Colonial Rule, Cultural Relations and the British Council in Cyprus, 1935–55

ABSTRACT

This article offers an examination of the British Council’s early stages of expansion in Cyprus under British rule, from 1935 to 1955, before the start of the Greek Cypriot anti-colonial struggle (1955–59). It argues that the British Council’s development and quality of activities in the British colony were affected by various factors such as the peculiar political difficulties encountered in the island due to the rise of Greek nationalism and the growing influence of the Church of Cyprus over the local public; the mismanagement of the local British Institutes by some of the Council’s representatives; and the financial stringencies hindering the Council’s ambitions. Through the investigation of primary material, accessed at the Cyprus State Archive in Nicosia (Cyprus) and at the National Archives in London (UK), the article traces and critically analyses for the first time the Council’s early steps in colonial cultural policy-making, using Cyprus as a case study. During the 20-year period under examination, British experiments in culture attempted to attract the Cypriots’ interest and convince them of the importance of the British connection. The British and colonial governments envisaged that through cultural influence they could safeguard the consent of the governed. In this way, British presence in Cyprus could be retained and Britain would be able to protect its strategic, political and economic interests in the region. However, research reveals that the Council’s efforts in the colony were more often than not misguided, its activities proving ineffective, its hopes misplaced. Although the aspiration was that the British Council should be a powerful instrument of Britain’s foreign policy in the colonies, this article shows that in Cyprus it had a tumultuous childhood. Caught up in the realities of the Second World War, the rise of nationalism, the thread of communism, and amid the climate of Cold War, the British Empire was coming at an end, while the British Council was fighting to survive.

KEYWORDS:

• British Council
• Cyprus
• cultural relations
• cultural influence
• colonial rule
• decolonisation
• nationalism

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to Prof. Simon J. Potter and Dr Grace Brockington for their valuable feedback on this article. This work is based on research conducted as part of her PhD at the University of Bristol, UK.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

ORCID

Maria Hadjiathanasiou http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1860-4262

Notes

1 EOKA = Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston (National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters).

2 Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus, 79.

3 Chronology of International Events, 591; Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus, 79–80.

4 Report of the British Council 1955–56, SA1/618/1948/2, 16, Cyprus State Archive (hereafter CSA); ‘Burning of British Institute, 1955–1957’, Secret and Personal Telegram, Secretary of State to Cyprus Governor, 19 Sept. 1955, FCO 141/4307, The National Archives, Kew (hereafter TNA); Durrell, Bitter Lemons, 207; Morgan, Sweet and Bitter Island, 216.

5 On the concept of national projection through public relations, see Tallents, The Projection of England; in addition, Willcox, ‘Projection or Publicity?’, 104–05. On post-war British cultural diplomacy, see also Hampton, ‘Projecting Britishness to Hong Kong’; Lee, ‘British Cultural Diplomacy’; Vaughan, ‘A Certain Idea of Britain’.

6 Lewis, ‘British Empire and World History’, 23; also see Darwin, The Empire Project.

7 Annual Report for Year Ending 28 February 1946, Walter S. Hett, British Council Representative in Cyprus, BW26/1, TNA.

8 Taylor, The Projection of Britain, 1.

9 Taylor, ‘Cultural Diplomacy’, 252.

10 Confidential Letter, Leeper to Vansittart, 14 March 1935, in Taylor, ‘Cultural Diplomacy’, 255.

11 Ibid.

12 Ibid.

13 Lord Tyrrell was also permanent under-secretary of state for foreign affairs (1925–28) and president of the British Board of Film Censors (1935–47). Draft Speech, Lord Tyrrell to the Rotary Clubs, undated, in Taylor, ‘Cultural Diplomacy’, 260.

14 Donaldson, The British Council, 84; see for the official history of the British Council.

15 Darwin, The Empire Project, 70.

16 Storrs, Orientations, 463.

17 Ibid., 477.

18 The Spectator, 31 Oct. 1931,

19 Rappas, ‘The Elusive Polity’, 363.

20 G. Hill cited in Hadjipolycarpou, ‘The Nation of Saints’, 132.

21 P. Kitromilides cited in ibid., 132.

22 Ibid.

23 Rappas, ‘The Elusive Polity’, 364.

24 Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus, 4–5.

