Britain and the Rhodesian Mercenary Issue, c.1970–1980

ABSTRACT

During the 1970s numerous British citizens travelled to Rhodesia, then an unrecognised state in rebellion against the Crown, to serve in the colony's armed forces during the Bush War. This article considers the significance of this issue from the perspective of the British Government, and discusses different approaches used by the British to prevent such activities. In doing this it shows how the government was under pressure from a number of different groups, making this issue more significant than numbers would suggest. It also reconstructs the methods by which attempts were supposedly made to encourage men to serve in Rhodesia. It suggests that, insofar as limited activities may have happened, they were actually rather haphazard, albeit difficult to prevent. It argues that this was an issue of significance, but that the framework of the British political and legal system mitigated against successful government action. It also engages with questions of British relations with newly independent African states, as well as conceptions of British responsibility in post-colonial Africa, and puts this issue into the broader context of mercenary activity in 1970s Africa.

KEYWORDS:

• Rhodesia
• mercenaries
• Rhodesian Bush War
• Zimbabwe
• British-Rhodesian relations

Acknowledgements

The author would like to offer his thanks to Dr Luke Blaxill for his advice and encouragement in the writing of this article, as well as to the two anonymous reviewers who undoubtedly helped improve it.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Brownell, The Collapse of Rhodesia, 3.

2 Godwin and Hancock, ‘Rhodesians Never Die’, 88.

3 Cilliers, Counter-Insurgency in Rhodesia, 54–5.

4 Ibid., 242.

5 Brownell, The Collapse of Rhodesia, 125.

6 A surviving example of this poster is: “Terrorism Stops Here” poster, Imperial War Museum, catalogue number Art.IWM PST 9223.

7 Arnold, Mercenaries: The Scourge of the Developing World, 149; Mentioned in J. C. Harrison (Rhodesia Department, FCO), memo, 30 November 1976, item 243, FCO 36/1876. (Note: All FCO files cited in this article are held at the UK National Archives, Kew. Item numbers within files have been given where possible.)

8 Smith, Bush Pig, District Cop, 82–3.

9 “Foreign Legion Men in Smith’s War.” Guardian, 1 February 1978, 1.

10 Coggins, “Wilson and Rhodesia: UDI and British Policy”; Loney, Rhodesia: White Racism; Lowry, “The Impact of Anti-Communism on White Rhodesian Political Culture”; Meredith, The Past is Another Country; Watts, “Killing Kith and Kin”; Watts, Rhodesia’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence; White, Unpopular Sovereignty.

11 See: Arbuckle, “Rhodesian Bush War Strategies and Tactics”; Adams and Cocks, Africa’s Commandos; Baxter, Bomford, and van Tonder, Rhodesia Regiment, 1899–1981; Binda, The Equus Men; Binda, Masodja; Binda, The Saints; Cole, The Elite; Gibbs, Phillips, and Russell, Blue and Old Gold; Moorcraft and McLaughlin, The Rhodesian War; Wessels, A Handful of Hard Men; Lovering, “Expatriate Archives Revisited.”

12 Burchett and Roebuck, The Whores of War.

13 Mockler, The New Mercenaries; Rogers, Someone Else’s War.

14 Arnold, Mercenaries, 26–32.

15 Davis, Fortune’s Warriors.

16 Whittaker, “The ‘New Model’ Armies of Africa?,” 181–8.

17 White, “Civic Virtue, Young Men, and the Family: Conscription in Rhodesia,” 114–18.

18 Burke, Revolutionaries of the Right, esp. 111–12 on Britain; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 236–8.

19 Hughes, “Soldiers of Misfortune.”

20 Anderson, “Shadow Cultures, Shadow Histories,” particularly 108–15 on Britain, and 115–21 on New Zealand.

21 Report of Privy Counsellors appointed to inquire into the recruitment of mercenaries (The Diplock Report), 1.

22 Ibid., 2.

23 Arnold, Mercenaries, 2; Mockler, The New Mercenaries, 270–1.

24 Burmester, “The Recruitment and Use of Mercenaries in Armed Conflicts,” 38–9.

25 Cocks, Fireforce, 83. For simplicity, however, the term “mercenary” is used throughout this article.

26 P. Jordan, “Chances in Rhodesia ‘Sunshine Army’.” Guardian, 12 December 1975, 8.

27 Ibid., 8.

28 “‘The Economist’ Fined Over Sanctions Order.” The Times, 13 April 1974, 2; J. Huxley, “Fines of up to £50,000 Listed for Breaking Rhodesia Sanctions.” The Times, 10 January 1980, 18.

