Anglo-Japanese Collaboration about Africa in Early 1960s: The Search for ‘Complementarity’ in the Middle of Decolonisation

Abstract

By examining British and Japanese archival sources, this article brings alive the discourse on Japan–Africa relations in the early 1960s and evokes, on the one hand, the dilemmas surrounding Japan's attempts to expand its economic interests in a decolonising Africa and, on the other hand, the efforts of Britain to hold on to its interests in the region. In essence, the research shows how Japan kick-started its economic relations with the African countries in the post-war era and the initiative to ‘enrol’ the services of Britain in the process. This article also shows how keen Whitehall, on the whole, was about collaborating with Japan about Africa in search of complementary interests, perhaps along the same lines as in Southeast Asia in the 1950s. Eventually, Whitehall became exasperated about the initiative, not least because it felt that it had made all the running and the Japanese had contributed nothing.

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Professor Junko Tomaru for rekindling my interest in the topic by drawing my attention to the Japanese sources. I am also grateful to Professor J. A. A. Stockwin, Dr Antony Best and the two anonymous readers for their insightful comments and suggestions. In this paper, in order not to confuse those unfamiliar with Japan, I have followed the Western style of putting the family name last.

Notes

Hideo Oda, ‘Afrurika kaihatsu kaigi (TICAD IV) e no kitai’; Kweku Ampiah, ‘Japan and the Development of Africa’; Seifudein Adem, ed., ‘Zadankai—kakkoku daitoryo ga kataru, nihon no nōhau o manabi’.

Katsuhiko Kitagawa, ‘senzenki nihon no ryōji hōkoku ni mirareru afurika kezia jijō chōsa no kenkyu- gaimushō tsūshōkyoku [tsūshō-kōhō] o chushin toshite’.

Kweku Ampiah, ‘British Commercial Policies Against Japanese Expansionism in East and West Africa, 1932–1935’; Best, Anthony, ‘Economic Appeasement or Economic Nationalism? A Political Perspective on the British Empire, Japan and the Rise of Intra-Asian Trade, 1933–37’.

daiyonkai afurika chīki kōkanchō kaigi no ken (Afurika ni kansuru nichiei kyōryoku kaigi ni kansuru iken)'.

‘Meeting to Discuss Anglo-Japanese Relations’, p. 43; Eiji Seki, ‘Ohno Katsumi, 1905–2006’.

daiyonkai afurika chiiki kōkanchō kaigi no ken (Afurika ni kansuru nichiei kyōryoku kaigi ni kansuru iken)'; Eiji Seki, ‘Ohno Katsumi, 1905–2006’.

Noriko Yokoi, ‘Japan's Postwar Economic Recovery and Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1948–62’.

John Weste, ‘Facing the Unavoidable – Great Britain, the Sterling Area and Japan’.

Shigeru Akita, ‘The East Asian International Economic Order in the 1950s’.

Shigeru Akita, ‘The East Asian International Economic Order in the 1950s’, 159.

Junko Tomaru, ‘The Postwar Rapprochment of Malaya and Japan, 1945–61’, 73; Noriko Yukio, ‘Japan's Postwar Economic Recovery and Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1948–62’, 141.

Nicholas White, ‘“Complementarity”, decolonization and the Cold War’, 173; Nicholas J. White, ‘Britain and the Return of Japanese Economic Interests to Southeast Asia after the Second World War’.

Nicholas White, ‘“Complementarity”, decolonization and the Cold War: British Responses to Japan's Economic Revival in Southeast Asia during the 1950s and 1960s’, 171.

Nicholas J. White, ‘Britain and the Return of Japanese Economic Interests to Southeast Asia after the Second World War’, 300–02.

Nicholas J. White, Business, Government, and the End of Empire: Malaya, 1942–1957, 2.

Harry Magdoff, ‘Imperialism without Colonies’, 165.

White, Business, Government, and the End of Empire: Malaya, 8.

Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyoryoku no ken, June 29, 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388; daiyonkai afurika chiiki kōkanchō kaigi no ken (Afurika ni kansuru nichiei kyōryoku kaigi ni kansuru iken), No 2303, 9 October 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

The other pillars were maintaining a position as a member of Asia, and UN-centricism.

