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Articles

The Work of Photography Reimagined: The Soviet Moment in France, 1928–34

Pages 356-375 | Published online: 14 Mar 2019
 

Abstract

This article examines the photographic practices of the French Communist Party during the ‘Third Period’, when the Communist International adopted its most intransigent policies. Through an analysis of the magazines Nos Regards and Regards sur le monde du travail, I show that the Communists adopted a montage technique which expanded the practice from juxtapositions on the page to juxtapositions orchestrated across the whole publication. Photographs were thus used to articulate the conflict between opposed economic and political systems through sustained comparisons of capitalist countries and the ‘fatherland of the International proletariat’. In the process, the magazines became collective works rather than miscellanies of individual articles, mounting a direct challenge to the practices of the bourgeois press. This challenge was also extended to the role of the press photographer, which the Communists proposed to supplant through the collaboration of worker photographers. Thus, the very work of photography was to be reimagined.

Notes

1 Florent Fels, ‘Comment se fabrique un hebdomadaire’, Arts et Métiers Graphiques, 52 (15 April 1936), 34: ‘Pour un curieux non prévenu, le spectacle d’un tiroir-classeur, ouvert inopinément, ne serait pas sans provoquer quelque étonnement.’

2 – ‘Où vont nos regards’, Nos Regards, 1 (May 1928), n.p: ‘Supposons un instant que, par suite d’un cataclysme, notre époque vienne à disparaître brusquement. Deux mille ans plus tard, le hazard ayant permis à un savant de découvrir, comme uniques vestiges de notre «civilisation», un lot de magazines et de journaux illustrés, quelle idée le bonhomme pourrait-il bien se faire de notre XXe siècle?’

3 Ibid.: ‘l’étalage’.

4 Ibid.: ‘le monde du travail’, ‘qu’ignorent systématiquement’, and ‘infiniment plus important et plus précieux’.

5 There was an established iconography of the Parisian trades. For a discussion of the photographic versions at the beginning of the twentieth century see Molly Nesbit, Atget’s Seven Albums, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 1992.

6 The historiography of Soviet photography has been complicated by a number of factors. For a clear and concise overview see Margarita Tupitsyn, ‘The Histories of the Soviet Photograph: At Home and Abroad’, History of Photography, 24: 4 (Winter 2000), 313–16. It is not perverse to examine Soviet photography through a French case as the Communist project in the interwar period was an international one; accounts of this project which are restricted to the Soviet Union are in important respects incomplete. For an approach to some of these issues in the history of photography which is international in scope see The Worker Photography Movement, 1926–1939: Essays and Documents, ed. Jorge Ribalta, Madrid: Museo Nacional Centre de Arte Reina Sofía 2011.

7 The central strand of the narrative is formed by Lenin’s Collected Works, publication of which began in 1920. For a concise but effective overview of the narrative and its construction see James D. White, Lenin: The Practice and Theory of Revolution, Basingstoke: Palgrave 2001, esp. 178–202. The issue of the continuities between Lenin’s policies and Stalin’s has generated controversy since the 1920s; this is not the place to enter the debate. The account offered here is concerned principally with party organisation and here at least I believe the continuities are clear enough. For an overview of the state of debate see Bolshevism, Stalinism and the Comintern: Perspectives on Stalinization, 1917–53, ed. Norman LaPorte, Kevin Morgan, and Matthew Worley, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2008.

8 V. I. Lenin, ‘Draft and Explanation of a Programme for the Social-Democratic Party’ (1895–96), in Collected Works, vol. 2, Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House 1963, 96.

9 Ibid., 117.

10 V. I. Lenin, ‘What is to be done?’ (1902), in Collected Works, vol. 5, Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House 1961, 412 (emphases in original).

11 Ibid., 425.

12 Ibid., 452.

13 Ibid., 502.

14 V. I. Lenin, ‘Party Organisation and Party Literature’ (1905), in Collected Works, vol. 10, Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House 1962, 45 (emphases in original).

