THE CORROSIVE COMPROMISE OF THE SINO-INDIAN BORDER MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK: FROM DOKLAM TO GALWAN

ABSTRACT

India and China have entered a new low in their bilateral relations. Having fought a war in 1962, it took over three decades for both countries to achieve normalcy at the borders, aided by a series of border management agreements and protocols to maintain tranquility along the border areas. However, the June 2020 Galwan clashes have changed that permanently. This paper argues that the current escalation of border clashes is both a symptom and consequence of the breakdown of the bilateral border management framework which has been dented since the 2017 Doklam standoff between both countries. Delving into diplomatic history relating to Doklam and Galwan, the findings point to the need to correct the epistemic criteria used to reproduce claims of an unambiguous boundary between India and China by both countries, in order to ensure abatement of similar outcomes.

Keywords:

• India-China
• boundary
• Galwan
• Doklam
• diplomatic history
• cartography
• Bhutan
• India
• China
• frontiers
• Aksai Chin

Notes

1 Central Intelligence Agency, ‘The Sino-Indian Border Dispute’, Section 3:1961-62. DD/I Staff Study CIA/RSS. Polo XVI, 1964, p. 32. https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/polo-09.pdf (accessed 20 June 2020).

2 Willem Frederik Eekelen, Indian Foreign Policy and the Border Dispute with China. Netherlands: Springer, 1967, p. 112. https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789401764360; see also CIA report, 1964, p. 29.

3 CIA report, 1964, op cit, p. 32.

4 Ananth Krishnan, ‘China Demands India’s Withdrawal from Galwan Valley’. The Hindu, June 25, 2020, https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/pla-says-india-crossed-lac-june-15-clash-happened-on-chinas-side/article31904521.ece (accessed 11 July 2020); see also Anjana Pasricha, ‘On Disputed India-China Border, Modi Says Age of Expansionism Over’. VOA News, July 3, 2020, https://www.voanews.com/south-central-asia/disputed-india-china-border-modi-says-age-expansionism-over (accessed 12 July 2020).

5 Global Times, ‘Chinese FM, Indian External Affairs Minister Talk on Phone Over Border Conflicts’. Global Times, June 17, 2020, https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1191933.shtml (accessed 22 June 2020).

6 Nayanima Basu, ‘India, China Agree to Implement 6 June “Disengagement Understanding” to Ensure Peace at LAC’. The Print, June 17, 2020, https://theprint.in/diplomacy/india-china-agree-to-implement-6-june-disengagement-understanding-to-ensure-peace-at-lac/443521/ (accessed 9 July 2020).

7 See Joe Thomas Karackattu, ‘India–China Border Dispute: Boundary-Making and Shaping of Material Realities from the Mid-Nineteenth to Mid-Twentieth Century’. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland Vol. 28. Issue 1 (2018): 135–159 for a detailed discussion on the making of the India-China boundary between the mid-19th and mid-20th century.

8 Maps as cited in text.

9 See Premier Zhou En-Lai’s letter to the leaders of Asian and African countries on the Sino-Indian Boundary question, 15 November 1962, in The Sino-Indian Boundary Question (Enlarged Edition), Map number 3 in appendix, Peking: Foreign Languages Press, November 1962; The alignment is also reproduced in Government of India, Chinese Aggression in War and Peace: Letters of the Prime Minister of India. Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1962.

10 Maps as cited in text.

11 Government of India, Military Report on Sinkiang (Chinese Turkestan), General Staff, India, Case No 26110/M03/Books, Pol and Secret Dept. Calcutta: GOI Press, 1929.

12 Gazetteer of Kashmir and Ladak (together with routes in the territories of the Maharaja of Jamu and Kashmir), compiled under the direction of the Quarter Master General in India in the Intelligence Branch, Calcutta: The Superintendent of Government Printing, India, 1890.

13 1993 Agreement on “Maintenance of Peace and Tranquility Along the Line of Actual Control in the India-China Border Areas”; 1996 Agreement on “Confidence Building Measures in the Military Field Along the Line of Actual Control in the India-China Border Areas”; 2005 Protocol on “Modalities for the Implementation of Confidence Building Measures in the Military Field Along the Line of Actual Control in the India-China Border Areas”; the 2012 Agreement on the “Establishment of a Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination on India-China Border Affairs”; and the 2013 Agreement on “Border Defence Cooperation”.

14 Josy Joseph, ‘What is the Doklam Issue all about?’. The Hindu, January 27, 2018, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/what-is-the-doklam-issue-all-about/article22536937.ece (accessed 19 June 2020).

15 National Assembly of Bhutan, Translation of the proceedings and resolutions of the 73rd session of the National Assembly of Bhutan held from 10th August to 2nd September, 1995, Official Website of the National Assembly of Bhutan; 1995, http://www.nab.gov.bt/assets/uploads/docs/resolution/2014/73rd_Session.pdf (accessed 29 June 2020).

16 National Assembly of Bhutan, English translation of the Resolution of the 80th session of the National Assembly, Official Website of the National Assembly of Bhutan; 2002, p. 27, http://www.nab.gov.bt/assets/uploads/docs/resolution/2014/ 80th_Session.pdf (accessed 21 June 2020).

