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ABSTRACT
This article focuses on Idi Amin’s rise to power in Uganda and his simultaneous involvement in Southern Sudan. Using newly released material, it revises the suggestions of neo-colonial intervention by Britain during the coup, instead arguing that events primarily reflected an internal power struggle and the importance of regional dynamics. Insofar as there was external intervention, Israel took the lead as part of a regional strategy to prevent African states aligning against her in the Middle East conflict. This contrasts with Britain’s increasing reluctance to interfere in regions which were not of direct strategic importance, primarily due to its weakened economy.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Cherry Leonardi, Miles Larmer, Jim Callanan, Tom Maguire and Clive Jones for their helpful thoughts and comments.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 For more in-depth assessments, see Roberts, “The Uganda–Tanzania War,” 692–709; Murphy, Monarchy and the End of Empire, 131–2.
2 Ashton and Louis, (eds.) British Documents on the End of Empire, (BDEE).
3 Louis, Ends of British Imperialism, 4–6.
4 Louis, Ends of British Imperialism, 771, 779; Walton, Empire of Secrets; Cormac, Disrupt and deny; Mumford, The Counter-Insurgency Myth.
5 See Anderson, Histories of the Hanged; Elkins, Imperial Reckoning.
6 Lemarchand, “The C.I.A. in Africa,” 401–26.
7 Nkrumah to Johnson, 26 Feb. 1964, Special Heads of State Correspondence, Box 19, National Security Files, Lyndon B. Johnson Library, Texas; Johnson to Nkrumah, 11 Mar. 1964, ibid.
8 Young, The Labour Governments, 12.
9 Campbell, Edward Heath: Ziegler, Edward Heath; Hughes, Harold Wilson’s Cold War.
10 This is also argued in Gustafson, Hostile Intent.
11 Levey, “Israel in Sub-Saharan Africa,” 137–53; Oded, “Israeli-Ugandan Relations in the Time of Amin,” 1–3.
12 CIA, Office of National Estimates, 2 February 1971, Africa Staff Note No.1-71 (O/NE Distribution Only), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume E–5, Pt.1, Documents on Sub-Saharan Africa, 1969–1972, (Washington, 2005).
13 For a more detailed assessment of this conflict, see O’Balance, The Secret War in the Sudan.
14 Gidron, “One People, One Struggle”, 435.
15 Levey, “The Case of Uganda,” 137–53.
16 Levey, Israel in Africa, p.113, fn.2.
17 Information Research Department focused on political warfare and worked closely with MI6. On its origins see Gwinnett, “Attlee, Bevin, and Political Warfare,” 426–49.
18 Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda, 31.
19 Mwakikagile, Nyerere and Africa, 315.
20 Adyanga, Modes of British Imperial Control of Africa, 181–5, 236.
21 Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism, 29.
22 Curtis, Web of Deceit; Curtis, Secret Affairs; Pilger, Hidden Agendas.
23 Curtis, Unpeople: Britain’s Secret Human Rights Abuses, 2.
24 Curtis, Unpeople, 255; Curtis, “British support for Idi Amin, 1971,” https://markcurtis.wordpress.com/2015/06/27/british-support-for-idi-amin-1971/ accessed January 1, 2016.
25 Conversation between Douglas-Home and Malcolm MacDonald, 27 Jul. 1971, FCO31/1035, The UK National Archives, hereafter TNA; “All possible alternatives to Obote look considerably worse,” Washington Embassy to Scott, 21 Oct. 1968, FCO31/468/1, TNA.
26 “The First Six months of General Amin’s Government,” Report No.413/71, 6 Aug. 1971, FCO/31/1017, TNA.
27 Curtis, Unpeople, 251.
28 Ibid.
29 Hebditch and Connor, How to Stage a Military Coup, 125–32.
30 Bloch and Fitzgerald, British Intelligence and Covert Action. See also Hutton and Bloch, “How the West Established Idi Amin and Kept Him There,” 171–9.
31 Washington Embassy to Scott, 21 Oct. 1968, FCO/31/468/1, TNA.
32 “Uganda: Information Policy Report 1969,” 16 May 1969, FCO/26/330, TNA.