15 Ibid., 46.

16 Georg Lukács, Lenin: A Study on the Unity of his Thought (1924), trans. Nicholas Jacobs, London: New Left Books 1970, 37.

17 ‘Invitation to the First Congress of the Communist International’, in The Communist International, 1919–1943: Documents, vol. 1, ed. Jane Degras, London: Oxford University Press 1956, 3.

18 Ibid.

19 ‘Conditions of Admission to the Communist International approved by the Second Comintern Congress’, in Communist International, 1919–1943, vol. 1, ed. Degras, 166–72.

20 Ibid., 172.

21 See Statute 8 of the ‘Statutes of the International adopted at the Second Congress’, in Communist International, 1919–1943, vol. 1, ed. Degras, 165. The various tensions within the CI and the attendant historiography are analysed in Kevin McDermott and Jeremy Agnew, The Comintern: A History of International Communism from Lenin to Stalin, Basingstoke: Macmillan 1996.

22 ‘Theses on Tactics adopted by the Fifth Comintern Congress (Extracts)’, in The Communist International, 1919–1943: Documents, vol. 2, ed. Jane Degras, London: Oxford University Press 1956, 153.

23 Ibid., 154.

24 Ibid.

25 These developments may be followed through the documentary sources gathered in Le Parti communiste français pendant l’entre-deux-guerres, ed. Nicole Racine and Louis Bodin, Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques 1982, 92–139.

26 J. V. Stalin, ‘The October Revolution and the Tactics of the Russian Communists’, in Works, vol. 6, Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House 1953, 387.

27 Ibid., 418 (emphasis in original).

28 Ibid.

29 For this sequence of events see Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed: Trotsky: 1921–1929, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1970, 246–385.

30 Albert Sarraut, ‘Discours prononcé à Constantine’, in Le Parti communiste français pendant l’entre-deux-guerres, ed. Nicole Racine and Louis Bodin, Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques 1982, 153: ‘le communisme, voilà l’ennemi!’

31 ‘Projet de programme de l’Internationale communiste’, a special supplement to L’Humanité (18 July 1928), 2: ‘Dans le cadre de l’économie mondiale, jadis unique, luttent deux systèmes antagonistes: le système du capitalisme et celui du socialisme. La lutte de classes qui, jusqu’à présent, se déroulait, le prolétariat ne possédant pas son propre pouvoir d’Etat, se reproduit maintenant sur une échelle énorme, vraiment mondiale, la classe ouvrière mondiale possédant déjà son Etat, la seule patrie du prolétariat international. L’existence de l’Union soviétique, son influence mondiale sur les masses travailleuses et opprimées est par elle-même la manifestation la plus éclantante de la profonde crise du système capitaliste mondial, d’une extension et d’une aggravation de la lutte de classe, que l’histoire n’avait encore jamais vues’.

32 ‘The Sixth Congress of the Communist International’, in Communist International, 1919–1943, vol. 2, ed. Degras, 446–549.

33 See ‘The Ninth Plenum of the Executive Committee of the Communist International’, in Communist International, 1919–1943, vol. 2, ed. Degras, 423–29.

34 See Babette Gross, Willi Münzenberg: Eine politische Biographie, Stuttgart: DVA 1967, 165–66; and Lilly Becher, ‘Vorwort’, in Heinz Willmann, Geschichte der Arbeiter-Illustrierten Zeitung: 1921–1938, Berlin: Dietz Verlag 1975, 7–11. Nos Regards was an attempt to internationalise the coverage of an earlier French publication focused on the Soviet Union, La Russie Nouvelle, which ran from May 1924 to October 1925. See Christian Joschke, ‘La marché transnational des images politiques: Le Secours ouvrier international dans le contexte des agencies photographiques soviétiques (1924–1933)’, Etudes photographiques, 35 (Spring 2017), 3–29. Münzenberg does not feature in Nos Regards in its first incarnation. However, he does appear in the later publication Regards sur le monde du travail. See Onof, ‘Le S.O.I. au travail’, Regards sur le monde du travail, 3 (March 1932), 9.

35 ‘Invitation to the First Congress’, 4.

