, 24 (1997), p. 278.
30 Curiously, Tekere does not mention this in E. Tekere, Tekere: A Lifetime of Struggle (Harare, SAPES Books, 2007), preferring to associate himself with the much publicised and prestigious ‘Crocodile Gang’, pp. 59–60.
31 ‘The President Mugabe I Know: VP Mnangagwa’, Sunday Mail, Harare, 22 February 2015. In this interview, Mnangagwa claimed to be the only survivor of the ‘Crocodile Gang’, which may be factually misleading unless he was talking of association with these deployments in general. He also speculates that his nickname ‘Ngwena’ originates from his association with the ‘Crocodile Gang’ without clarifying this factual anomaly.
32 Mitchell and Cary, African Nationalists.
33 Day, International Nationalism, pp. 68–73.
34 Ibid.
35 Mitchell and Cary, African Nationalists (entry for Stanley Garikai Parirewa), I am grateful to David Moore for leads to Park’s intelligence background and operations in Zambia/Malawi.
36 Interview between Munyaradzi Huni and Tobias Chizengeni (alias Perkins Malan), Sunday Mail, 17 January 2016.
37 Ibid.
38 Diana Mitchell, Makers of History: Who is Who Nationalist Leaders in Zimbabwe (Causeway, Diana Mitchell, 1982), p. 161 (entry for Chimbidzikai Sanyangare); Day, International Nationalism, p. 99.
39 Ranger, Writing Revolt, p. 162.
40 D. Martin and P. Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe (Harare, ZPH, 1981), p. 11. Surviving members of those in Ghana in 1964 include Shadreck Chipanga, John Makwasha, Gilbert Majiri, Watson Chihota, Charles Chavanda, Xavier Virukai, Titus Chakavanda, Emmanuel Masango and Joel Muzhamba (Joseph Khumalo).
41 In June, another 10 were sent in (the Uhuru group, 4 men and Tema Tema, 6 men); in late December 1967, a further 21 entered in four groups (Jeka wa Cheka, Hokoyo, Ngomayarira, and Dubula): J.R.T. Wood, Zambezi Valley Insurgency: Early Rhodesian Bush War Operations (Pinetown, 30° South, 2012), pp. 5–6, 16–19.
42 Ignatius Chigwendere, interview.
43 V. Sithole, My Life with an Unsung Hero (Bloomington, Author House, 2006) p. 23.
44 W.C. Reed, ‘International Politics and National Liberation: ZANU and the Politics of Contested Sovereignty in Zimbabwe’ African Studies Review, 36, 3 (1993), p. 39, notes that despite recognition ZANU still publicly complained that OAU support favoured ZAPU.
45 J. Tungamirai, ‘Recruitment to ZANLA: Building up a War Machine’, in N. Bhebe and T. Ranger (eds), Soldiers in Zimbabwe’s Liberation War, Vol. 1 (Harare, UZ Publications, 1995), p. 40.
46 Ibid., p. 47.
47 These included Webster Gwauya, Meya Urimbo, Sheba Gava, Gedion Kuzvipa, Pearson Mandebvu, Joseph Chimurenga, Hope Dzichirira, Patrick Mupunzarima, Silas Murwira (aka James Bond), Justin Chauke, Solomon Tafirenyika, Claudius Gandamuseve, Abel Tsanangura and Martin Chikukwa.
48 Kugarahunzwana arrived in Kongwa first (composed of Stanford Manfore, Sarudzai Chinamaropa, Nyikandeyangu and Blackson Musandicheme, among others). Vukani later merged with Pasichigare, and its prominent members included Ernest Kadungure, Elias Hondo and Mudhara Bazooka.
49 Interview with Happison Nenji (alias Webster Gwauya), conducted by Gerald Mazarire and Wilson Nharingo, Glen Norah, Harare, 6 December 2015.