25 Governor Richmond Palmer, CO 67/264/10 1936a, TNA; Sir Reginald E. Stubbs ‘Memorandum’, CO 67/254/4 1933a, TNA.

26 Rappas, ‘The Elusive Polity’, 363.

27 Ibid., 364.

28 Ibid.

29 Ethnarchy = the government, office or jurisdiction of an ethnarch. Governor Palmer, CO 67/262/18 1935g; CO 67/253/8 1934a, TNA, cited in Rappas, ‘The Elusive Polity’, 371.

30 Rappas, ‘The Elusive Polity’, 365.

31 Circular, Malcolm Macdonald, Secretary of State for the Colonies to Governor of Cyprus, 23 Oct. 1935, SA1/1303/1935/1, CSA.

32 Ibid.

33 Circular, Colonial Office to All Colonial Governors, 28 Nov. 1949, SA1/778/1948, CSA.

34 The British Council Progress Reports, 1940–41, SA1/742/1941/1, CSA.

35 The British Council, Report of Activities, 2 July 1935–15 March 1936, SA1/1303/1935/1, Red 14, CSA; Donaldson, The British Council, Appendix 4: The British Council’s Advisory Committees and Panels, 378–81, 378.

36 British Council Progress Reports, Nov. 1943—Report for Third Quarter, SA1/742/1941/3, 1, CSA.

37 Donaldson, The British Council, 91.

38 Ibid.

39 Letter, Governor Palmer to Malcolm Macdonald, 22 Nov. 1935, SA1/1303/1935/1, Red 4, CSA.

40 Governor Palmer’s Correspondence, SA1/1303/1935/1, Red 4, CSA.

41 Note on British Council and the Teaching of English, 6 Jan. 1950, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 24–23, CSA.

42 The British Council, Report of Activities, 2 July 1935–15 March 1936, SA1/1303/1935/1, Red 14, CSA.

43 See Rappas, ‘The Uncharted World’.

44 On British education in Cyprus, see Persianis, ‘British Colonial Education “Lending” Policy’; Persianis, ‘British Colonial Higher Education Policy-Making’; also see Heraclidou, ‘Politics of Education’; Heraclidou, ‘Making a British Atmosphere’.

45 Donaldson, The British Council, Appendix 3: Countries in which the British Council has been represented, 373–76. Paschalidis traces the historical development of cultural institutions abroad, such as the British Council’s in Greece, from the time of their original deployment by the European great powers to their recent adoption by other countries. Paschalidis, ‘Exporting National Culture’.

46 Draft speech by Lord Tyrrell to the Rotary Clubs, undated, in Taylor, ‘Cultural Diplomacy’, 260.

47 Donaldson, The British Council, 153.

48 Ibid., 91.

49 Circular, Colonial Office to All Colonial Governors, 28 November 1949, SA1/778/1948, CSA.

50 Ibid.

51 Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 153.

52 Ibid., 203.

53 Ibid., 99.

54 Ibid., 138.

55 Confidential Letter, K.M. Willey, British Council Representative in Cyprus to Directors of the British Institutes and to the Colonial Secretary, SA1/1303/1935/2, CON/1/1, Red 97, CSA. British Council Progress Report, January 1945 – Report for Fourth Quarter, SA1/742/1941/3, CSA. Donaldson, The British Council, 92.

56 Activities in Cyprus: Allocations of expenditure, 1946–1947 & 1947–1948, CO 323/1884/1, TNA.

57 SA1/778/1948, CSA.

58 British Council Activities, 1959–1960, The Council’s Monthly Review in 1946, DO 35/9481, TNA.

59 Reports from British Council, Nicosia, 1946–1951, BW26/6, TNA.

60 Letter, David Ormsby-Gore to Governor Palmer, 25 August 1937, SA1/1303/1935/1, Red54, CSA.

61 Report of the British Council 1947–1948, The Mediterranean Colonies: Cyprus, Gibraltar, Malta and Gozo, SA1/618/1948/1, CSA.

62 British Council Progress Report, 1945–1946, SA1/742/1941/4, CSA.

63 SA1/1152/1939/, M.P.13, CSA.

64 List of films despatched to Cyprus to be shown at Cypriot schools, 2 February 1940, SA1/827/1939, Red 4-2, CSA.

65 Memorandum, Governor Palmer, 18 November 1938, SA1/827/1939, Red 4-2, CSA.

66 Letter, Horace White, Public Information Officer to Colonial Secretary, 16 October 1950, E1/527, Red 88-87, CSA.

67 List of films despatched to Cyprus to be shown at Cypriot schools, 2 February 1940, SA1/827/1939, Red 4-2, CSA.

68 Letter, C.A.F. Dundas, British Council Representative for the Middle East to British Council, London, October 1939, in Donaldson, The British Council, 89.

