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ABSTRACT
Opium use and cultivation have flourished in the northeast of Myanmar for at least 250 years. From the 1960s onwards, various state and non-state actors have resorted first to forced eradication, and more recently to ‘alternative development’ programmes to achieve opium suppression. There is no indication, however, that any of these strategies can effectively bring down opium cultivation, unless the structural factors that lead farmers to grow opium in the first place are directly confronted and addressed. The concept of ‘alternative development’ needs to be urgently redefined to challenge the dominant political and economic paradigms and place opium farmers at the forefront of this transformation.
Acknowledgements
Sai Lone is deeply grateful to the co-author, Renaud Cachia, who helped shape the long-time working experiences, ideas and arguments of the author into this paper, and the two anonymous reviewers and Jennifer Franco for their valuable advice and incisive comments. He is sincerely indebted to his colleagues in Transnational Institute (TNI) for their encouragement and feedback on the preliminary draft version of this paper. And last but not least, he would like to express his profound gratitude to smallholder opium farmers in Myanmar for sharing their life experiences, struggles and inspiration to make their voices heard. This paper is entirely written in their honour.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Correction Statement
This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.
Notes
1 Interview with U Law Ring, a Kayan opium farmer in La Ei village, Pekhon Township, Southern Shan State on 7 November 2018.
2 Phone interview with Khun Tun Tin, a PaO opium farmer from Ban Sauk village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 12 October 2020.
3 Phone interview with Aik Shel Kywe, a Lahu opium farmer from Nam Khoke village, Mong Sart Township, Eastern Shan State on 20 October 2020.
4 Aik Shel Kywe, Lahu opium farmer from Nam Khoke village, Mong Sart Township, Eastern Shan State during 7th MOFF annual forum in Pekhon, 8–10 May 2019.
5 Phone interview with Nang Kham Mai, a PaO female opium farmer from Tharm Yang village, Siseng Township, Southern Shan State on 13 October 2020.
6 Phone interview with Nang Kyi Kyi Soe, a PaO female opium farmer from Naung Boat village, Siseng Township, Southern Shan State on 12 October 2020.
7 Phone interview with Khun Aung Tun, a PaO opium farmer from Kyauk Kachar village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 16 October 2020.
8 Phone interview with Wilson, a Kayan opium farmer from Lobarkho village Demosoe Township, Kayah State on 18 October 2020.
9 Interviewed via phone call with Nang Htay Htay Win, a PaO female opium farmer from Tharm Yang village, Siseng Township, Southern Shan State on 13 October 2020.
10 Phone interview with Khun Pa Phyu, a PaO opium farmer from Pachargalo village, Siseng Township, Southern Shan State on 14 October 2020.
11 Phone interview with Yakawk Min Htet, a Kayan opium farmer from La Ei village, Pekhon Township, Southern Shan State on 22 October 2020.
12 Phone interview with Philip, a Kayan opium farmer from La Tein village, Pekhon Township, Southern Shan State on 22 October 2020.
13 Phone interview with Nang Thweh Thweh Win, a PaO female coffee farmer from Lone He village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 15 October 2020.
14 Phone interview with Khun Maung Htee, a PaO coffee farmer from Ban Korn village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 15 October 2020.
15 Phone interview with Sai Aung Myint, a Shan opium farmer from Wan Kyaung village, Loilem Township, Southern Shan State on 19 October 2020.
16 Phone interview with Khun Maung Toke, a PaO opium farmer from Ban Sauk village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 17 October 2020.
17 Phone interview with Nang Thweh Thweh Win, a PaO female coffee farmer from Long He village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 15 October 2020.
18 Phone interview with Khun Sein Shwe, a PaO coffee farmer from Ban Sauk village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 17 October 2020.
19 Phone interview with Sai Tharyar, a Shan opium farmer from Kone Long village, Loilem Township, Southern Shan State on 21 October 2020.
20 Phone interview with Nang Seng Khur, a Shan female opium farmer from Wan Kyaung village, Loilem Township, Southern Shan State on 19 October 2020.
21 Phone interview with Nang Kham Rain, a PaO female opium farmer from Pachargalo village, Siseng Township, Southern Shan State on 14 October 2020.
22 Phone interview with Ja Saw, a Lahu opium farmer from Nam Khoke village, Mong Sart Township, Eastern Shan State on 24 October 2020.
23 Phone interview with Pee Yo, a Kayan opium farmer from Naung Lian village, Pekhon Township, Southern Shan State on 22 October 2020.
24 Phone interview with Sai Tharyar, a Shan opium farmer from Kone Long village, Loilem Township, Southern Shan State on 21 October 2020.
25 Phone interview with Khun Maung Kyaw, a PaO opium farmer from Pachargalo village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 16 October 2020.