50 Ibid.
51 Ibid.
52 See N. Parsons, ‘The Pipeline: Botswana’s Reception of Refugees 1956–1968’, Social Dynamics, 34, 1 (2008), p. 21; W.G. Morapedi, ‘The Dilemmas of Liberation in Southern Africa: The Case of Zimbabwean Liberation Movements and Botswana 1960–1979’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 38, 1 (2012), p. 76; P. Mgadla, ‘A Good Measure of Sacrifice: Botswana and the Liberation Struggles of Southern Africa 1965–1985’, Social Dynamics, 34, 1 (2008), p. 7.
53 Mgadla, ‘A Good Measure’, p. 9.
54 Morapedi, ‘The Dilemmas’, p. 80.
55 Ibid., p. 10; W. Mhanda, Dzino: Memories of a Freedom Fighter (Harare, Weaver Press, 2011), pp. 25, 39; see also Martin and Johnson, The Struggle, p. 174.
56 J. Cilliers, Counter-Insurgency in Rhodesia (London, Croom Helm, 1985), p. 195.
57 T.O. Ranger, Writing Revolt: An Engagement with African Nationalism 1957–67 (Harare, Weaver Press, 2013), p. 160.
58 Ibid., p. 42.
59 Mitchell, Makers of History, p. 161.
60 JoAnn McGregor, ‘Locating Exile: Zimbabwean Students and Anti-Imperial Spaces in Britain 1965–1980’, Journal of Historical Geography (forthcoming), p. 11.
61 Ibid., p. 21.
62 Ignatius Chigwendere, interview.
63 Simbi Mubako, interviewed by JoAnn McGregor, Munyaradzi Nyakudya and Gerald Mazarire, Harare, 27 August 2010.
64 Sam Geza, interviewed by JoAnn McGregor, Munyaradzi Nyakudya and Gerald Mazarire, Harare, 28 August 2010.
65 Taderera was not a student but a former member of staff at University of Rhodesia who skipped bail after smuggling arms into Rhodesia with Betserai Madzivire. Chigwendere facilitated their passage to the UK, whereupon Taderera found a job in the USA and later returned to teach at UNZA before training in ZANLA camps in Mozambique with Sam Geza.
66 F. Chung, Re-Living the Second Chimurenga: Memories From Zimbabwe’s Liberation Struggle (Uppsala, Nordic African Institute, 2006), pp. 136–9.
67 L. White, The Assassination of Hebert Chitepo: Texts and Politics in Zimbabwe (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2003), pp. 88–91.
68 D. Moore, ‘ZANU PF and the Ghosts of Foreign Funding’, Review of African Political Economy, 32, 103 (2005), p. 160.
69 McGregor, ‘Locating Exile’.
70 T. Ranger, ‘The Changing of the Old Guard: Robert Mugabe and the Revival of ZANU’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 7, 1 (1980), pp. 71–90.
71 M. Sithole, Zimbabwe: Struggles Within the Struggle 1957–1980, second ed. (Harare, Rujeko Publishers, 1999), p. 31.
72 Ibid., pp. 64, 70, 80.
73 The Ranger Papers, doc. Ranger 00323, ‘The Zvobgo Narratives’, 28 May 1975, available at www.aluka.org, at the time of writing ‘being integrated within JSTOR’.
74 R.J.N. Gumbo, ‘Reflections on My Role in the Liberation of Zimbabwe’, unpublished manuscript in the present author’s possession, p. 6.
75 M. Sithole, Zimbabwe, pp. 68–71.
76 Ibid., p. 114.
77 See Doc. 40, ‘N. Sithole’s Statement on the Assassination of H. Chitepo and ZANU’, 10 May 1976, and Doc. 41, E.J. Zvogbo, ‘ZANU’s Reply to N.Sithole’s Statement’, c. June 1976, in G. Baumhogger, U. Engel and T. Diederichsen (comp.) The Struggle for Independence: Documents on the Recent Development of Zimbabwe 1975–1980, vol. 2 (Hamburg, Institut für Afrika-Kunde, 1984), pp. 33–6.