29 McAleese, No Mean Soldier, 76.

30 “Americans Recruited to Fight in Rhodesia.” The Times, 24 June 1975, 5.

31 R. Jura, “Mercenaries for Rhodesia” in Economic and Political Weekly 11, no.21 (22 May 1976), 777–8.

32 Published at the end of R. Brown, “American Mercenaries in Africa.” Soldier of Fortune 1, no.1 (Summer, 1975), 22–7; 27. For evidence that Soldier of Fortune was available in Britain, see “To War with Kim and Jill.” Sunday Telegraph, 30 May 1976, 6.

33 C. Munnion, “Rhodesia Ends ‘Join Up’ Fares.” Daily Telegraph, 28 March 1977, 4.

34 “Anti-Communist on Rhodesia charges.” The Times, 14 April 1977, 3; “Man ‘Tried to Lure Jobless to Rhodesia’.” Daily Mail, 14 April 1977, 8.

35 “BBC Says Rhodesia Recruits from the UK.” Guardian, 20 July 1976, 22.

36 “‘Free Speech’ Claim by Ex-Mercenary.” The Times, 15 August 1978, 2; “Rhodesia Recruiting Agent to Pay £100.” The Times, 16 August 1978, 3.

37 A. Scrimsley, “Loophole that Helps Smith’s Army.” The Sun, 20 January 1970, newspaper cutting, FCO 36/667; J. R. Varcoe to Mr Mansfield, “Recruitment of Recently Discharged Soldiers for Rhodesian Forces,” memo, 21 January 1970, item 3, FCO 36/667, handwritten minute at end.

38 I. Markham-Smith, “Rhodesia Tries to Recruit in Britain.” Sunday Telegraph, 16 May 1976, 1.

39 “‘Mercenaries’ Drive Denied by Rhodesia.” Daily Telegraph, 11 January 1975, 5.

40 J. Bugler and A. Stephen, “Rhodesians Try to Lure UK troops.” Observer, 2 May 1976, 4.

41 “‘Free Speech’ Claim by Ex-Mercenary.” The Times, 15 August 1978, 2.

42 Bugler and Stephen, “Rhodesians Try to Lure UK troops.”

43 “BBC says Rhodesia Recruits from the UK.” Guardian, 20 July 1976, 22.

44 “Rhodesia Recruited Soldiers in Britain.” Daily Mail, 17 May 1976, 4.

45 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 24 May 1976 vol 912 c33W.

46 “Recruitment for the Rhodesian Army,” FCO Paper, 1976, FCO 36/1874.

47 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 20 July 1976 vol 915 c421W.

48 FCO 36/667, “Recruitment of Recently Discharged Soldiers for Rhodesian Forces” FCO Paper.

49 C. Sweeney, “Smith Hires Ulster Major.” Guardian, 5 February 1977, 22.

50 McAleese, No Mean Soldier, 115–16.

51 “Rhodesia’s Way of Raising Mercenaries.” The Irish Times, 14 January 1977, 7.

52 “Mike Faint” in Jeater, Onslow and Berry, “Rhodesian Forces Oral History Project.”

53 Brown and Spencer, I am Soldier of Fortune, 112.

54 “Yankees Fight for Rhodesia.” Baltimore Afro-American, 22 March 1977, 8.

55 Tehran Station to FCO, telexes, 19 May 1976, item 131, FCO 36/1874.

56 FCO Teleletter (Gaborone), 3 February 1977 (?), FCO 36/2064.

57 Mockler, The New Mercenaries, 270.

58 Godwin and Hancock, ‘Rhodesians Never Die’, 91; 338, n.22.

59 Raeburn, Black Fire!, 239; Ellert, The Rhodesian Front War, 130.

60 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 02 March 1976 vol 906 cc502-3W.

61 J. C. Harrison (Rhodesia Department, FCO), “Recruitment of Mercenaries for Rhodesia and the Diplock Report,” memo, 30 November 1976, item 243, FCO 36/1876.

62 See, for example: “Briton killed.” Coventry Evening Telegraph, 20 December 1978, 1; G. Gordon, “British Hero Killed in Gun Battle.” Daily Mail, 6 June 1979, 4; “British Major Killed in Rhodesia Raid.” Daily Telegraph, 6 June 1979, 4; “Midlander Killed in Rhodesian Invasion.” Birmingham Daily Post, 8 September 1979, 1.