69 Taylor, ‘Cultural Diplomacy’, 263.

70 Memorandum, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 11-10, CSA.

71 SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 13, CSA.

72 A. F. Primrose, Secretary, The British Council’s Film Department, London, to the Colonial Secretary, Nicosia, 2 Feb. 1940, SA1/1101/1927/2, Red 154-153, CSA.

73 Restricted Circular, Colonial Office to All Colonial Governors, 9 Aug. 1948, SA1/778/1948, Red 5, CSA.

74 Colonial Office on the issue of Education in Cyprus, CO 67/260/3 1935f, TNA.

75 Report on the Position of the British Council in Cyprus, John Graham, Representative of the British Council in Cyprus, 14 Dec. 1949, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 19, CSA.

76 SA1/1152/1939/, M.P.13, CSA.

77 Letter, Major Grant, Director of Cyprus College to C. A. F. Dundas, Representative of the British Council in the Middle East, 2 Nov. 1939, SA1/1152/1939, Red 12-11, CSA.

78 Confidential Letter, L. S. Greening, Commissioner of Nicosia to R. N. Henry, Director of Education, 19 July 1939, SA1/1152/1939, Red 2, CSA.

79 Letter, Major Grant, Director of Cyprus College to C. A. F. Dundas, Representative of the British Council in the Middle East, 2 Nov. 1939, SA1/1152/1939, Red 12-11, CSA.

80 British Council Progress Report, April 1942; Report for First Quarter, April 1943, SA1/742/1941/1, 1, CSA.

81 The British Council in Cyprus, General Report after 6 Weeks in the Island, John Graham, British Council Cyprus Representative, 14 Dec. 1949, Red 19-18, SA1/1881/1949/1, CSA.

82 British Council Progress Report, July 1944—Report for Second Quarter, SA1/742/1941/3, CSA.

83 Note on British Council and the Teaching of English, 6 Jan. 1950, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 24-23, CSA.

84 Activities in Cyprus: Allocations of Expenditure, 1946–47 & 1947–48, CO 323/1884/1, TNA.

85 Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 151.

86 Definition document on the functions of the British Council, Colonial Secretary, Nicosia, 18 Nov. 1948, SA1/778/1948, M.P. 3, CSA.

87 Confidential Letter, on behalf of Colonial Secretary with reference to G. A. Fenton, British Council Representative in Cyprus, 4 Jan. 1947, SA1/778/1948, M.P. 9, CSA.

88 Colonial Secretary’s definition document on the functions of the British Council, Nicosia, 18 Nov. 1948, SA1/778/1948, M.P. 3, CSA.

89 Note on British Council Activities in Cyprus, Major Grant, 6 April 1946, BW 26/1, TNA.

90 Donaldson, The British Council, 83.

91 Minute Papers regarding British Council in Cyprus, Colonial Secretary, SA1/778/1948, M.P. 7, CSA.

92 Durrell, Bitter Lemons, 35.

93 Donaldson, The British Council, 94.

94 Ibid., 95.

95 Ibid., 89–90.

96 ‘British Cultural Propaganda’,BW 26/1, TNA.

97 Ibid.

98 Ibid.

99 Taylor, The Projection of Britain, 3–4.

100 Donaldson, The British Council, 91.

101 March–May 1944 Report, BW 26/1, TNA; Reports from Council, Nicosia, 1946–51, BW 26/6, TNA; SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 30-29, 68-67, CSA.

102 SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 9, CSA.

103 Donaldson, The British Council, 154.

104 Confidential Letter, J. Griffiths, Colonial Office, London, to Governor Wright, Nicosia, 26 April 1950, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 33, CSA.

105 Ibid.

106 British Council Progress Report, October 1941—Report for Third Quarter, SA1/742/1941/1, 3, CSA.

107 Report on the position of the British Council in Cyprus, John Graham, Representative of the British Council in Cyprus, 14 Dec. 1949, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 19, CSA.

108 SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 17, CSA.

109 Annual report for year ending 28 Feb. 1946, Walter S. Hett, British Council Representative in Cyprus, BW 26/1, TNA.

110 E1/310, Red 15, 14, 9, 8, CSA.

111 Letter, John Graham, British Council Representative in Cyprus to Dr G. Sleight, Education Department, Nicosia, 16 Nov. 1949, Red 15, E1/310, CSA.