26 Phone interview with Nang Htay Htay Win, a PaO female opium farmer from Tharm Yang village, Siseng Township, Southern Shan State on 13 October 2020.
27 Phone interview with Khun Pa Phyu, a PaO opium farmer from Pachargalo village, Siseng Township, Southern Shan State on 14 October 2020.
28 Phone interview with Khun Tun Tin, a PaO opium farmer from Ban Sauk village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 12 October 2020.
29 Phone interview with Nang Seng Khur, a Shan female opium farmer from Wan Kyaung village, Loilem Township, Southern Shan State on 19 October 2020.
30 Phone interview with Nang Win Win Shwe, a PaO female opium farmer from Tarm Yang village, Siseng Township, Southern Shan State on 12 October 2020.
31 Phone interview with Khun Aung Tun, a PaO opium farmer from Kyauk Kachar village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 16 October 2020.
32 Phone interview with Khun Tun Tin, a PaO opium farmer from Ban Sauk village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 12 October 2020.
33 Phone interview with Khun Tun Tin, a PaO opium farmer from Ban Sauk village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 12 October 2020.
34 Phone interview with Nar Vo, a Lahu female opium farmer from Pan Lin village, Mong Sart Township, Eastern Shan State on 24 October 2020.
35 Phone interview with Nar Shel, a Lahu female opium farmer from Pan Lin village, Mong Sart Township, Eastern Shan State on 24 October 2020.
36 Phone interview with Nang Kham Rain, a PaO female opium farmer from Pachargalo village, Siseng Township, Southern Shan State on 14 October 2020.
37 Phone interview with Khun Tun Tin, a PaO opium farmer from Ban Sauk village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 12 October 2020.
38 Phone interview with Aik Shel Kywe, a Lahu opium farmer from Nam Khoke village, Mong Sart Township, Eastern Shan State on 20 October 2020.
39 Phone interview with Khun Aung Tun, a PaO opium farmer from Kyauk Kachar village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 16 October 2020.
40 Phone interview with Aik Shel Kywe, a Lahu opium farmer from Nam Khoke village, Mong Sart Township, Eastern Shan State on 20 October 2020.
41 Phone interview with Nar Vo, a Lahu female opium farmer from Pan Lin village, Mong Sart Township, Eastern Shan State on 24 October 2020.
42 Phone interview with Aik Shel Kywe, a Lahu opium farmer from Nam Khoke village, Mong Sart Township, Eastern Shan State on 20 October 2020.
43 Phone interview with Nang Win Win Shwe, a PaO female opium farmer from Tarm Yang village, Siseng Township, Southern Shan State on 12 October 2020.
44 Phone interview with Khun Maung Toke, a PaO opium farmer from Ban Sauk village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 17 October 2020.
45 Phone interview with Aik Shel Kywe, a Lahu opium farmer from Nam Khoke village, Mong Sart Township, Eastern Shan State on 20 October 2020.
46 Phone interview with Khun Maung Lun, a PaO opium farmer from Ho Hui village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 16 October 2020.
47 Phone interview with Nang Seng Khur, a Shan female opium farmer from Wan Kyaung village, Loilem Township, Southern Shan State on 19 October 2020.
48 Phone interview with Yakawk Min Htet, a Kayan opium farmer from La Ei village, Pekhon Township, Southern Shan State on 22 October 2020.
49 Phone interview with Nang Win Win Shwe, a PaO female opium farmer from Tarm Yang village, Siseng Township, Southern Shan State on 12 October 2020.
50 Phone interview with Khun Aung Tun, a PaO opium farmer from Kyauk Kachar village, Hopone Township, Southern Shan State on 16 October 2020.
51 Phone interview with U Law Ring, a Kayan opium farmer from La Ei village Pekhon Township, Southern Shan State on 22 October 2020.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Sai Lone
Sai Lone is the second generation descendant of an opium farming family from Eastern Shan State, Myanmar. He is currently working as a consultant with Transnational Institute (TNI), Myanmar Programme. He is the founder and senior adviser of MOFF (Myanmar Opium Farmers’ Forum): a peasant movement platform to voice out the concerns and convey the political demands of opium farming communities in Myanmar. He has long-time working experiences as a senior national programme coordinator with UNODC and international development organisations which helped opium farmers in their attempts to find alternative livelihoods without relying on the income derived from opium farming. He holds a bachelor's degree in English literature from Mandalay University, Myanmar and master's degree in international development studies from Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
Renaud Cachia
Renaud Cachia graduated in international and humanitarian law and has been working in the field of international solidarity for the past 20 years. Based in Myanmar since 2009, his work has primarily focused on drug issues in the country. He is currently working for Transnational Institute (TNI), where he conducts research and other activities on drug policy.