WHERE DID BHUTAN'S GROSS NATIONAL HAPPINESS COME FROM? THE ORIGINS OF AN INVENTED TRADITION

Abstract

The Kingdom of Bhutan has attracted international attention for adopting “Gross National Happiness” (GNH) as its national development policy. The central notion is that gross national happiness is more important than gross national product; the four pillars of GNH are sustainable economic development, good governance, preservation of the natural environment and preservation of the national culture. This paper traces the historical origins of the concept of Gross National Happiness and finds that GNH is newer than the literature and the propaganda usually suggest. Close study of GNH's origins and salience over several decades reveals evidence of the invention of a tradition, in Hobsbawm and Ranger's terms [Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Eds.), The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: CUP, 1983]. The meteoric rise over the last 15 years of GNH as Bhutan's official ideology is a key part of the Bhutanese state's efforts at nation building in the context of rapid and disruptive social and economic change in a highly plural society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank Amber Minnings and Laura Pinkham for excellent research assistance and the participants at the 2015 conference of the Canadian Association for the Study of International Development for their comments.

Notes

1. Eric Hobsbawm, ‘Introduction: Inventing Traditions’, in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Eds.), The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 4.

2. Ministry of Finance, National Budget for the Year 1996-97 and Report on the 1995-96 Budget. Thimphu: Ministry of Finance, 1996, p. 16. Emphasis added.

3. Kent Schroeder, The Politics of Gross National Happiness: Image and Practice in the Implementation of a Multidimensional Development Strategy in Bhutan. Guelph: PhD Thesis, University of Guelph, 2014, p. 11.

4. M.S. Givel, ‘Gross National Happiness in Bhutan: Political Institutions and Implementation'. Asian Affairs Vol. XLVI. Issue 1 (2015): 108.

5. RGOB, Ninth Five-Year Plan 2002-2007. Thimphu: Planning Commission, 2002, p. 4.

6. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Eds.), 1983.

7. Eric Hobsbawm, ‘Introduction: Inventing Traditions’, in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Eds.), 1983, p. 6.

8. Susan M. Walcott, ‘One of a Kind: Bhutan and the Modernity Challenge'. National Identities Vol. 13. Issue 3 (2011): 253–265. Walcott cites no source in support of her claim that GNH was “first proposed by the country's widely venerated third king in 1961”.

9. M.S. Givel, ‘Gross National Happiness in Bhutan: Political Institutions and Implementation'. Asian Affairs Vol. XLVI. Issue 1 (2015): 108.

10. Michael T. Kaufman, ‘Basketball is Big in Bhutan but Traditions are Prized Too'. New York Times, April 29, 1980, p. A2.

11. Michael T. Kaufman, ‘The Remote Kingdom of Bhutan'. New York Times, November 16, 1980, p. 1.

12. Far Eastern Economic Review. Asia 1982 Yearbook, p. 119.

13. John Elliott, ‘The Modern Path to Enlightenment'. Financial Times, May 2, 1987.

14. Bryan Johnson, ‘Bhutan Clamps Down on Tourism'. Globe and Mail, January 21, 1988, p. A12.

15. Katie Hickman and Tom Owen Edmunds, ‘Tourism in Bhutan: The Serpent in Paradise'. The Geographical Magazine, November 1989, pp. 18–23.

16. Tom Owen Edmunds, Bhutan: Land of the Thunder Dragon. London: Elm Tree Books, 1988, p. 16. Edmunds's account is unreliable in many respects, notably in his claim that he “was able to travel east to villages which had never before seen foreigners”. His own partner's book (Katie Hickman, Dreams of the Peaceful Dragon: A Journey through Bhutan. London: Phoenix House, 1987), which he references, mentions many encounters with foreigners – Canadian, Indian and Nepali – on their trip east.

17. Stephen David Perry, ‘The Promise: ‘Uncaptured’ Peasantry, the State and Development in Bhutan'. Canadian Journal of Development Studies Vol. X. Issue 2 (1989).