112 Ibid.

113 Letter, A. F. J. Reddaway to Williams, Office of Limassol Commissioner, 19 June 1952, SA1/1881/1949/1, CSA.

114 Confidential Letter, J. Griffiths, Colonial Office, London, to Governor Wright, Nicosia, 26 April 1950, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 33, CSA.

115 On British Council policy and work, 20 Jan. 1950, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 27-26, CSA.

116 Ibid.

117 SA1/1881/1949/1, CSA.

118 Ibid.

119 The British Council in Cyprus, General Report after 6 weeks in the Island, John Graham, British Council Cyprus Representative, 14 Dec. 1949, Red 19-18, SA1/1881/1949/1, CSA.

120 Ibid.

121 Resolutions attached with translations, Managing Committee of the Pancyprian Schoolteachers’ Union to Cyprus Governor and to President of the British Council, London, 22 July 1942, SA1/667/1942, Red 2, CSA.

122 Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 152.

123 Ibid.

124 Resolutions attached with translations, Managing Committee of the Pancyprian Schoolteachers’ Union to Cyprus Governor and to President of the British Council, London, 22 July 1942, SA1/667/1942, Red 2, CSA.

125 Director of Education’s Reply to the Committee regarding the Resolution, London, 3 Aug. 1942, SA1/667/1942, Red 7, CSA.

126 Annual Report for Year Ending 28 February 1946, Walter S. Hett, British Council Representative in Cyprus, BW26/1, TNA.

127 Note on British Council and the Teaching of English, 6 Jan. 1950, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 24-23, CSA.

128 Letter, G .H. Shreeve, Deputy-Director General, British Council, London, to Governor Wright, Nicosia, 28, 29 Nov. 1949, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 5-1, CSA.

129 Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 153.

130 Confidential Letter, Secretary of State, Colonial Office, London, to Governor Wright, Nicosia, 8 June 1950, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 43, CSA.

131 Letter, H. F. Oxbury, London, to Governor Wright, Nicosia, 19 May 1950, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 38-37, CSA.

132 Correspondence between Secretary of State, Governor Wright and John Graham, Council Representative, Cyprus, 8 Aug. 1950, 7, 10, 30 Jan. 1952, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 62-51, CSA.

133 The British Council in Cyprus, General Report after 6 Weeks in the Island, John Graham, British Council Cyprus Representative, 14 Dec. 1949, Red 19-18, SA1/1881/1949/1, CSA.

134 Note on British Council and the Teaching of English, 6 Jan. 1950, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 24-23, CSA.

135 Report on the Position of the British Council in Cyprus, John Graham, Representative of the British Council in Cyprus, 14 Dec. 1949, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 16, CSA.

136 For further information on the educational aspects of British colonial rule in Cyprus between 1931 and 1960 see Heraclidou, Imperial Control in Cyprus.

137 Note on British Council Activities in Cyprus, Major Grant, 6 April 1946, BW 26/1, TNA.

138 British Council Progress Report, March–May 1944, BW 26/1; Reports from Council, Nicosia, 1946–51, BW 26/6 TNA; SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 30-29, CSA.

139 Ibid.

140 Representative of the British Council in Cyprus, Report on the Position of the British Council in Cyprus, John Graham, 14 Dec. 1949, SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 19-18, CSA.

141 Ibid.

142 SA1/1881/1949/1, Red 1m, CSA.

143 Educational Inspections: Cyprus, 1952–53, BW1/127; Major Grant’s Note on British Council Activities in Cyprus, 6 April 1946, BW 26/1, TNA.

144 Alastos, Cyprus Guerrilla, 37.

145 Reports from British Council, Nicosia, 1946–51, BW 26/6, TNA.

146 Luke, Cyprus, 96–97.

147 Note on British Council Activities in Cyprus, Major Grant, 6 April 1946, BW 26/1, TNA.

148 Annual Report for Year Ending 28 February 1946, Walter S. Hett, British Council representative in Cyprus, BW26/1, TNA.

149 Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus, 79–80.

Additional information

Funding

The author would like to thank the Leverhulme Trust for awarding her a one-year Study Abroad Studentship making her research trips to Nicosia and London possible. The author would also like to thank the A.G. Leventis Foundation for offering her an Educational Grant to assist her with her doctoral studies.