78 Doc. 36. ‘Dare reChimurenga Leaders Declaration on Mugabe’s Leadership of ZANU’, 24 January 1976, in Baumhogger et al. (comp.), The Struggle for Independence, p. 29.
79 Ibid., p. 25.
80 Olayiwola, ‘Nigerian Foreign Policy’, pp. 146–7.
81 Interview between Ngwabi Bhebe and Rex Nhongo, Harare, 17 July 1984.
82 Olayiwola, ‘Nigerian Foreign Policy’, p. 147.
83 Ibid., p. 148.
84 Nkomo, The Story, p. 192.
85 D. Moore, ‘Democracy, Violence and Identity in the Zimbabwean War of National Liberation: Reflections From the Realms of Dissent’, Canadian Journal of African Studies, 29, 3 (1995), pp. 393–4.
86 ‘ZANU Fashions New Leadership’, Zimbabwe News, 9, 3 (1977), pp. 12–13.
87 Doc. 37, E.Z. Tekere, ‘Memorandum to Donors and Possible Future Donors’, Quilemane, 21 April 1976, in Baumhogger et al. (comp.), The Struggle for Independence, p. 29.
88 Chung, Re-Living, p. 100.
89 He had been overtaken by fairly junior people in the May 1964 congress, such as Edgar Tekere, Deputy Secretary for Youth, while Hamadziripi was Deputy Secretary for Foreign Affairs.
90 Ignatius Chigwendere, interview.
91 J.G. Mayowe, Rega Zvipore (Gweru, MSU Press, 2015) , p. 54; Reed, ‘Global Incorporation’, p. 55.
92 ‘West German Government Seizes ZANU Funds’, Zimbabwe News, 10, 1 (1978), pp. 34–7.
93 Reed, ‘International Politics’, p. 46.
94 Mayowe, Rega Zvipore; A. Mutambara, The Rebel in Me: A ZANLA Guerrilla Commander in the Rhodesian Bush War, 1975–1980 (Solihull and Pinetown, Hellion & Co. and 30° South, 2014).
95 M. Preston, Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective (London, I.B. Tauris, 2004), p. 159.
96 Interview with Webster Gwauya (Happison Nenji).
97 K. Somerville, ‘The Soviet Union and Zimbabwe: The Liberation Struggle and After’, in C. Nation and M. Kauppi (eds), The Soviet Impact in Africa (Lexington, Lexington Books, 1984), p. 200.
98 Ibid., p. 201.
99 Preston, Ending Civil War, p. 159.
100 Reed, ‘International Politics’, p. 46.
101 Somerville, ‘The Soviet Union and Zimbabwe’, p. 203; Preston, Ending Civil War, p. 159.
102 Mayowe, Rega Zvipore, pp. 253–4.
103 Ibid., pp. 168–9, 182–3.
104 Ibid., p. 192.
105 D. Acheson-Brown, ‘The Tanzanian Invasion of Uganda: A Just War?’, International Third World Studies Journal and Review, 12 (2001), pp. 8–9.
106 Mayowe, Rega Zvipore, p. 209.
107 Ibid., p. 211.
108 Mutambara, The Rebel, p. 11.
109 Mayowe, Rega Zvipore, p. 242.
110 Mutambara, The Rebel, pp. 224–7.
111 C. Munguambe, ‘Nationalism and Exile in an Age of Solidarity: Frelimo–ZANU Relations in Mozambique (1975–1980)’, elsewhere in this issue; for deployments, see Mayowe, Rega Zvipore, p. 247.
112 E.T. Young, ‘Politics in the Military: Transformations in the Forças Armadas de Moçambique and the Zimbabwe National Army’, (PhD thesis, SOAS, University of London, 1998), p. 78. Young estimated the number of ‘volunteers’ seconded by Frelimo to ZANLA as 500.
113 Mayowe, Rega Zvipore, p. 283.
114 Mutambara, The Rebel, p. 272.