https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3670-4803
ABSTRACT
Increasing mental health issues, such as emotional problems, pose a threat for the academic performance of undergraduate students. We propose a route connecting emotional problems and academic performance through executive functioning skills (EFS). Despite the abundance of research on the topic of EFS, there is a significant gap in understanding this route, specifically among a population of undergraduate students. The aim of this study was to examine whether EFS mediated the association between emotional problems and academic performance among undergraduate students. Cross-sectional data (n = 2,531) was used from a survey among Dutch undergraduate students from a large variety of faculties at a university of applied sciences. We assessed emotional problems using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21, five EFS (cognitive inhibition, task initiation, sustained attention, planning, time management), and academic performance (study delay; yes/no). Mediation analyses were performed, using the Hayes PROCESS macro, adjusted for gender. We found that cognitive inhibition, task initiation, sustained attention, planning, and time management mediated the association between emotional problems and academic performance. Regarding separate EFS, no large differences were found. The data suggests that improving all EFS in undergraduates experiencing emotional problems could be a fruitful strategy for preventing academic delays.
1. Introduction
Mental health problems, such as emotional problems, pose a threat for students’ academic performance (Asarnow et al. Citation2005; Bruffaerts et al. Citation2018; Eisenberg, Golberstein, and Hunt Citation2009; Hartley Citation2011). The worldwide prevalence of experiencing one or more mental health problems is suggested to be around 20% (Auerbach et al. Citation2016; Sheldon et al. Citation2021). A recent national study among Dutch university students showed even 51% of them to experience anxiety and depression symptoms, of which 12% severe (Dopmeijer et al. Citation2021). Although numerous studies examined the association between mental health and academic performance (e.g. Auerbach et al. Citation2016; Bruffaerts et al. Citation2018; Lundy et al. Citation2010), these associations are still poorly understood. To address mental health problems, such as emotional problems, and academic performance more effectively, insight is needed into pathways that could explain why emotional problems are associated with negative academic consequences. Understanding these pathways is a crucial step towards preventing study delays and improving academic outcomes of students facing symptoms of emotional problems.
A major route connecting emotional problems and academic performance may be through executive functioning skills (EFS). EFS, including cognitive inhibition, task initiation, sustained attention, planning, and time management, help concentrate and focus attention to reach an objective or a goal (Diamond Citation2013). Emotional problems, such as anxiety (Shields et al. Citation2016), stress (Shields, Sazma, and Yonelinas Citation2017), and depression (Bredemeier et al. Citation2016) often impair EFS, and EFS also act as strong predictors of academic performance (Pascual, Moyano, and Robres Citation2019; Samuels et al. Citation2016). EFS are seen as a core component of brain function and comprise the cognitive processes responsible for goal-oriented and purposeful behaviours (Anderson Citation2002). Previous research showed that, although correlated, EFS also have unique contributions that can be separated (Miyake et al. Citation2000). Therefore, addressing a range of domains of EFS may help to predict academic performance more accurately. For example, cognitive inhibition, which refers to the ability to suppress unwanted thoughts and intentional forgetting (Diamond Citation2013), might influence academic performance. Other EFS were described by Dawson and Guare (Citation2018), such as: task initiation, which involves starting a task in a timely manner, without unnecessary procrastination. Sustained attention or concentration, which refers to the capacity to attend to a task despite being distracted, tired or bored. Planning; which involves prioritising or overseeing the path towards completing a task or reaching a goal, and finally, time management, which refers to the capacity to estimate the amount of time one has towards a deadline.
Studies that showed an association between mental health problems, such as emotional problems, and EFS (Ajilchi and Nejati Citation2017; Bredemeier et al. Citation2016; Shields et al. Citation2016; Shields, Sazma, and Yonelinas Citation2017), and the level of EFS as predictor of academic progress (Baars et al. Citation2015; Pascual, Moyano, and Robres Citation2019; Samuels et al. Citation2016), mainly focused on children, young adolescents or older adults. The current study focuses on a population of undergraduate students. While previous research has explored the bidirectional relationship between emotional problems, EFS, and academic performance in specific populations such as students with dyslexia (Abbott-Jones Citation2021; Carroll and Iles Citation2006; Ghisi et al. Citation2016; Jordan, McGladdery, and Dyer Citation2014; Nelson, Lindstrom, and Foels Citation2015; Riddick et al. Citation1999), our study examines these associations in a more general population of university students at a single point in time. By doing so, our study can provide more generalisable findings that can be applied to a wider range of students, and can shed light on the mechanisms by which emotional problems impact academic performance in a broader context. This holds even more for the three domains separately that represent emotional problems in this regard (Bredemeier et al. Citation2016; Shields et al. Citation2016; Shields, Sazma, and Yonelinas Citation2017). However, from an intervention perspective, insight into these pathways is crucial to improve academic success. Therefore, this study aimed to examine whether EFS mediated the association between emotional problems and academic performance among undergraduate students.