36 For a detailed account of Münzenberg’s activities, his relations with the CI, and the dynamics of solidarity see Kasper Braskén, The International Workers’ Relief, Communism and Transnational Solidarity: Willi Münzenberg in Weimar Germany, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2015.

37 For an overview of this trajectory of German Communism see Andreas Wirschung, ‘The Impact of “Bolshevization” and “Stalinization” on French and German Communism: A Comparative View’, in Bolshevism, Stalinism and the Comintern, ed. LaPorte, Morgan, and Worley, 89–104.

38 For one overview of the relationship between the daily and periodical press at this moment see Simon Dell, The Image of the Popular Front: The Masses and the Media in Interwar France, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2007, 29–43.

39 Diane Richmond, ‘Le quartier réservé de Casablanca’, Nos Regards, 1 (May 1928), n.p. That Nos Regards depended on agency materials is evident from the occasional clarifications the editors were obliged to insert after discovering an agency had misidentified a subject. See, for example, ‘Rectification’, Nos Regards, 2 (June 1928), 14. On the difficulty of sourcing photographs for Nos Regards see Joschke, ‘La marché transnational des images politiques’.

40 Richmond, ‘Le quartier réservé’, n.p.: ‘Les jolies jeunes femmes que l’on peut voir ici semblent, en général, avoir été choisies pour leur beauté et pour leur grâce par celui qui a pris ces photographies. Mais, en les regardant de plus près, on remarque sur tous ces visages, sans exception aucune, une expression de profonde tristesse, tristesse qui, chez quelques-unes de ces malheureuses, semble aller jusq’au desespoir’.

41 See, for example, the popular versions of the official records for the exhibitions in Marseilles in 1922 and Paris in 1931: Adrien Artaud et al., L’Exposition nationale coloniale de Marseille décrite par ses auteurs, Marseilles: Commissariat Général de l’Exposition 1922; and Commissariat Général de l’Exposition, Le Livre d’Or de l’exposition colonial international de Paris, Paris: Librairie ancienne Honoré Champion 1931.

42 For North African examples see the presentation of Algeria and Tunisia in Commissariat Général, Le Livre d’Or, 36–38 and 41–43.

43 Richmond, ‘Le quartier réservé’, n.p.: ‘installe, officiellement’.

44 Ibid.: ‘Afcha, l’une des jeunes “favorites” de “Messieurs blancs”’.

45 See the juxtaposition of Sfax as ‘European city’ and an inhabitant of Sfax in ‘Moorish dress’ in Commissariat Général, Le Livre d’Or, 41–43.

46 ‘Alsace: Pays du travail’, Nos Regards, 3 (July 1928), 2.

47 For examples of the Socialist view of colonialism at this date see the essays gathered in Léon Blum, ‘Le Problème du colonialisme’, in L’Oeuvre de Léon Blum: 1914–1928, vol. 3, i, Paris: Editions Albin Michel 1972, 480–90.

48 ‘Projet de programme’, 2.

49 Ibid.

50 ‘Très beau mais … trop loin trop cher!’, Nos Regards, 4 (August 1928), 5: ‘vue’, ‘éclabousse’, and ‘les estampes nippones’.

51 Ibid., 4: ‘en rêve’.

52 ‘Vivent les vacances’, Nos Regards, 4 (August 1928), 7: ‘un régime qui gaspille le meilleur de ses finances dans les budgets de mort’.

53 Walter Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility’ (1939), in Selected Writings, vol. 4, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott and Others, Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 2003, 258.

54 Ibid.

55 The first issue of Vu appeared on 21 March 1928.

56 See ‘L’auto dans l’oeil du phare’, Vu, 29 (3 October 1928), 647; and ‘En luttant contre … le brouillard et la nuit’, Vu, 185 (30 September 1931), 2284–85.

57 This image of the magazine is presented in ‘Remarques sur un nouveau journal illustré’, Vu, 1 (21 March 1928), 11–12. For a discussion of the editorial policies of Vu see Michel Frizot and Cédric de Veigy, Vu: The Story of a Magazine that Made an Era, trans. Ruth Sharman, London: Thames & Hudson 2009.

