INDIA-CHINA BOUNDARY DISPUTES: AN OVERVIEW

Abstract

This article traces the development of the Sino-Indian Boundary problems from their origins during the “Great Game” period during the British Empire in India to the present day. The article looks at both the Western and Eastern Sectors, and traces the development of the various putative frontiers (the Johnson-Ardagh/ Macartney-MacDonald Lines and the McMahon Line respectively). The article looks at recent tensions which have arisen over the frontier areas, as well as the prolonged but unsuccessful attempts to solve the disputes, and considers what moves might be necessary to bring a final resolution of the problems.

Keywords:

• Johnson-Ardagh Line
• Macartney-MacDonald Line
• McMahon Line
• Aksai Chin
• Arunachal Pradesh

Notes

1. The views expressed are those of the author and do not reflect those of the Indian Council of World Affairs.

2. David Scott, ‘Sino-India Territorial Issue: The “Razor's Edge”’, in Harsh V. Pant (Ed.), The Rise of China: Implications for India. New Delhi: Foundation Books, 2012, pp. 195–217. There are also disputed areas in north India over the Himalayan frontiers in Uttarkhand and Himachal Pradesh, and as regards Tibet the Nilang-Jadhang area, Bara Hoti, Lapthal and Sangcha Malla.

3. In this article a clear distinction is drawn between the words ‘boundary', ‘border' and ‘frontier', which are not synonyms. A boundary line has to be very accurately depicted, with precise coordinates and marked by well-known geographical features. For it to be an effective instrument, it must not only be properly delineated on a map but also visible and effectively demarcated on the ground. This can be categorised into: natural boundaries, astronomical or mathematical boundaries and historical boundaries. ‘Border' refers to zones of indeterminate width that form the outermost parts of a state that are bounded on one side by a national boundary. ‘Frontier' is a vague and indefinite term. It has two conceptual meanings. The first concept means a political frontier that divides two states, and it need not be under the control of either state. The second concept of a frontier defines it with reference to ‘settlements' within a single country. It represents the distinction between occupied and controlled land. Many countries prefer to use ‘frontier zones' rather than boundary lines because it absolves them from negotiating and policing specific boundary lines that may entail a heavy financial expenditure. Definitions used in Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issue: Quest for Settlement. New Delhi: Pentagon Press, 2014, pp. 2–3.

4. This author has published a number of essays and papers on India-China relations, and some of the ideas and materials from these papers are unavoidably repeated here. The author also acknowledges the assistance from the Editor of the Asian Affairs Journal for suggestions as to historical material which has been incorporated into this article.

5. Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issue: Quest for Settlement. New Delhi: Pentagon Press, 2014, p. 51.

6. Manjari Chatterjee Miller, Wronged by Empire: Post Imperial Ideology and Foreign Policy in India and China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013, p. 60.

7. For example the Convention between British India and China relating to Sikkim and Tibet, 1890. Retrieved from http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties9.html. Accessed on 22 December 2015.

8. Listed in the Chinese memoranda of 25 April, 1 May and 13 June 1914 and 30 May 1919, see A. G. Noorani, ‘Strategic Differences’. Frontline Vol. 25. Issue 26, 20 December, 2008–02 January, 2009; see also Brigadier-General M. E. Willoughby, C.B., C.S.I., C.M.G., ‘The Relation of Tibet to China’. Journal of The Royal Central Asian Society Vol. 11. Issue 3 (1924): 187–203. doi:10.1080/03068372408724872.

9. Manjari Chatterjee Miller, Wronged by Empire: Post Imperial Ideology and Foreign Policy in India and China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013, p. 60.

10. Jawaharlal Nehru, Selected works of Jawaharlal Nehru; 1 December 1956-21 February 1957. New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, 2005, p. 614.

11. ‘Settling Border Issue is Critical for India-China Ties: NSA Ajit Doval'. Retrieved from http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-settling-border-issue-critical-for-india-china-ties-nsa-ajit-doval-2088338. Acessed on 1 June 2015.

12. ‘India-China Border Problem', Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, December 22, 1959, p. 2.

13. A.G. Noorani, India-China Boundary Problem 1846-1947: History and Diplomacy. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011.

14. Ibid.

15. See James Barnard Calvin, The China-India Border War. Virginia: CSC, 1984.

16. See Robert S. Ross and Alastair Iain Johnston, ‘China’s Decision for War with India in 1962’, in New Approaches to the Study of Chinese Foreign Policy. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005.

17. Dibyesh Anand, ‘As Sushma Meets Xi, Question Lingers: Where Exactly is the India-China Border’. Scroll.in, February 3, 2015.

18. David M. Malone, Does The Elephant Dance?: Contemporary Indian Foreign Policy. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011.

19. ‘India-China Conflict', Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi, February 1965, p. 8; S.A. Hoffman, India and the China Crisis. California: University of California Press, 1990, p. 227.

20. ‘India-China Conflict’, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi, February 1965, p. 15; A. K. Damodaran, ‘Diary of an Old China Hand’, in Tan Chung (Ed.), Across the Himalayan Gap: An Indian Quest for Understanding China. New Delhi: Gyan Publications, 1998, pp. 433–434.

21. ‘India-China Conflict’, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi, February 1965, p. 15.

22. Muchkund Dubey, India's Foreign Policy: Coping with the Changing World. New Delhi: Pearson, 2013, p. 195.

23. Ibid.

24. In particular the decline of the USSR, a rapprochement between the USA and China but a decline in USSR-China relations, and also a perception that India supported the Soviet presence in Afghanistan.

25. Tansen Sen, ‘Hindi Chini Shy Shy'. Times of India, September 22, 2014.

26. Amardeep Athwal, China India Relations: Contemporary:Dynamics. Abingdon: Routledge, 2008, pp. 1–90.

27. Susan Shirk, ‘One-Sided Rivalry: China's Perceptions and Policies toward India', in Francine R. Frankel & Harry Harding (Eds.), India-China Relationship: What the United States Needs to Know. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004, pp. 75–101.

28. Tansen Sen, ‘Hindi Chini Shy Shy'. Times of India, September 22, 2014.

29. ‘Visit of Prime Minister to China (May 14–16 2015)’. Retrieved from http://www.mea.gov.in/outoging-visitdetail.htm?25240/Joint+Statement+between+the+India+and+China+during+Prime+Ministers+visit+to+China. Accessed on 15 July 2015.

30. S.D. Pradhan, ‘Assessing Chinese PM Li Keqiang's India Visit'. Times of India, May 27, 2013.

31. ‘New Delhi Won't Fall for Tokyo's Attempts to Stir up Trouble with Bejing'. Global Times, January 23, 2015.

32. John Graver, ‘Sino-India Border Dispute: An Interpretation’. China Report Vol. 47. Issue 2 (2011): 99–113.

33. Shyam Saran, ‘An Out of the Box Solution to the India-China Boundary Dispute'. Retrieved from http://fnvaworld.org/an-out-of-the-box-solution-to-the-india-china-boundary-dispute/. Accessed on 1 June 2015.

34. C. Raja Mohan, ‘Chinese Takeaway: Sushma in Bejing’. Indian Express, February 4, 2015.

35. ‘In R-Day Message China Tells India Do Not Fall into a Trap Laid by India'. The Hindu, January 27, 2015.

36. ‘Pakistan an Irreplaceable, All-weather Friend: China'. Daily Times, January 27, 2015.