Record of Conversation between the Minister of State and the Japanese Prime Minister, 13 July 1959, FO, 371/141439 (The National Archives [TNA]), 73.

John Dower, Japan in War and Peace: Essays on History, Culture and Race, 185.

daiyonkai afurika chiiki kōkanchō kaigi no ken (Afurika ni kansuru nichiei kyōryoku kaigi ni kansuru iken), No. 2303, 9 October 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Mr. Ohno's ‘African Proposal’, January 3, 1962, FO 371/164971/48815 (TNA), 31; Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyoryoku no ken, 29 June 1962 gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Kweku Ampiah, The Moral and Political Imperatives of the Bandung Conference of I955, 166–202.

From Okamoto to Shigemitsu, ‘Ajia-Afurika kaigi sanka ni taisuru ronchō no ken’, 18 Jan. 1955, gaimushō gaikôkiroku bunsho, B0049.

From Okamoto to Shigemitsu, ‘Ajia-Afurika kaigi sanka ni taisuru ronchō no ken’, 18 Jan. 1955, gaimushō gaikôkiroku bunsho, B0049.

Taizō Miyagi, Bandon kaigi to nihon no ajia fukki: Amerika to ajia no hazama de.

Kweku Ampiah, The Moral and Political Imperatives of the Bandung Conference of I955, 166–202.

The meeting involved representatives from the Foreign Office, Board of Trade, Commonwealth Relations Office (CRO), the Treasury and the Colonial Office.

Meeting to discuss Anglo-Japanese Relations, 2 June 1961, FO 371/158493 (TNA), 43.

From D. A. Murphy (CO) to Mr. de la Mare (FO), 22 June 1961, FO 371/158493 (PRO), 56–57.

Letter from W. Hughes (Board of Trade) to E. H. Peck (Foreign Office), 30 May 1961, FO 371/158493 (TNA), 80.

Letter from C. G. Eastwood (CO) to E. H. Peck (FO), 1 June 1961, FO 371/158493 (TNA), 81.

‘Mr. Ohno's “African Proposals”’, 3 Jan. 1962, FO 371/164971 (TNA), 31; From Mr. de la Mare to Mr. N. C. C. Trench (Tokyo), 11 Jan. 1962, FO 371/164971/48815 (TNA), 39–40.

‘Mr. Ohno's “African Proposals”’, 3 Jan. 1962, FO 371/164971/48815 (TNA), 32.

Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyōryoku no ken, 29 June 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyōryoku no ken, 29 June 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

daiyonkai afurika chiiki kōkanchō kaigi no ken (Afurka ni kansuru nichiei kyōryoku kaigi ni kansuru iken), No 2303, 9 October 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyoryoku no ken, 29 June 1962 gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyōryoku no ken, 29 June 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyōryoku no ken, 29 June 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

daiyonkai afurika chiiki kōkanchō kaigi no ken (Afurika ni kansuru nichi-ei kyōryoku kaigi ni kansuru iken), No 2303, 9 October 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388

Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyoryoku no ken, 29 June 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryokan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Minute by Mr. Faber (North and East African Department, Foreign Office), 20 Feb. 1962. FO 371/164971 (TNA), 33–36.

B. Hitch (FO) to B. L. Barder (CO), 28 Mar. 1962, FO 371/164971 (TNA), 44.

The meeting involved officials from the following departments: FO, BoT, CRO, CO and the Department of Technical Co-operation. The FO was represented by officials of the West and Central Africa Department, the North and East Africa Department and the Far Eastern Department.

The second part of item 4b (details of capital requirements) of the agenda was subsequently deleted because the Treasury thought that the capital requirements of the African countries were too enormous for a fruitful discussion at the meeting. See meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Agenda, FO 371/164971/48815 (PRO), 9 Apr. 1962, 41; afurika mondai ni kansuru nichiei kyōryoku ni tsuite no kaidan gaiyō, chūkintō afurikabu afurika ka, 23 Jan. 1963, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Agenda, FO 371/164971/48815 (TNA), 9 Apr. 1962, 39.

Meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Agenda, FO 371/164971/48815 (TNA), 9 Apr, 1962, 41.

Meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Agenda, 9 Apr. 1962, FO 371/164971/48815 (TNA), 42

Meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Agenda, 9 Apr. 1962, FO 371/164971/48815 (TNA), 43.

Meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Agenda, 9 Apr. 1962, FO 371/164971/48815 (TNA), 43.

Meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Agenda, 9 Apr. 1962, FO 371/164971/48815 (TNA), 47.

From R. C. Barnes (CRO) to A. J. de la Mare (FO) and copied to all the relevant departments, 26 June 1962, FO 371/164971/48815 (TNA).

The British representatives at the meeting were A. J. de la Mare (who chaired the meeting and represented the Far Eastern Department of the FO), G. W. S. J Chadwick (Under-Secretary superintending Africa and Political Division, CRO), E. L. Sykes (Head of Southern African Department, CO), P. J Kitcatt (East African Department, CO), S. F. Duncan, Central African Office, R. S. Scrivener (North and East African Department, FO) R. J. Stratton (West and Central African Department, FO) and B. Hitch (Far Eastern Department, FO).

Record of Meeting, Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, 4 July 1962, FO 371/164973/48815 (TNA), 11.

Meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, 5 July 1962, FO 371/164973 (TNA), 3. The Japanese representatives (as appears in the FO document) were Shizuo Saito (Counsellor), Kiyohisa Mikanagi (First Secretary) and Yutaka Nomura (Second Secretary).

Second Meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, 5 July 1962, FO 371/164973 (TNA), 4. The British participants at the meeting were F. S. Duncan (Central African Office), A. J. Fairclough (Defence, Intelligence and Security Department, CO), R. C. Cox (West African Department, CRO), R. S. Scrivener (North and East African Department, FO), R. J. Stratton (West and Central African Department, FO) and B. Hitch (Far Eastern Department, FO). The Japanese participants (as appears in the FO document) were Shizuo Saito (Counsellor, Japanese Embassy), Kiyohisa Mikanagi (First Secretary, Japanese Embassy), Masataka Okura (First Secretary, Japanese Embassy), Yutaka Nomura (Second Secretary, Japanese Embassy).

Second Meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, ‘Japan's basic Policy toward Africa’, 18 July 1962 (at 2.45 pm, in Room 25, Foreign Office), FO 371/164973 (TNA), 17.

Second Meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, ‘Japan's Basic Policy toward Africa: Anti-Colonial Movement and Racial Problems’, 18 July 1962, FO 371/164973 (TNA), 18.

The analysis here is based on both Japanese and English documents: nihon no afurika mondai ni taisuru kihon hōshin (nihon gawa oyobi eigawa setsumei, dai 2,3,4 kai kaigi), Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyōryoku no ken, 29 June 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388, 11; Second Meeting on Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, ‘Japan's Basic Policy toward Africa: Communist Movement in Africa, Japan's View’, 18 July 1962, FO 371/164973 (TNA), 22.

Nihon no afurika mondai ni taisuru kihon hōshin (nihon gawa oyobi eigawa setsumei, dai 2,3,4kai kaigi), Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyoryoku no ken, 29 June 1962, 11 gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388, 12.

Record of Meeting, Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, 27 July 1962, FO 371/164973 (PRO), 13; nihon no afurika mondai ni taisuru kihon hōshin (nihon gawa oyobi eigawa setsumei, dai 2,3,4kai kaigi), Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyōryoku no ken, 29 June 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Record of Meeting, Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, 27 July 1962, FO 371/164973 (TNA), 14.

Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Proposals for a Third Meeting, 31 July 1962, FO 371/164973 (TNA), 65.

The meeting was attended by the same Japanese participants at the second meeting. On the British side, there were D.A. Roberts (Information Research Department), A. R. C Bolton (FO) and R. J. Stratton (West and Central African Department, FO). B. Hitch was in the chair in the absence of de la Mare.

According to G. H. Jansen, the Afro-Asian Solidarity Movement was established in 1955 and orchestrated by the Soviet Union and China to whip up militant ‘Afro-Asianism’. See Ch. XI of Jansen's Afro-Asia and Non-Alignment.

‘Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Proposals for a Third Meeting’, 31 July 1962, FO 371/164973 (TNA), 75.

‘Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Proposals for a Third Meeting’, 31 July 1962, FO 371/164973 (TNA), 75.

