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ABSTRACT
The evolving internationalisation of imperial and colonial affairs fostered the emergence of specific, and interrelated, arguments, institutional arrangements and repertoires of political action regarding colonial societies. The actors and the institutions aiming to shape colonial dynamics in a number of fields of intervention, with different agendas and expertise, multiplied, and the topics under debated expanded. Expressions of imperial internationalism – that is, discourses and projects promoted by groups and institutions aiming at developing forms of internationalism dealing with imperial and colonial affairs, namely through international organisations – proliferated. This article deals with two: The Union Catholique d’Études Internationales (UCEI), an example of (conservative) religious internationalism, and the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF), a case of (progressive) ‘international feminism’. Alongside other important transnational, non-governmental organisations, which competed for protagonism in the historical unfolding of the intersections between internationalism and imperialism and colonialism, the UCEI and the WILPF were active voices in the most important debates carried out by the League of Nations and its specialised agencies (from slavery and ‘native labour’ to opium trade), influencing their content and direction.
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Notes
1 By internationalisation we mean the “increase in the degree of ‘internationality’ of decision-making” and, also, “the proliferation of international decision-making” over “political issues and functions” that were traditionally the reserve of imperial or state sovereignty. Goldmann, Transforming the European Nation-State, 9, 15; Pedersen, The Guardians, 4–5. See also Jerónimo and Monteiro, Internationalism.
2 See Jerónimo and Monteiro, “International Organizations in Colonial Africa.”
3 Geyer and Paulmann, The Mechanics of Internationalism; Singaravélou, “Les stratégies d’internationalisation.”
4 Wilde, “The Extraterritorial Application of International Human Rights,” cit. at 638; Allain, The Slavery Conventions, 6, 11, 634–706.
5 Maul, Human Rights, Development and Decolonization; Burke, Decolonization and the Evolution of Human Rights, 39–44.
6 Zimmermann, “‘Special Circumstances’ in Geneva.”
7 Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation”; Ballantyne and Burton, “Empires and the Reach of the Global”; Jerónimo, “Imperial globalisations.”
8 Jerónimo, “A League of Empires,” 113.
9 For some of these ideas, see also Jerónimo, “Developing Civilisation?”.
10 Sibeud, “Entre geste impériale et cause internationale”; Jerónimo, The ‘Civilizing Mission’, 141–4, 146, 157–8; Forclaz, Humanitarian Imperialism, 55–9.
11 Lindner, “New Forms of Knowledge” and Wagner, “Private Colonialism.”
12 Ribi, “‘The Breath of a New Life’?”.
13 For an important survey see Gorman, The Emergence of International Society.
14 Borowy, Coming to Terms; Decorzant, La Société des Nations; Clavin, Securing the World Economy; Pedersen, The Guardians; García, Rodogno, and Kozma, The League of Nations.
15 Green and Viaene, Religious Internationals.
16 Viaene, “International History.”
17 Porter, Religion versus Empire?; Prudhomme, Stratégie missionnaire; Jerónimo, A Diplomacia do Império.
18 Forster, Mommsen, and Robinson, Bismarck, Europe, and Africa; Laqua, “The Tensions of Internationalism”; Forclaz, Humanitarian Imperialism and Jerónimo, The ‘Civilizing Mission’.
19 Miers, Slavery, 23.
20 Hudson, The Ecumenical Movement; Viaene, The Papacy; Thompson, For God and Globe.
21 Ruotsila, The Origins of Christian Anti-Internationalism, 3; Kuehl and Dunn, Keeping the Covenant.
22 For the notion of ‘force field’, see Pedersen, The Guardians, 5; Jerónimo, “Religious Internationalisms.”
23 Hogg, Ecumenical Foundations; Stuart, “Beyond Sovereignty?”; Robert, “The First Globalization”; Engel, “The Ecumenical Origins.”
24 Zaragori, “Un parcours.”
25 Chamedes, “The Vatican,” 955–76, cit. at 963; idem, A Twentieth-Century Crusade, esp. 52–59, 98–99, 106–110, 194, 310, cit. at 17.
26 Miranda, Santa Sede, 148–9.
27 Chenaux, “L'internationalisme catholique.”
28 Leustean, The Ecumenical Movement, cit. 91–92, n5.
29 See Trinchan, L’Union Catholique.
30 Yerly, “Les catholiques”; idem, “Entre Rome et Genève.”
31 Shine, “Papal Diplomacy”, cit. at 5, 8, 11, 13–14; Trinchan, L’Union Catholique, 95–101; Laqua, “Internationalism and Nationalism.”