63 Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 236–8.

64 “Rhodesian Army Recruiting Shock.” Birmingham Daily Post, 12 December 1975, 9; Hughes was also a sometime chairman of the Anti-Apartheid Movement.

65 J. Hart to E. Rowlands, letter, 8 July 1976, item 153, FCO 36/1874. Hart was highly interested in African affairs, working extensively with the Labour Party’s Southern Africa Liberation fund.

66 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC Deb 24 May 1976 vol 912 c33W; J. Jackson, “End the Trade in Blood Plea.” Daily Mirror, 15 March 1976, 2.

67 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC Deb 02 March 1976 vol 906 cc502-3W; Stonehouse had a history of intervention in southern African affairs: Speaking to the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress during a visit to the colony in 1959 he had encouraged the African population to push for their liberties when in Southern Rhodesia in 1959, an act for which he had been expelled by the colonial government. See Stonehouse, Prohibited Immigrant.

68 N. Buchan to D. Owen, letter, 3 May 1977, item 40, FCO 36/2064.

69 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 9 May 1978 vol 949 c480W.

70 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 16 June 1976 vol 913 cc521-3.

71 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 10 February 1976 vol 905 cc238-39.

72 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 10 February 1976 vol 905 cc243-44.

73 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 15 June 1976 vol 913 cc318-21. The relationship between the Monday Club and Rhodesia is explored fully in Mason, “The Development of the Monday Club,” Chap. 3, and in McNeil, “‘The Rivers of Zimbabwe will Run Red with BLOOD’: Enoch Powell.”

74 John Stanley to Margaret Thatcher, “Discussion of Rhodesia at the 1922 Committee: 4 March,” minute, 4 March 1976, Thatcher Papers, Churchill College, Cambridge, MS THCR 2/6/2/114/14.

75 Leader’s Consultative Committee, 220th Meeting, minutes, 4 October 1978, Thatcher Papers, Churchill College, Cambridge, MSS (2/6/1/163) [short minute] and (2/6/1/214) [longer minute].

76 Shadow Cabinet, Circulated Paper (Davies, “Rhodesia”), c.30 September 1978, Thatcher Papers, Churchill College, Cambridge, MS 2/6/1/163.

77 J. Ennals, M. Terry, P. Webb, C. Clarke, J. Shepherd to D. Owen, letter, 2 June 1977, item 45, FCO 36/2064.

78 Zimbabwe Briefing No.6: Guardians of White Power, 3–4.

79 “Mercenary Recruitment Stepped Up Abroad by Agents of White Supremacy.” Anti-Apartheid News, April 1976, 7; “‘Stop British Mercenaries’ – ZIPA.” Anti-Apartheid News, January–February 1977, 6.

80 “DPP Refuses to Act on Mercenaries.” Anti-Apartheid News, June 1976, 5; K. Maxey, “Labour Government Must Act to Outlaw Mercenarism in Britain.” Anti-Apartheid News, July/August 1977, 11.

81 “Proposals on Mercenaries: A ‘Killers’ Charter.” Anti-Apartheid News, November 1976, 10; “The Following Resolutions were Adopted by the Annual General Meeting of the Anti-Apartheid Movement,” meeting minutes, 23 October 1977, Archives of the Anti-Apartheid Movement, Bodleian Library, Oxford, AAM National Committee Papers 1976–1977, item 188, MSS AAM 49, 5.

82 Fireforce Exposed, 31–3. Similar accusations were made in A. S. Minty, “How the West Is Backing the Rhodesian Regime.” Anti-Apartheid News, March 1979, 4. The British Government were had previously been accused of not doing enough to stop mercenary recruitment in “Vorster Pulls Strings as Smith Attacks Front-Line States.” Anti-Apartheid News, June 1977, 5.

83 “Zimbabwe Working Group: Report on Activity During 1976 for Meeting on 11 June,” memo, 9 June 1976, Archives of the Anti-Apartheid Movement, Bodleian Library, Oxford, AAM National Committee Papers, 1976–1977, item 35, MS AAM 49, 2–3.

84 Rhodesia: The Propaganda War, 17. They also placed a piece in Issue magazine in 1979: Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Rhodesia, “The Current Situation in Zimbabwe.” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 9, 1/2 (1979), 63–5, 64.