‘Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Proposals for a Third Meeting’, 31 July 1962, FO 371/164973/48815 (TNA), 75–76; nihon no afurika mondai ni taisuru kihon hōshin (nihon gawa oyobi eigawa setsumei, dai 2,3,4kai kaigi) Afurika mondai ni kansuru nichi-ei kyōryoku no ken, 29 June 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388, 13.

Anglo-Japanese Co-operation in Africa, Proposals for a Third Meeting, 31 July 1962, FO 371/164973 (PRO), 76; D. A. Roberts, Anglo-Japanese Talks, 3 Aug. 1962, FO 371/164973 (TNA), 84.

B. Hitch, 15 Aug. 1962, FO 371/164973 (TNA), 85.

The participants at the meeting were, on the Japanese side, M. Fukisaki (Counsellor), K. Mikanagi (First Secretary) and Y. Nomura (Second Secretary). On the British side, there were de la Mare (Chair), R. G. Giddens (UN Department), R. J. Stratton (West and Central African Department), H. G. Bass (CRO), A. R. C. Bolton (Research Department), D. A. Roberts (Information Research Department) and J. D. Laughton (FED).

The information about this meeting is extracted from a Japanese archival source: afurika ni kansuru nichiei kyōroku no ken [matters about Japanese-British co-operation with regard to Africa] (daigokkai kaigi, No. 2858, 19 Dec. 1962. gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388. The Japanese participants at the meeting (as appears in the Japanese official document) were Fujisaki (Counsellor), Ishibashi (Secretary) and Nomura. The British participants were A. J de la Mare (Far Eastern Department, FO), K. A. Geary (Far Eastern Department, FO), K. Taylor (Board of Trade), M. V. Watts (Board of Trade), V. E. Davies (Treasury) and R. J. Stratton (West and Central Africa Department, FO).

daiyonkai afurika chiiki kōkanchō kaigi no ken (Afurka ni kansuru nichiei kyōryoku kaigi ni kansuru iken), No. 2303, 9 Oct. 1962, gaimushō, gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Ohno to Ohira, afurika ni kansuru nichiei kyōryokukaigi no ken, 28 Dec. 1962, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Ohno to Ohira, afurika ni kansuru nichiei kyōryoku kaidan no ken, 21 Jan. 1963 gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

Ohno to Ohira, afurika ni okeru nichiei kyōryoky ni kansuru ken, 18 Jan. 1963, gaimushō gaikōshiryōkan, sengo maikurofirumu, A' 0388.

From de la Mare to N. C. C. Trench (British Embassy, Tokyo, 17 Dec. 1962, FO 371/164973 (TNA), 126.

From C. T. McGurk (British Embassy, Yaounde) to R. J. Stratton (Foreign Office), 2 Oct. 1962. FO 371/164973 (TNA), 193.

A. J. de la Mare (Foreign Office) to C. T. McGurk (Yaounde), 25 Oct. 1962. FO 371/164973 (TNA), 196.

Kazuo Takita, ‘Japan: Trade with Ghana’, 204.

Approximately US$ 120,000.

Peter Kilby, Industrialization in an Open Economy: Nigeria, 945–1966, 112.

Jide Owoeye, ‘Nigeria and Japan: A Study of Trade Relations’, 324.

Peter Kilby, Industrialization in an Open Economy: Nigeria, 945-1966, 112.

Kweku Ampiah, The Dynamics of Japan's Relations with Africa: South Africa, Tanzania and Nigeria.

Peter Kilby, Industrialization in an Open Economy: Nigeria, 1945–1966, 115.

Jide Owoeye, ‘Nigeria and Japan’.

Federal Ministry of Information, ‘Nigeria Reconciles with Japan’.

Japanese textile products held an overall 15.1 per cent share of the African market. See Jun Morikawa, Japan and Africa: Big Business and Diplomacy, 53.

White, Business, Government and the End of Empire, 14.

From W. Hughes (Board of Trade) to E. H. Peck (FO), 30 May 1961. FO 371/158493 (TNA).

Katsu Yanaihara, ‘Japanese Overseas Enterprises in Developing Countries under Indigenization Policy’.

Nicholas White, ‘“Complementarity”, Decolonization and the Cold War’.

Nicholas White, ‘“Complementarity”, Decolonization and the Cold War’.