33 British Council, “Uganda, Annual Report 1965–66,” BW/116/10, TNA.
34 Secretary of State’s Visit to Africa October/November 1967: Uganda, Malcolm Macdonald papers, GB-00-33-MAC-51/7/1-28, Palace Green Library, Durham.
35 “Report of Foley’s Meeting with President Obote,” 18 Oct. 1969, FCO/65/291, TNA.
36 Amnesty International, “Uganda,” c.May 1967, FCO/31/201, TNA.
37 Pain to Minister, 9 Sept. 1968, FCO/31/201, TNA; Matthews to Williams, 17 Sept. 1968, ibid.
38 K.Herbel, “Propaganda Tools and Idealistic Goals,” 113–35.
39 Washington Embassy to Scott, 21 Oct. 1968, FCO/31/468/1, TNA.
40 Ibid.
41 Purcell to Byatt, 11 Jun. 1970, FCO/31/710, TNA.
42 M.Curtis, The Rise of Idi Amin in Uganda, https://markcurtis.wordpress.com/2007/02/13/the-rise-of-idi-amin-in-uganda-1971-72/, accessed February 23, 2016.
43 East African Department, “Country Assessment Sheet, Uganda,” 29 Oct. 1969, FCO/31/480, TNA.
44 MacDonald to Thompson, 5 Nov. 1969, FCO/73/128, TNA.
45 MacDonald to the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 19 Dec. 1968, FCO/73/128, TNA.
46 Slater to FCO, 22 Dec. 1970, FCO/31/710, TNA.
47 Purcell to Byatt, “Mbale Conference,” 12 Jan 1971, FCO/31/710, TNA.
48 Eighty-Eighth Annual Conference (Blackpool), 7–10 Oct. 1970, CPA-NUA-2/1/75, Conservative Party Records, Weston Library, Oxford.
49 “Commonwealth Parliamentary Associations Conference, 1967,” Scott to Thompson, 10 Nov. 1967, Doc.269, Ashton, BDEE, 429–32.
50 Scott to Tebbit, “Anti-British Outburst by the President,” 9 Sept. 1969, FCO/31/469, TNA.
51 Hope-Jones to Rogers, 10 Feb. 1970, FCO/31/710, TNA.
52 Le Tocq to Tebbit, “Assessment of President Obote,” 15 May 1969, FCO/31/469, TNA.
53 Purcell to Wenban-Smith, “Talk with Col. Bar-Lev,” 4 Mar. 1970, FCO/31/710, TNA.
54 Le Tocq to Tebbit, 20 Mar. 1970, FCO/31/710, TNA.
55 Le Tocq to Tebbit, 5 Mar. 1970, FCO/31/710, TNA.
56 Slater to FCO, 22 Dec. 1970, FCO/31/710, TNA.
57 Purcell to Byatt, “Mbale Conference Speech,” 12 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/710.
58 Slater to FCO, 2 May 1970, FCO/31/720, TNA.
59 Minutes, “Uganda, Meeting to consider 60% takeover measures and consequent legislation,” 8 May 1970, FCO/31/720, TNA.
60 Slater to FCO, 8 May 1970, FCO/31/720, TNA.
61 “Draft Letter from Stewart-Lockhart to Foreign Secretary,” c.8 May 1970, FCO/31/720, TNA.
62 “Report on Uganda,” c.6 May 1970, FCO/31/720, TNA.
63 Ibid.
64 Howell to Jackson, “Uganda National Trading Corporation,” 14 May 1970, FCO/31/720, TNA.
65 Slater to FCO, “Mbale Conference,” 22 Dec. 1970, FCO/31/710, TNA.
66 Scott to Peck, 22 Jul. 1969, FCO/50/167, TNA.
67 “Commonwealth Immigration: UK passport Holders in Uganda,” FCO/50/167, TNA.
68 Douglas-Home to Kampala, 14 Jan 1971, FCO/31/1065, TNA.
69 Falle to Singapore, 15 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1065, TNA.
70 “UK-Ugandan Relations, Background Note,” 16 Oct. 1969, FCO/31/501, TNA.