85 D. Marston (Rhodesia Department, FCO) to Mr Powell, “Call by Members of the Birmingham Campaign for Justice in Zimbabwe,” 23 December 1976, memo, item 256, FCO 36/1876.

86 J. Rees, “Getting in on the action.” Daily Mail, 19 July 1976, 18–19; S. Day-Lewis, “‘Panorama’ Opinion Implied by Methods.” Daily Telegraph, 20 July 1976, 11.

87 BBC, The World at One, “Recruitment of Mercenaries for Rhodesia,” 19 August 1976, transcript, item 204, FCO 36/1876.

88 Ibid.

89 BBC, Today, “Tony Wilkinson interviewing Giles Pace on Volunteer Force,” 16 September 1978, transcript, no item number, FCO 36/2628.

90 Mentioned in M. E. Heath (West African Department, FCO), “Diplock Committee on Mercenaries,” paper, 30 September 1976, item 221, FCO 36/1876.

91 M. E. Heath (West African Department, FCO), “Diplock Committee on Mercenaries,” memo, 17 December 1976, item 257, FCO 36/1876.

92 “Smith Recruiting British Mercenaries – Kaunda.” Financial Times, 9 November 1966, 7.

93 Organisation of African Unity/African Union, “Resolutions of the Council of Ministers Adopted at its Thirty-Second Ordinary Session,” CM/Res. 681-716 (XXXII), 1979, available at https://au.int/sites/default/files/decisions/9592-council_en_23_february_4_march_1979_council_ministers_thirtieth_second_ordinary_session.pdf, accessed 30 September 2020.

94 “West Accused of Naked Hypocrisy.” Irish Times, 3 April 1976, 7.

95 D. A. Marston (Rhodesia Department, FCO), “Rhodesia: Mercenaries and Mr Jeffreys,” minute, 14 January 1977, item 4, FCO 36/2064.

96 P. A. Raftery (High Commission, Gaborone) to D. K. Sprague (FCO, London), teleletter, 26 May 1977, FCO 36/2064, item 41.

97 D. Anable, “The Return of the Mercenaries.” Africa Report 20, no. 6 (November–December 1975), 2–6, 6.

98 J. Bulloch, “Machel Warning to Britain on Rhodesia.” Daily Telegraph, 17 May 1977, 4.

99 R. Wright, “Zambia in ‘State of War’ With Rhodesia.” Washington Post, 17 May 1977, A14.

100 “UK Held Responsible for Rhodesian Attack,” Lusaka Domestic Service, Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) Daily Reports, Sub-Saharan Africa (FBIS-SSA-78-051), 15 March 1978, E3.

101 “Paper Warns UK Not to Interfere in Zimbabwe,” Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) Daily Reports, Sub-Saharan Africa (FBIS-SAF-76-052), 16 March 1976, B1-B2.

102 “West Accused of Naked Hypocrisy.” Irish Times, 3 April 1976, 7.

103 Lusaka Radio, 12 May 1976, transcript, item 154, FCO 36/1874.

104 Mentioned in C. R. L. de Chassiron (British Embassy, Maputo) to P. J. Barlow (Rhodesia Department, FCO), letter, 28 May 1976, item 105, FCO 36/1874.

105 FCO Commmunique from Addis Ababa station, 18 September 1978, item 15, FCO 36/2268.

106 “OAU Should Pressure Big Powers to Condemn Mercenaries.” Sunday Nation, 18 February 1979, 6.

107 J. McManus, “Mercenary Trial Raises Rhodesia Connection.” Guardian, 9 June 1976, 2.

108 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HL 12 July 1976 vol 373 cc39-47.

109 The story of the Angolan mercenary trial, the Diplock committee, and their significance is explored more fully in Hughes, “Soldiers of Misfortune,” 500–5.

110 Burchett and Roebuck, The Whores of War, 196–203.

111 C. Legum, “Why Britain Must Keep Mercenaries Out of Rhodesia.” The Observer, 8 August 1976, 8.

112 “Mercenaries and the Western Countries.” Zimbabwe Review 6, no.9 (1977), 44; Nkomo is paraphrased in “11000 Mercenaries.” Rand Daily Mail, 7 February 1978, 4.

113 N. Ashford, “Botswana Heartens Mr Richard.” The Times, 6 January 1977, 5.

114 “Speech by Mr Robert Mugabe, Co-leader of the Zimbabwe Patriotic Front.” Decolonization: A Publication of the United Nations Department of Political Affairs, Trusteeship and Decolonization 8 (July 1977), 48–56, 49.