58 Lenin, ‘Party Organisation’, 45.

59 Ibid (emphasis in original).

60 ‘Qui veut la guerre, prépare la guerre’, Nos Regards, 4 (August 1928), 8–9.

61 Géo Charles, ‘Olympiades Spartakiades’, Nos Regards, 4 (August 1928), 12.

62 Ibid.: ‘une fausse neutralité’.

63 Ibid.: ‘une espèce de monstre’.

64 As already noted, the first editorial in Nos Regards is unsigned and the first issues carry no indication of an editor or an editorial board. However, Dutilleul was well qualified for the job of director, being active in the sections of the PCF dedicated to propaganda and also having close links with Münzenberg’s Internationale Arbeiterhilfe. See ‘Dutilleul, Emile’, in Dictionnaire biographique du movement ouvrier français, vol. 26, ed. Jean Maitron, Paris: Les Editions Ouvrières 1964–98, 298–300.

65 ‘Sports U.S.A. Sports U.R.S.S.’, Nos Regards, 10 (February 1929), 12–13.

66 Lenin, ‘Party Organisation’, 46.

67 Philippe Robrieux, Histoire intérieure du Parti communiste, vol. 1, Paris: Fayard 1980, 339–41. On the role of Tardieu in the folding of Nos Regards, see E. Dutilleul, ‘Un A.I.Z. en France?’, Regards, 11 (November 1932), 2.

68 Bernard Pudal, Prendre parti: pour une sociologie historique du PCF, Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques 1989.

69 This was set out in a series of articles in L’Humanité in July and August 1931: see Robrieux, Histoire intérieure, 358–60.

70 Continuities between the publications are emphasised in Dutilleul, ‘Un A.I.Z. en France?’.

71 ‘A nos lecteurs’, Regards sur le monde du travail, 2 (February 1932) 11: ‘des faits sociaux et politiques les plus saillants, les actualités satiriques, les contrastes les plus frappants que nous donnent la crise mondiale, par ses spectacles de misère inouïe’.

72 Ibid.: ‘l’autre monde du travail, celui qui tient librement ses destinées en mains, l’U.R.S.S’.

73 L. Dieulle, ‘Logements ouvriers’ and ‘En U.R.S.S.’, Regards sur le monde du travail, 2 (February 1932), 4–5 and 6.

74 ‘A nos lecteurs’: ‘«REGARDS» peut et doit devenir un organe illustré de collaboration des masses. Il sera ce que les lecteurs voudront qu’il soit, parce qu’il sera toujours tenu largement compte des critiques, suggestions, observations et propositions qui parviendront au Comité de Rédaction.Plus le nombre de collaborateurs, photographes et rédacteurs sera grand, plus nous aurons le choix des sujets à présenter, plus notre revue sera variée et attrayante, parce qu’elle sera l’émanation de la masse des lecteurs’.

75 ‘Le Manifeste de l’Association des Ecrivains et Artistes révolutionnaires’, L’Humanité (22 March 1932), 4: ‘La lutte des classes revêt à l’échelle universelle l’aspect de deux systèmes en concurrence, l’impérialisme pourrissant et le jeune socialisme. […] C’est que, pour la première fois depuis la Commune de Paris, les prolétaires, par-dessus toutes les frontières, ont un Etat à eux. Les travailleurs ont une patrie et dans cete [sic] patrie se lève, avec le second Plan quinquennial, l’aube de la société sans classes.Une nouvelle civilisation commence’.

76 Ibid.: ‘L’époque de l’impérialisme est l’époque du dépérissement et de la dislocation de la culture bourgeoise. […] Ici encore les deux mondes s’opposent clairement. C’est au prolétariat que revient la charge de relever la culture mondiale’.