71 “Israeli Military Assistance to African Countries,” 25 Mar. 1970, FCO/31/1043, TNA.
72 Crawford to British High Commission, 27 Jun. 1969, FCO/31/489, TNA.
73 Scott to Le Tocq, 5 Jan. 1970, FCO/31/718, TNA.
74 Scott to Foster, 8 Nov. 1968, FCO/31/489, TNA.
75 Foster to Scott, “Uganda Army,” 25 Oct. 1968, FCO/31/489, TNA.
76 Scott to Foster, 8 Nov. 1968, FCO/31/489, TNA.
77 Booth to Le Tocq, 25 Jun. 1969, FCO/31/489, TNA.
78 Levey, Israel in Africa, 113–29.
79 East Africa Department, “Uganda, Brief for O.D.M.,” 4 Jul. 1969, FCO/31/468/1, TNA.
80 Scott to FCO, “Attempt on President Obote,” 22 Dec. 1969, FCO/31/472, TNA.
81 “Conversation with Col. Bar-Lev,” 4 Mar. 1970, FCO/31/710, TNA.
82 Crawford to FCO, 18 Feb 1969, FCO/31/489, TNA.
83 Slater to Le Tocq, 6 Oct. 1970, FCO/31/712, TNA.
84 East Africa Department, “Uganda, Brief for O.D.M.,” 4 Jul. 1969, FCO/31/468/1, TNA.
85 Purcell to Le Tocq, 22 Feb. 1971, FCO/31/1024, TNA.
86 East Africa Department, Note for Secretary of State, 28 Mar. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
87 East Africa Department to Nairobi, (draft) c.27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
88 Millard to FCO, 26 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
89 Smedley to Le Tocq, 26 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
90 Cook to FCO, “Uganda,” 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
91 Etherington-Smith to FCO, 30 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
92 Le Tocq to Smedley, 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
93 Note for Secretary of State, 28 Mar. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
94 Le Tocq to Smedley, 1 Feb. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
95 Douglas-Home to Kampala, “UK Press Summary,” 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
96 Phillips to FCO, “Uganda,” 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
97 Le Tocq to Smedley, 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
98 Slater to FCO, 3 Feb. 1971, FCO/31/1028, TNA.
99 Le Tocq to Smedley, 2 Feb. 1971, FCO/31/1028, TNA.
100 Le Tocq to Smedley, “Annex A,” 2 Feb. 1971, FCO/31/1028, TNA.
101 Douglas-Home to Kampala, 4 Feb. 1971, FCO/31/1024, TNA.
102 Oded, “Israeli-Ugandan Relations in the Time of Idi Amin,” 1–3.
103 Levey, Israel in Africa, 132.
104 Rodney Muhumuza, “Independence-era spy chief Adoko is dead,” The Monitor, 9 January 2010; Timothy Kalyegira, “Uganda: Our Intelligence Services; Tale of Many Mistakes And One Moment of Brilliance,” The Monitor, 13 February 2005.
105 Reportedly, the Kampala Head of Station 1967–70 had undertaken his initial MI6 training with David Cornwall (John le Carré) in 1960, Sisman, John le Carré: the Biography, 210–12.
106 Levey, “The Case of Uganda,” 144; Dowden, Africa: Altered States, Ordinary Miracles, 42–3.
107 Helen Epstein, Idi Amin’s Israeli Connection, The New Yorker, 27 June 2016.
108 Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda, 95.
109 Donohoe to Counsell, 30 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1028, TNA.
110 Levey, “The Case of Uganda,” 144–7.
111 Ibid., 149–53.
112 Slater to Smedley, 25 May 1971, FCO/31/1043, TNA.
113 Slater to FCO, 29 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
114 A forest is planted in Mackenzie’s name in Israel and he is identified as a Mossad asset in Bergman, “Israel and Africa,” 176. For an extended discussion of Mackenzie’s complex loyalties see Cullen, Kenya and Britain after Independence, 83–84.
115 Mackenzie also managed the “Bamburi understanding” by which Britain buttressed Kenya against invasion by Somalia, Heath to Kenyatta, 18 Sept. 1970, PREM/15/110, TNA.