18. Carol Hobson, ‘The Sorry Side of Shangri-la'. The Geographical Magazine, January 1993, p. 12; John-Thor Dahlburg, ‘Bhutan: a Shangri-La No Longer?’ Los Angeles Times, December 23, 1995.

19. In the interests of keeping within the permitted length, the author will not cite all the many documents consulted in this research; a full list is available from the author upon request.

20. RGOB, First Five-Year Plan (1961-66). Thimphu; RGOB, Second Five-Year Plan (1967-71).Thimphu; RGOB, Third Five-Year Plan 1972-76. Thimphu; RGOB, Fourth Five-Year Plan 1977-81. Thimphu; RGOB, Fifth Five-Year Plan 1982-87. Thimphu; RGOB, Sixth Five-Year Plan 1987-92. Thimphu; RGOB, Seventh Five-Year Plan 1992-97. Thimphu.

21. Ministry of Finance, National Budget and Budget Report. Thimphu, various years.

22. Again, a full set of the references consulted is available from the author.

23. Preservation of the national culture is a pillar of GNH; the education system is an obvious vehicle for promoting and preserving the national culture.

24. See Department of Education, New Approach to Primary Education. Thimphu: Ministry for Social Services, January 1990; Directorate of Education, Sixth Five Year Plan Education Sector 1987-1992. Thimphu: Ministry of Social Services, July 1987; RGOB, UNICEF and Swiss Development Corporation, Review of Primary Education in Bhutan with Special Emphasis on ‘New Approach to Primary Education’ (NAPE): Final Report. Thimphu: Department of Education, June 1993.

25. Jigmi Y. Thinley, Untitled letter to the participants in the ‘Educating for GNH Workshop’. Thimphu: Prime Minister's Office, NO.P-26/ of 13 November 2009.

26. Mieko Nishimizu, Portrait of a Leader: Through the Looking-Glass of His Majesty's Decrees. Thimphu: Centre for Bhutan Studies, 2008.

27. A full set of references is available from the author upon request.

28. The Asia 1991 Yearbook quoted the fourth king as saying that ‘present policies … (aim) to ensure the future well-being and happiness of our people.’ FEER, Asia 1991 Yearbook, p. 78.

29. Pradyumna P. Karan with Shigeru Iijima, Bhutan: Development amid Environmental and Cultural Preservation. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies and Monumenta Serindica No. 17, 1987. Pradyumna P. Karan, ‘Development Issues in Sikkim and Bhutan'. Mountain Research & Development Vol. 7. Issue 3 (1987): 275–278. Nagendra Singh, Bhutan: A Kingdom in the Himalayas, third revised edition, New Delhi: S. Chand and Company, 1985.

30. Michael Hutt (Ed.), Bhutan: Perspective on Conflict and Dissent. Kiscadale Asia Research Series No. 4, 1994; Michael Aris and Michael Hutt (Eds.), Bhutan: Aspects of Culture and Development. Kiscadale Asia Research Series No. 5, 1994.

31. Kent Shroeder, The Politics of Gross National Happiness: Image and Practice in the Implementation of a Multidimensional Development Strategy in Bhutan. Guelph: PhD Thesis, University of Guelph, 2014.

32. K.E.S. Kirby, ‘Bhutan Reluctantly Enters 20th Century'. Los Angeles Times, January 8, 1987; K.E.S. Kirby, ‘Bhutan: Land of the Thunder Dragon'. Los Angeles Times, October 23, 1988; K.E.S. Kirby, ‘Ethnic Discord: Clash of Cultures in Bhutan Spurs Emigration'. Los Angeles Times, September 1, 1992; Lauchlan T. Munro, ‘Growing Pains in the Himalayas’ and ‘Flaws in the Model Marriage'. South, November 1987.