115 Mentioned in J. C. Harrison (Rhodesia Department, FCO), “Recruitment of Mercenaries for Rhodesia and the Diplock Report,” memo, 30 November 1976, item 243, FCO 36/1876.

116 “Rhodesian Army Recruiting Shock.” Birmingham Daily Post, 12 December 1975, 9.

117 R. Lewis, “Mercenaries in Rhodesia Risk Charge of Treason.” The Times, 4 May 1976, 1; P. Simple, “Treason Doth Prosper.” Daily Telegraph, 5 May 1976, 14.

118 E. Plaice and D. Radcliffe, “Fury at the British Brigade that’s Backing Smith.” Daily Mirror, 22 March 1976, 7.

119 This was in the context of mercenaries going to Angola: “They Will Always Go.” Daily Express, 16 February 1976, 10.

120 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC Deb 16 June 1976 vol 913 cc521-3.

121 UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III), Article 13(2), available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3712c.html [accessed 29 September 2020]; Diplock Report, 4.

122 M. R. Eaton (Legal Advisor) to Mr Holding (West Africa Department, FCO?), memo, 8 July 1976, item 161, FCO 36/1874.

123 UK Parliament, Foreign Enlistment Act, 1870, s5.

124 Diplock Report, 8–9.

125 D. A. Marston (Rhodesia Department, FCO) to Mr Rushford (Legal Advisor), “Rhodesia: Recruitment of Mercenaries,” memo, 3 December 1976, item 247, FCO 36/1876.

126 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC Deb 16 June 1976 vol 913 cc521-3; Diplock Report, 10.

127 Diplock Report, 9–10.

128 Ibid., 8.

129 Ibid., 10–11.

130 Statement by the legal advisor, Mr Steel, March 1977, item 16, FCO 36/2064; The idea of a new UN resolution dated to before 1977: see W. J. Rumble (Rhodesia Department, FCO) to P. Drew (Home Office), “Military service in Rhodesia,” letter, 1 July 1976, item 149, FCO 36/1874.

131 I. T. M. Lucas (Middle East Department, FCO) to N. N. Heath (West Africa Department, FCO), “Diplock Committee on Mercenaries,” memo, 2 December 1976, item 246, FCO 36/1876.

132 “Mercenaries: The Recommendations of the Diplock Committee,” minute from the West Africa Department, FCO, 6 August 1976, FCO 36/1875.

133 D. A. Marston (Rhodesia Department, FCO), minute, 24 January 1977, item 13, FCO 36/1876.

134 Griffiths was generally not in favour of sanctions as a policy tool against Rhodesia and South Africa.

135 G. Rais, “Smith’s Army Recruiter on the Dole.” Daily Telegraph, 16 August 1978, 3.

136 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 15 June 1976 vol 913 cc313-21.

137 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 16 July 1976 vol 915 cc1236-7; B. John to M. Foot, letter, 23 June 1976, item 146, FCO 36/1874.

138 “Instructions to Parliamentary Counsel for the Foreign Recruitment Bill,” 1979, item 8, FCO 36/2628.

139 Ibid.

140 Ibid.

141 United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 25 January 1979 vol 961 cc730-1.The bill was due to receive its second reading on 23 February 1979 (postponed from 2 February), but in the event this never happened: United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 2 February 1979 vol 961 c1932. Hooley was highly critical of Rhodesia in Parliament, for instance here: United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC 28 July 1977 vol 936 cc1053-61.

142 G. Rais, “Smith’s Army Recruiter on the Dole.” Daily Telegraph, 16 August 1978, 3.

143 J. Huxley, “Fines of up to £50,000 listed for breaking Rhodesia sanctions.” The Times, 10 January 1980, 18.

144 “Recruits for Rhodesia Man Cleared.” Daily Telegraph, 16 April 1977, 3.

145 “Panorama Programme on Recruitment for Rhodesia: 19 July 1976,” minute, FCO 36/1875; W. Patey (FCO) to J. Roberts (DPP), 26 May 1977, item 43, FCO 36/2064.

146 “Panorama Programme on Recruitment for Rhodesia: 19 July 1976,” minute, FCO 36/1875.