116 Memo by Greenhill to Sir J. Johnson, “Uganda,” 1 Mar. 1971, FCO/39/899, TNA.
117 Ibid.
118 Ibid.
119 Slater to Smedley 17 Mar. 1971, FCO/39/899, TNA.
120 Slater to Smedley 17 Mar. 1971, FCO/39/899, TNA.
121 Forsyth, The Outsider, 224–30.
122 White to Purcell, “Rolf Steiner: Mercenary,” 13 Nov. 1970, FCO/39/687, TNA.
123 Booth to Counsell, “Rolf Steiner,” 4 Jan. 1971, FCO/39/899, TNA. This document has been poorly redacted.
124 Slater to London, 19 Jan. 1971, FCO/39/899, TNA.
125 Divall was also rendered “Daval/Deval/Darvall,” Booth to Counsell, “Rolf Steiner,” 4 Jan. 1971, FCO/39/899, TNA.
126 A file on Barnard as Civil Air Attaché in Baghdad is available at L/P&S/12/1989, British Library.
127 Naylor, Patriots and Profiteers, 301.
128 E.g. the company Southern Air Motive was dissolved in August 1969.
129 Khartoum to London, 19 Jan. 1971, FCO/39/899, TNA.
130 J.Allen, “Sudan Links Britain and the CIA in trial of mercenary,” Telegraph, 16 Aug. 1971.
131 Douglas Home to Lagos, “Steiner Trial,” 2 Sept. 1971, FCO/39/900, TNA.
132 J. Allen, “Sudan Links Britain and the CIA in trial of mercenary,” Telegraph, 16 Aug. 1971.
133 London to Mallet, 20 Aug. 1971, FCO/39/900, TNA.
134 Report of defense attaché Sudan, Lt. Col. R.I.C. Tamplin, 17 Dec. 1970, FCO/39/687, TNA.
135 Anglin to Green, “Rolf Steiner” 16 Aug. 1971, FCO/39/900, TNA.
136 Harris to Green, “Trial of Rolf Steiner,” 12 Aug. 1971, FCO/39/900, TNA.
137 There was “a close tie-up between the ministry of interior and security experts from the G.D.R.,” Boyle to FCO, “Sudan political affairs,” 21 Apr. 1970 FCO/39/686, TNA.
138 Marcus Wolf, “The former Stasi chief, offers an account of Steiner’s capture,” Man Without A Face, 261–3.
139 Harris to Green, “Steiner Trial,” 9 Sept. 1971, FCO/39/900, TNA.
140 Anglin to Green, “Rolf Steiner,” 16 Aug. 1971, FCO/39/900, TNA.
141 Anglin to Green, “Sudan/Uganda relations,” 23 Sept. 1971, FCO/31/1042, TNA.
142 Mallet, “Coup and Counter Coup in the Sudan,” 9 Aug. 1971, FCO/39/909, TNA.
143 North African department memo, “Sudan,” 21 Jul. 1971, FCO/39/908, TNA.
144 Research Department memo, 8 Nov. 1971, FCO/39/930, TNA.
145 “Brief: Mr. Kershaw’s meeting with Mr. Duncan Sandys,” 21 Sept. 1971, FCO/39/926, TNA.