33. Britta Das, Buttertea at Sunrise: A Year in the Bhutan Himalaya. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2007; Ken Haigh, Under the Holy Lake: A Memoir of Eastern Bhutan. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 2008; Howard Solverson, The Jesuit and the Dragon. Montreal: Robert Davies Publishing; Jamie Zeppa, Beyond the Earth and the Sky: A Journey into Bhutan. Toronto: Doubleday Canada, 1999.

34. Lyonpo Dago Tshering and Lily Wangchuk, Window on Bhutan: Druk Yul or the Land of the Thunder Dragon. New Delhi: Roots Advertising Services Pvt. Ltd., 2002; Desmond Doig, ‘Journeys to Bhutan'. Swagat, July/August 1982, p. 36–41; Katie Hickman, Dreams of the Peaceful Dragon: A Journey through Bhutan. London: Phoenix House, 1987; Katie Hickman, ‘Disarming the Demons'. Sunday Times (London), October 29, 1989, travel section page; Michael Moss, ‘Himalayan Highs: Confronting the Mysteries of Bhutan'. Los Angeles Times, May 31, 1992; H.S. Narang, ‘Ritual Rhythms of Bhutan'. Swagat, October 1985, pp. 11–18; Françoise Pommaret, An Illustrated Guide to Bhutan: Buddhist Fort of the Himalayas. Hong Kong: The Guidebook Company, 1990; RGOB, Bhutan: Himalayan Kingdom. Thimphu: Department of Tourism, 1979; Guy van Strydonck, Françoise Pommaret and Yoshiro Imaeda, Bhutan: A Kingdom in the Eastern Himalays. New Delhi: Time Books International, 1984; Moana Tregaskis, ‘Amid Bhutan's Peaks, Rituals and Temples'. New York Times, October 11, 1987.

35. M. Bisht, ‘Gross National Happiness in Bhutan: A Policy in Making’. New Delhi: Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, 2005; D. Cayo, Don, ‘Gross National Happiness Index Flawed'. Vancouver Sun, July 1, 2005; Jigme Y. Thinley, ‘Gross National Happiness', speech at Beyond GDP Conference, Humber College, Toronto, May 1, 2015; M.S. Givel, ‘Gross National Happiness in Bhutan: Political institutions and implementation’. Asian Affairs Vol. XLVI. Issue 1 (2015): 108; Gross National Happiness Commission, FAQs on GNH, downloaded from http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/GNH-FAQs-pdf.pdf on March 7, 2015; G. Harris, ‘Index of Happiness? Bhutan's New Leader Prefers more Concrete Goals'. New York Times, October 4, 2013; Karma Ura, ‘Gross National Happiness and Buddhism’, downloaded from http://www.kosei-shuppan.co.jp/english/text/mag/2007/07_101112_10.html on April 25, 2014; ‘Bhutan: The Pursuit of Happiness'. The Economist, December 16, 2004. It is noteworthy that both proponents and sceptics of GNH accept this timeline.

36. For example, Pellegrini and Tasciotti cite Grinde as their source for GNH originating in 1972, but Grinde cites no source whatsoever. See Lorenzo Pellegrini and Luca Tasciotti, ‘Bhutan: Between Happiness and Horror'. Capitalism Nature Socialism Vol. 25. Issue 3 (2014): 103–109 and B. Grinde, ‘The Politics of Happiness', in B. Grinde, The Biology of Happiness. Dordrecht: SpringerBriefs in Wellbeing and Quality of Life Research, 2012, pp. 95–99.

37. Far Eastern Economic Review, July 29, 1972, and September 30, 1972.

38. Karma Galay, Final Programmes for the Coronation, June 1974 and the Silver Jubilee Celebrations June 1999 of His Majesty the King, Jigme Singye Wangchuk. Thimphu: Centre for Bhutan Studies, 1999. In his coronation speech, the King mentioned ‘happiness' twice; but happiness is not the central theme of the speech, and more materialist concerns like ‘prosperity' and ‘self-reliance' got equal billing.