32 Minute by Drummond, 18-10-1923; Minute by Rappard, 8-11-1923; League of Nations Archives (LNA), R1011, dossier 31878.
33 Reynold to Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, 5-5-1925, LNA, R798, dossier 41435; Reynold to Council of the League of Nations, 20-9-1930; Reynold to Louis de Brouckère, President of the Conference on the Limitation of the Manufacture of Narcotic Drugs, s.d., in R3164, dossier 22521
34 Trinchan, L’Union Catholique, 80–1.
35 Reynold to Drummond, 9-5-1925, LNA, R65, dossier 23252.
36 Idem; Trinchan, L’Union Catholique, 107–8.
37 Sluga, “Women, feminisms.”
38 Suriano, Donne, pace, non-violenza; Beers, “Advocating.”
39 WILPF, Report of the Third, 63.
40 Rupp, Worlds of women, 210. See also Sandell, “United.”
41 Pedersen, “Metaphors,” cit. 190. See also Marbeau, “Les femmes,” 163–77, 168ff.
42 Miller, “‘Geneva”; Ludi, “Setting New Standards.”
43 García, “La Société des Nations”; Pedersen, “Metaphors”, cit. at 195. Memorandum in LNA, R81, dossier 61775.
44 Rupp, “Constructing Internationalism,” 1571–600, cit. at 1575, 1590; Beers, “Advocating,” 205. See also the recent, comprehensive book by Siegel, Peace on Our Terms.
45 Rupp, “Challenging Imperialism,” cit. at 17–18.
46 WILPF, Report of the Third, 76–7. For Balch, see Gwinn, Emily Greene Balch and Johnston, “The Disappearance,” cit. at 195. For Curtis, see Moore, “‘The Fighting’”. For WILPF’s ‘racial politics’ see Plastas, A Band.
47 Beers, “Advocating,” 210, 213; Plastas, A Band, 114–9.
48 Siegel, “Western Feminism,” cit. 36–37, 51.
49 London School of Economics Archives (LSEA), WILPF 5/11; Minute by Sanders, 6-6-1926, ILO Archive, WN/1000/6/5/1.
50 ILO Archive, WN/1000/6/5/2; WILPF/British Section, Twelfth Yearly Report, 19; Suriano, Donne, pace, non-violenza, 378–81. For the LAI see Petersson, “History.” For the question of disarmament see Webster, “From Versailles.”
51 ILO Archive, WN/1000/6/5/2.
52 ‘Le cours de vacances de Gland et le régime colonial’, Journal de Genève, 12-9-1927, ILO Archive, WN/1000/6/5/2.
53 ‘Résolution votée par le comité exécutif de la Ligue Internationale des Femmes pour la Paix et la Liberté, Genève, 9–13 septembre, 1927’; Mary Sheepshanks to Thomas, 11-10-1927; Thomas to Sheepshanks, 12-11-1927, ILO Archive, WN/1000/6/5/2.
54 Rupp, “Challenging Imperialism,” 18; LSEA, WILPF 5/11.
55 Trinchan, L’Union Catholique, 167; Maul, The International Labour Organization, 53.
56 Beaupin to Thomas, 30-5-1929, ILO Archives, N206-1-01-5; Trinchan, L’Union Catholique, 169.
57 Beaupin to George Weaver, 4-8-1930; Beaupin to Jean Goudal, 13-12-1930, 1-12-1931, 25-2-1933; Joseph Danel to ILO, 9-3-1934; Union Catholique Internationale de Service Social to Marguerite Thibert, 12-7-1934; Weaver to Beaupin, 22-12-1934; UCEI to President of the XIX Session of International Labour Conference, 27-5-1935, ILO Archive, N206-1-01-5. For Thibert see Thébaud, Une traversée. See also Trinchan, L’Union Catholique, 216–8.
58 WILPF/British Section, Tenth Yearly Report, 9, 11–2.
59 WILPF/British Section, Eleventh Yearly Report, 6–7, 18–9; Pedersen, “Metaphors,” cit. at 199.
60 M. C. Gillett, “The Native Question in South Africa,” and E. Unwin, “The Slavery Convention, and the Forthcoming Meeting of the ILO on Forced Labour,”’ in WILPF, Monthly News Sheet, 1–2, 3, ILO Archive, WN/1000/6/10.
61 ILO Archive, WN/1000/6/5/2 and WN/1000/6/10; WILPF/British Section, Twelfth Yearly Report, 7–8; “Memorandum on Forced Labour,” in LNA, R67, Dossier 23252.
62 D. Vipont Brown, “Some Impressions of the Council Meeting,” WILPF, Monthly News Sheet, March 1927, 1–2, ILO Archive, WN/1000/6/10.
63 Report by Goudal; Goudal to Van Giao; both 3-9-1927, ILO Archive, WN/1000/6/5/2.
64 Laqua, ed., Internationalism; Sluga and Clavin, Internationalisms; Jerónimo and Monteiro, Internationalism.
65 Sluga, Internationalism.
66 See, for instance, Davies, “A ‘Great Experiment’”.
67 Cloet, “‘A fuller knowledge’”; Jerónimo, “A League.”
68 Kott and Droux, Globalizing.
69 This collaborative dimension is yet to be properly studied. The multitude of personal and institutional connections, official and unofficial, is particularly salient in the archives of these organisations and others. The same happens in those of international agencies.
70 Keck and Sikkink, Activists.