146 Byatt to London, “Israel-Uganda-Sudan,” 28 Sept. 1971, FCO/39/901, TNA.
147 Le Tocq to Crawley, 10 Dec. 1971, FCO/31/1042, TNA.
148 Memorandum for Kissinger, 21 Feb. 1971, National Security Files, Box 746, Nixon Presidential Library, California.
149 Smedley to Reddaway, 25 Apr. 1971, FCO/31/1026, TNA.
150 Slater to FCO, 1 Feb. 1971, FCO/31/1028, TNA.
151 Smedley to Lothian, 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1028, TNA.
152 Slater to FCO, 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
153 Smedley to Slater, Draft Letter, “Military Coup,” c.15 Feb. 1971, FCO/31/1024, TNA.
154 Crawford to MOD, “Uganda Army-Discipline,” 16 Apr. 1969, FCO/31/489, TNA.
155 Slater to FCO, “Amin’s Press Conference,” 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
156 Barrington to Le Tocq, 28 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1028, TNA,
157 Smedley to Slater, (draft), “Military Coup,” c.15 Feb. 1971, FCO/31/1024, TNA.
158 Slater to FCO, “Amin’s Press Conference,” 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
159 Slater to FCO, 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
160 Redshaw to Purcell, “Release of Prisoners,” 12 Mar. 1971, FCO/31/1019, TNA.
161 Cook to FCO, 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
162 Slater to FCO, “Amin’s Press Conference,” 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
163 Slater to FCO, 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
164 Memorandum for Kissinger, 5 Feb. 1971, National Security Files, Box 746, Nixon Presidential Library, California.
165 Smedley to Slater, Draft Letter, “Military Coup,” c.15 Feb. 1971, FCO/31/1024, TNA.
166 For more on the violence perpetrated by the Amin Regime, see E. Kannyo, “State Terrorism and Death Squads in Uganda,” 153–79.
167 Curtis, Unpeople, 251.
168 Curtis, Unpeople, 248, 251.
169 Le Tocq to Slater, 20 Aug. 1971, FCO/31/1017, TNA.
170 Duggan to Moss, 10 May 1971, FCO/31/1017, TNA.
171 Conversation between Douglas-Home and Malcolm MacDonald, 27 Jul. 1971, FCO/31/1035, TNA.
172 Slater to FCO, 27 Jan. 1971, FCO/31/1023, TNA.
173 Bradbrook to Kampala, “Report for 1 January 1971–30 September 1971,” FCO/31/1055, TNA.
174 East African Department, “Background for McKenzie’s call,” 2 Nov. 1971, FCO/31/1051, TNA.
175 Bradbrook to Coombe, 19 Oct. 1971, FCO/31/1055, TNA.
176 ibid.
177 Conversation between McKenzie and Douglas-Home, 5 Nov. 1971, FCO/31/1051, TNA.
178 ibid.
179 Slater to Smedley, 20 Apr. 1971, FCO/31/1051, TNA.
180 “Uganda: Information Policy Report 1969,” 16 May 1969, FCO/26/330, TNA.
181 Slater to Smedley, 20 Apr. 1971, FCO/31/1051, TNA.
182 Purcell to Le Tocq, “Dulverton Trust,” 9 Feb. 1971, FCO 95/1207, TNA.
183 Le Tocq to Crook (IRD), 21 Feb. 1971, FCO 95/1207, TNA.
184 Byatt to Biggin (IRD), 5 Mar. 1971, FCO/95/1207, TNA, Biggin minute 15 Mar. 1971, ibid.
185 East African Department, “Background for McKenzie’s call,” 2 Nov. 1971, FCO/31/1051, TNA.
186 Bradbrook to Kampala, “Report for 1 January 1971–30 September 1971,” FCO/31/1055, TNA.
187 Douglas-Home to Kampala, 2 Aug. 1971, FCO/31/1058, TNA.
188 Bradbrook to Kampala, “Report for 1 January 1971–30 September 1971,” FCO/31/1055, TNA.
189 Douglas-Home to Kampala, 8 Nov. 1971, FCO/31/1036, TNA.
190 Le Quesne to Private Secretary, 22 Oct. 1971, FCO/31/1036, TNA.
191 Slater to FCO, 27 Aug. 1971, FCO/31/1036, TNA.
192 Bradbrook to Coombe, “Uganda-Comment,” 11 May 1971, FCO/31/1055, TNA.
193 Bradbrook, Defence Advisor to Coombe 20 Oct. 1971, FCO/31/1055, TNA.
194 Broadcast by Douglas-Home, 31 Aug. 1972, Baron Carr papers, Mss.Eng.C.7311, Weston Library, Oxford.
195 “Chiefs of Staff Meeting/72,” 21 Sept. 1972, DEFE/24/583, TNA.
196 On his downfall see Roberts, “The Uganda–Tanzania War,” 692–709.
197 Le Tocq to Slater, 20 Aug. 1971, FCO/31/1017, TNA.
198 Mallet to Reddaway, 11 Jul. 1970, FCO/95/854, TNA.