39. See Times of India, June 2, 3, 4 and 7, 1974; Indian Express, June 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7, 1974; Far Eastern Economic Review, 10 June 1974, 8 July 1974.

40. John Scofield, ‘Bhutan Crowns a New Dragon King'. National Geographic Vol. 146. Issue 4 (1974): 546–571, and ‘Life Slowly Changes in Remote Bhutan'. National Geographic Vol. 150. Issue 5 (1976): 658–683.

41. Omair Ahmad, ‘The Royal Pleasure Index'. Sunday Guardian, June 18, 2014; Victor Mallett, ‘What Price Happiness?’ Financial Times, December 5, 2013; Tobias Pfaff, ‘Das Bruttonationalglück als Leitlinie der Politik in Bhutan – Eine ordnungspolitische Analyse'. ORDO Jahrbuch für Ordnung von Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Vol. 62 (2011): 365–385.

42. Indian Express, September 10, 1979.

43. See Deccan Herald, September 13, 1979, the Indian Express, September 10 and 24, 1979.

44. Sean Boyd Frye Hargens, ‘Integral Development: Taking ‘the Middle Path’ Towards Gross National Happiness'. Journal of Bhutan Studies Vol. 6 (2002); Thierry Mathou, ‘The Politics of Bhutan: Change in Continuity'. Journal of Bhutan Studies Vol. 2. Issue 2 (2000); Françoise Pommaret, ‘Le bonheur national brut (PNB): Internationalisation d'un concept et défi national', Presentation at the GIS Asie: Réseau Asie & Pacifique, Centre national de la recherche scientifique, Paris, January 8, 2009; Thakur S. Powdyel, ‘Gross National Happiness: A Tribute’, and Stefan Priesner, ‘Gross National Happiness – Bhutan's Vision of Development and its Challenges', in Sonam Kinga et al. (Eds.), Gross National Happiness: Discussion Papers. Thimphu: Centre for Bhutan Studies, 1999; Alessandro Simoni, ‘A Language for Rules, Another for Symbols: Linguistic Pluralism and Interpretation of Statutes in the Kingdom of Bhutan'. Journal of Bhutan Studies Vol. 8 (Summer 2003): 31; Alessandro Simoni ‘“Gross National Happiness” and the Courts: The Changing Face of Justice in the Kingdom of Bhutan', in T. Andersson and Bengt Lindell (Eds.), Festkrift till Per Henrik Lindblo., Uppsala: Iustus Förlag, 2004, p. 608; Sonam Kinga, Polity, Kingship and Democracy: A Biography of the Bhutanese State. Thimphu: Ministry of Education, 2009, p. 269. The anonymous author(s) of the ‘Introductory Editorial’ to Sonam Kinga et al. 1999 even get the title of the Financial Times article wrong, page 2.

45. George W. Burns, ‘Gross National Happiness: A Gift from Bhutan to the World', in R. Biswas-Diener (Ed.), Positive Psychology as Social Change. New York: Springer, 2011; Bob Frame, ‘Bhutan: A Review of its Approach to Sustainable Development'. Development in Practice Vol. 15. Issue 2 (April 2005): 216–221; Karma Ura, Deities, Archers and Planners in the Era of Decentralisation. Motithang: self-published, 2004, p. 294.

46. John Elliott, ‘The Modern Path to Enlightenment'. Financial Times, May 2, 1987.

47. Karma Ura, ‘An Introduction to GNH (Gross National Happiness)’. Lecture at Schumacher College, UK, on November 11, 2009.

48. Tashi Dorji, ‘The Story of a King, a Poor Country and a Rich Idea’ (June 11, 2012), downloaded from http://blogbhutan.wordpress.com/2012/06/11/the-story-of-a-king-a-poor-country-and-a-rich-idea/ on 18 June 2014; Jigmi Y. Thinley in Ross McDonald (Ed.), Taking Happiness Seriously: Eleven Dialogues on Gross National Happiness. Thimphu: Centre for Bhutan Studies, 2010, p. 1. Jigmi Y. Thinley also mentions the 1987 Financial Times article by John Elliott.