77 For an analysis of the Association des Ecrivains et Artistes révolutionnaires, see Wolfgang Klein, Commune: Revue pour la défense de la culture (1933–1939), trans. D. Bonnaud-Lamotte with M.-A. Coadou, Paris: Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique 1988; and for the broader project of cultural renewal see Pascal Ory, La Belle Illusion: Culture et Politique sous le signe du Front populaire, 1934–1938, Paris: Plon 1994.

78 ‘Le Manifeste’, 4: ‘la littérature ne peut devenir une source d’enrichissement pour des personnes ou des groupement, ni une affaire individuelle, indépendante de la cause générale du prolétariat’.

79 ‘Le Manifeste de l’Association des Ecrivains et Artistes révolutionnaires’, L’Humanité (29 March 1932), 4: ‘le réservoir’, ‘des cadres sans cesse renouvelés d’écrivains prolétariens’.

80 Ibid.: ‘[d]évelopper l’art de masse dans ses forms Nouvelles d’expression, théâtre-ouvrier […] photo-montage, cinema, radio, etc.’

81 The issue of L’Humanité which carried the first instalment of the manifesto also carried an article on the rabcors. See Pierre RABCOR, ‘En février 316 lettres et 3 pages de rabcors ont paru dans “L’Huma”’, L’Humanité (22 March 1932), 6.

82 ‘Photographes ouvriers …’, Regards sur le monde du travail, 3 (March 1932), 11: ‘avec le style bourgeois dont nous sommes malheureusement encore imprégnés’.

83 Ibid.: ‘jugez de la pose d’une vedette, d’une «étoile», dont s’enorgueillissent toutes les revues illustrées éditées à des millions d’exemplaires. C’est une distraction, diront certains, que de feuilleter de telles revues. La bourgeoisie, elle sait que c’est un moyen d’égarer les travailleurs et puis de faire de «bonnes affaires».Les lecteurs de «REGARDS» sont sortis de ce bourbier. Ils n’abandonnent pas leur classe’. Worker photography was first developed in Germany in 1926. A French association of worker photographers was founded in 1930. See Worker Photography Movement, ed. Ribalta.

84 Lenin, ‘Party Organisation’, 46. It should be noted that the transformation of worker into photographer was to be mirrored by the redefinition of photographers as workers. See ‘COMMUNE présente un projet de revendications des travailleurs intellectuels’, Commune (July 1933), 87–95.

85 See, for example, ‘Extracts from the theses of the twelfth ECCI plenum on the international situation and the tasks of the Comintern sections’, in The Communist International, 1919–1943: Documents, vol. 3, ed. Jane Degras, London: Oxford University Press 1965, 210–44.

86 This summary compresses much. For a full account of the crisis of February see Serge Berstein, Le 6 février 1934, Paris: Gallimard 1975. For the response of the PCF see Denis Peschanski, Et pourtant ils tournent: Vocabulaire et strategie du PCF, 1934–1936, Paris: Klincksieck 1988.

87 Walter Benjamin, ‘Diary from August 7, 1931, to the Day of My Death’, in Selected Writings, vol. 2, ed. Howard Eiland, Michael W. Jennings, and Gary Smith, trans. Rodney Livingstone and Others, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 1999, 504.

88 Ibid., 504–05.

89 Benjamin may also have had in mind the account of journalism as ‘the apogee of capitalist reification’ in Georg Lukács, History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics (1923), trans. Rodney Livingstone, London: Merlin Press 1971, 100.

90 Walter Benjamin, ‘The Newspaper’, in Selected Writings, vol. 2, ed. Eiland, Jennings, and Smith, 741–42.

91 Walter Benjamin, ‘The Author as Producer’, in Selected Writings, vol. 2, ed. Eiland, Jennings, and Smith, 771–72.

92 Ibid., 771.

93 Ibid.

94 Benjamin, ‘Work of Art’, 262.

95 Karl Marx, Capital (1867), vol. 1, trans. Ben Fowkes, London: Penguin Books 1990, 716.

96 For example, Regards, 113 (12 March 1936), 12; and Regards, 116 (2 April 1936), 11: ‘Une photo à garder’.

97 Regards, 117 (9 April 1936), 11.

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