17 Suhasini Haidar, ‘The Crossroads at the Doklam Plateau’. The Hindu, July 26, 2017, https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/the-crossroads-at-the-doklam-plateau/article19359848.ece (accessed 19 June 2020).

18 Gyalsten K. Dorji, ‘23rd Round of Bhutan-China border talks Held’, Kuensel, August 25, 2015, http://www.kuenselonline.com/23rd-round-of-bhutan-china-border-talks-held/ (accessed 20 June 2020); see also Tshering Dorji, ‘Differences in Bhutan-China Border Dispute Minimized … the Report of the Joint Technical Field Survey Helped in Doing So’. Kuensel, November 26, 2016, http://www.kuenselonline.com/differences-in-bhutan-china-border-dispute-minimised/ (accessed 20 June 2020).

19 Yunyun Liu, ‘The Hard Facts Behind the Indian Fiction: Indian Troops’ Border Trespassing Violates China’s Territorial Sovereignty’. Beijing Review No. 33, August 17, 2017, http://www.bjreview.com/World/201708/t20170814_800102313.html (accessed 22 June 2020).

20 CU Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries, 193. Vol. 12, 1931, Calcutta: Central Publication Branch, Government of India, p. 66.

21 Ibid.

22 H.H. Risley, The Gazetteer of Sikhim, With an introduction by H. H. Risley (Indian Civil Service, Companion of the Indian Empire; Officier d' Academie Francaise), Sikkim Government, Calcutta: The Bengal Secretariat Press, 1894, reprinted: Sikkim Nature Conservation Foundation; 1989, p. 3, http://sikkimarchives.gov.in/download/old_sikkim_doucments/GAZETTEER.pdf (accessed July 29 2017).

23 Lord Ronaldshay, ‘The Road to Chumbi’, in Lands of the Thunderbolt: Sikhim, Chumbi and Bhutan, 1923, p. 113, Pilgrims Book House; Pap/Map edition reprint 2005.

24 CU Aitchison, op cit, p. 52.

25 Les Amis du Bhoutan, ‘Bhutan National Assembly Reports July 2002: Assembly Debates Course of Action on the Militant Problem’. Kuensel, hosted at http://www.amisdubhoutan.fr/OldSite/Pages/assembly2.htm, 2002; see also Thierry, ‘Bhutan-China Relations: Towards a New Step in Himalayan Politics’, in Karma Ura and Sonam Kinga (Eds.), The Spider and the Piglet (Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Bhutan Studies, ISBN 99936-14-19-X). Thimphu: The Centre for Bhutan Studies, 2004, pp. 388–411.

26 Ibid.

27 National Assembly of Bhutan, 2002, op cit.

28 Thierry Mathou, on email to author, dated August 3, 2017.

29 India Office Records, ‘Papers Relating to Tibet’, Parliamentary Branch Records (c1772-1952) in L/Parl/2/334; p 187.

30 India Office Records, ‘Papers Relating to Tibet’, op cit, 16445 N pg 91 records the Letter from JC White, Esq, Political Officer, Sikkim to the Commissioner of the Rajshahi Division, dated Yatung, November 23, 1898 which notes that “the Chinese authority has of late years much declined at Lhasa, and now they have practically no authority over the Tibetans … The Chinese acknowledge they have no authority, and the Tibetans say the Chinese have no right to treat for them”. For more on China’s weakening hold over these areas in the context of Tibet, see “Tibet Conference (confidential): Final Memorandum” prepared by Henry McMahon; India Office Records, Political and Secret Department Records, Fiche 684,16–23 of 75 in L/P&S/11/81 where he discusses the 1903–04 Younghusband expedition.

31 Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, ‘Recent Developments in Doklam Area’, NewDelhi, 2017, http://mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/28572/Recent_Developments_in_Doklam_Area (accessed 29 July 2018).

32 Liu, op cit.

33 Press Trust of India (PTI), ‘PLA Troops Patrolling Dokalam to Exercise Sovereignty: China’, carried in the Business Standard, October 6, 2017, https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/pla-troops-patrolling-dokalam-to-exercise-sovereignty-china-117100601108_1.html (accessed 29 July 2019).

34 Karackattu, op cit.

35 Vijaita Singh and Dinakar Peri, ‘Chinese Troops Shift 2 km from Galwan Valley Clash Site’. The Hindu, July 6, 2020, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/chinese-troops-pull-back-2-km-from-site-of-galwan-valley-clashes-says-govt-official/article31999179.ece (accessed 14 July 2020).

36 Lobsang Tenchoe, ‘China Plans to Stretch Railway Network to Bihar’. Tibet Express, May 25, 2016, http://tibetexpress.net/china-plans-to-stretch-railway-network-to-bihar/ (accessed 4 July 2020).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Joe Thomas Karackattu

Dr Joe Thomas Karackattu teaches at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras, and is currently Faculty In-Charge of the IIT Madras China Studies Centre. He was Fox Fellow (2008–09) at Yale University, Centenary Fellow at SOAS, University of London (2013) and was most recently selected as the CISLI Fellow at the India China Institute at The New School, New York (2017–19). Besides teaching and research, he is also Network Editor for H-Asia. Email: [email protected]