49. RGOB, Eighth Five-Year Plan 2002-2007. Thimphu: Planning Commission, 1997, p. 13.

50. Planning Commission, Bhutan 2020: A Vision for Peace, Prosperity and Happiness. Thimphu: RGOB, 1999, p. 43 and 45.

51. Jigmi Y. Thinley, ‘Values and Development: “Gross National Happiness”'. Speech delivered at the Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific, October 30 to November 1, 1998. Seoul.

52. Sonam Kinga et al. Gross National Happiness: A Set of Discussion Papers. Thimphu: Centre for Bhutan Studies, June 1999. The UNDP staff member was Stefan Preisner, author of ‘Gross National Happiness – Bhutan's Vision of Development and its Challenges’.

53. RGOB, The EFA 2000 Assessment: Country Reports: Bhutan. Paris: World Forum on Education for All, UNESCO, 2000.

54. http://gaportal.org/undp-supported/bhutan, accessed on 11 March 2015.

55. W.A. Lewis, Theory of Economic Growth. London: RKP, 1955, pp. 429–430.

56. The third king's wife and mother of the fourth king, Ashi Kesang, was the niece of the Chogyal of Sikkim.

57. P.P. Karan and William Jenkins, The Himalayan Kingdoms: Bhutan, Sikkim and Nepal. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1963, p. 28. P.P. Karan, Bhutan: A Physical and Cultural Geography. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1967, p. 13. Karan led the first modern geographical survey of Bhutan, in 1961–62. See too Nari Rustomji, Crisis in the Dragon Kingdom. New Delhi: OUP, 1978, pp. 12–13.

58. This passage paraphrases Rustomji, 1978, p. 12. Rustomji was an Indian advisor to RGOB in the 1960s.

59. Nishimizu, p. 7.

60. See Johnson, 1988.

61. The Haa, Paro, Punakha, Thimphu and Wangdi-Phodrang valleys are the principal Dzongkha-speaking areas of Bhutan.

62. John Bray, ‘Bhutan: The Dilemmas of a Small State'. The World Today Vol. 49. Issue 11 (November 1993): 213–216.

63. Bill Frelick, ‘Bhutan's Ethnic Cleansing'. Human Rights Watch, February 2, 2008. Downloaded from http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/01/31/bhutans-ethnic-cleansing on 16 July 2015. Haigh, 2008. Michael Hutt (Ed.), 1994. Zeppa, 1999.

64. Bill Frelick, 2008. UNHCR, State of the World's Refugees. Geneva: UNHCR, various years. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees has granted refugee status to those expelled from Bhutan in this episode, meaning that those people have a well-founded fear of persecution in their home country and are therefore in need of international protection.

65. Richard W. Whitecross, ‘Signs of the Degenerate Age: the Desecration of Chorten and Lhakhang in Bhutan’. Journal of Bhutan Studies Vol. 1. Issue 1 (1999). See too Renata Lok Desallien, Democracy, Good Governance and Happiness: Some Views from the Kingdom of Bhutan. Thimphu: CBS, 2005, and Karma Ura, ‘Central Themes of Sustainable Development and Planning'. Kuensel, March 11, 1995.

66. Karma Ura, Deities, Archers and Planners in the Era of Decentralisation. Motithang: self-Published, 2004.

67. Ibid., p. 31. Originally published in 2001.

68. Ibid., p. 33. Originally published in 2001.

69. See http://www.rigss.bt/faculty-members/karma-ura/, accessed on 16 July 2015.

70. Planning Commission, 1999, p. 43.

71. Eric Hobsbawm, ‘Introduction: Inventing Traditions', in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Eds.), 1983, p. 9.

72. See note 55.