147 T. Abbott-Watt (Rhodesia Department, FCO) to R. H. G. Travers-Bogusz, letter, 15 July 1977, item 52, FCO 36/2064.

148 “Britons in Rhodesia Free to Return.” Daily Telegraph, 22 May 1976, 30; The Government cited a lower figure of 80,000: United Kingdom, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, HC Deb 18 March 1976 vol 907 c636W.

149 Lemon, Never Quite a Soldier, 19.

150 J. Ennals, M. Terry, P. Webb, C. Clarke, J. Shepherd to D. Owen, letter, 2 June 1977, item 45, FCO 36/2064.

151 C. Eade, “Rhodesian rebels given treason warning.” Guardian, 3 March 1970, 20.

152 B. London, “Recruits from Britain complain.” Daily Telegraph, 18 May 1976, 4.

153 Anderson, “Shadow Cultures, Shadow Histories,” 113–14.

154 “Man For Trial on Treason Charge.” The Times, 26 July 1966, 10; “Concrete at the Queen’s Car: Four Years’ Gaol.” The Times, 27 September 1966, 1; Stewart Tendler, “Treason Case Youth Jailed Five Years.” The Times, 15 September 1981, 1.

155 See, for example, D. A. Marston (Rhodesia Department, FCO) to Mr Powell, “Call By Members of the Birmingham Campaign for Justice in Zimbabwe,” memo, 23 December 1976, item 256, FCO 36/1876, handwritten comments at end of draft letter.

156 P. J. Barlow (Rhodesia Department, FCO) to Mr Powell, “Enlistment in the Rhodesian Services,” memo, 27 August 1976, item 206, FCO 36/1876; P. M. Laver (Rhodesia Department, FCO) to J. T. Cliffe (MOD), letter, 10 August 1976, item 191, file copy held in FCO 36/1876.

157 J. T. Cliffe (MOD) to P. M. Laver (Rhodesia Department, FCO), letter 17 August 1976, item 200, FCO 36/1875.

158 J. T. Cliffe (MOD) to P. M. Laver (Rhodesia Department, FCO), letter, 29 June 1976, item 150, FCO 36/1874.

159 P. Codyre, “Foreign Recruits” in Adams and Cocks, Africa’s Commandos, 181–2, 181.

160 J. T. Cliffe (MOD) to P. M. Laver (Rhodesia Department, FCO), letter, 25 May 1976, item 84, FCO 36/1873.

161 J. T. Cliffe (MOD) to P. M. Laver (Rhodesia Department, FCO), letter, 29 June 1976, item 150, FCO 36/1874.

162 N. E. M. FitzGerald to R. Spencer, 20 December 1977, item 76, FCO 36/2064; FCO Telex from Bonn, filed 18 November 1977, item 58, FCO 36/2064; “‘Safari Job’ Colonel Arrested.” Daily Mail, 18 January 1975, 4; “Urteil.” Der Spiegel, 24 March 1975, 164.

163 FCO Telegram, 15 December 1977, item 75, FCO 36/2064.

164 D. J. Wright (British Embassy, Paris) to J. C. Harrison (Rhodesia Department, FCO), letter, 2 December 1977, item 68, FCO 36/2064.

165 B. Cartledge (Private Secretary to the PM) to J. S. Wall (FCO), letter, 14 December 1977, item 74, FCO 36/2064.

166 D. R. Tilling (British High Commission, Canberra) to J. C. Harrison (Rhodesia Department, FCO), 5 April 1977, item 32, FCO 36/2064; Australian Parliament, Crimes (Foreign Incursions and Recruitment) Act, 1978.

167 G. R. Archer (British High Commission, Wellington) to P. J. Barlow (Rhodesia Department, FCO), 30 July 1976, item 199, FCO 36/1875.

168 FCO to Washington and Lusaka, telegram, 10 March 1977, item 19, FCO 36/2064.

169 C. Reed, “FBI Inquiry into Help for Mercenary.” Guardian, 11 March 1977, 2; C. Reed, “FBI Looks Anew at Mercenary Question.” Guardian, 27 May 1977, 6.

170 “Legislation on mercenaries in other countries,” annex to M. E. Heath (West Africa Department, FCO) “Diplock Committee on Mercenaries,” memo and report, 17 December 1976, item 257, FCO 36/1876.

171 UK Parliament, Zimbabwe Act, 1979, s.3; UK Parliament, Southern Rhodesian (Sanctions) (Amnesty) Order, 1980, article 2.

172 Accusations were made at the time that the Government lacked the willpower to prosecute offenders: Burchett and Roebuck, The Whores of War, 229.