2. Methods
2.1. Sample
We used data from an online survey among Dutch students (average age 23.9) of a university of applied sciences. Three consecutive mailings with a link to the survey (including two reminders) were sent to all students in 2019 (n = 27,277). Responses were collected anonymously, and 3,263 students agreed to participate in the study, while 65 actively declined. We excluded participants where the gender was not reported (n = 6). In this study, only fully completed surveys were included (2,531 students; 9.3%), as the last questions specifically assessed the psychological problems of the students. The sample consisted mainly of young adults (average age of 23.9). Most students were Dutch-born (87.5%), and over two-thirds of the sample were female (66.8%). The sample represented all four different study years with slightly more first year students (30.1%). Almost half of the male students experienced a delay in their study (47.3%), and more than half of the female students (53.1%). Further descriptive statistics for the predictor and outcome variables can be found in .
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of predictor and outcome variables.
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Emotional problems
We assessed emotional problems using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21) (de Beurs et al. Citation2001). Previous research has shown that the DASS-21 has good internal reliability, overall (Cronbach’s alpha of 0.74), and for the three subscales depression, anxiety, and stress separately (Ordinal alpha between 0.74 and 0.87; Moya et al. Citation2022), as well as good validity in a Dutch general population (Wardenaar et al. Citation2018). Students responded to 21 items, using a four-point Likert scale, to rate the degree to which the statement applied to them over the past week (did not or never apply to me at all, applied to me somewhat or sometimes, applied often to me, and applied to me very much or most of the time). We computed sum scores per subscale (depression, anxiety, and stress) by adding up the scores on the items and multiplying them by a factor 2, according to the DASS-21 manual. We computed total DASS sum scores by summing scores on the subscales. Total DASS scores can range between 0 and 126, with a score of ≥ 62 considered as severe. Each subscale can range between 0 and 42, with scores of ≥ 21, ≥15, and ≥ 26 considered as severe, for the depression, anxiety and stress subscales, respectively.
2.2.2. Executive functioning skills
Problems related to executive functioning skills were assessed using 15 items on mental abilities: task initiating, reasoning, planning, perseverance, cognitive inhibition, concentration, reaction-inhibition, metacognition, prospective memory, problem solving, flexibility, time management, learning, remembering, and organising. Students answered using a five point-Likert-scale to indicate how often, over the past six months, they experienced difficulties with that specific EFS (never, little, somewhat, often, to a great extent). We categorised ‘often’ and ‘to a great extent’ as problems in executive functioning skills. Cronbach’s alpha in our sample was 0.84.
2.2.3. Academic performance
We assessed academic performance by assessing the study delay of the students. We asked students: ‘Do you currently experience any study delays (in other words; you did not pass a course after failing twice?’ There were three answer categories: ‘I decline to answer’, ‘No’, and ‘Yes’. We dichotomised study delay yes, any delay vs. no delay.
2.3. Background characteristics
Participants provided data on age, ethnicity, gender, and year of study.
2.4. Statistical analyses
First, we calculated descriptive statistics for all variables. Second, we tested mediation effects of EFS in the association between emotional problems and academic performance, using Hayes (Hayes Citation2017) PROCESS macro model 4 (v.4.0). We assessed if any of the five EFS (i.e. cognitive inhibition, task initiation, sustained attention, planning, and time management) mediated the associations between the perceived symptoms of emotional problems, using the DASS-21 (depression, anxiety, and stress, and total score), and binary outcome study delay (yes/no), adjusted by gender. Indirect effects were assessed using bootstrapped confidence intervals performed on 5000 bootstrapped samples.Hayes (Citation2017) showed that this bootstrapping procedure overcomes the limitations of the approaches byBaron and Kenny (Citation1986). All analyses were conducted using SPSS v.25.0 software (IBM Corp Citationn.d.).
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive characteristics and correlations among main variables
shows that the correlations between the main variables were significant, although relatively weak (all correlations were between r = 0.12 and r = 0.28, p < 0.01). Furthermore, the correlations of the subscales of the emotional problems (depression, stress, anxiety) were significant and relatively strong (r=0.46; r = 0.53; r = 0.53, respectively, all p < 0.01). Therefore, we also combined these scores on the subscales to a total score of emotional problems. Concerning the executive functioning skills (EFS), we used those which more than 25% of the students experienced as problematic in the model: cognitive inhibition, task initiation, concentration/sustained attention, planning, and time management (see also Supplementary Table A).
Table 2. Kendall’s tau correlations among the predictor and mediator variables.
3.2. The mediating effects of EFS on the relationship between emotional problems and study delay
Next, we assessed whether EFS mediated the association between emotional problems and study delay ( and ). We found significant direct associations between emotional problems and study delay, both for the total score of emotional problems and the three subscales; depression, anxiety, stress. Moreover, we found significant associations between the total score of emotional problems (depression, anxiety, and stress combined) and all five EFS; cognitive inhibition, task initiation, sustained attention, planning, and time management. Similar significant associations were found regarding all three separate subscales of emotional problems (depression, anxiety, stress) and all five EFS. Moreover, we observed significant associations between all the EFS and study delay. Notably, coefficients of these associations were relatively larger compared to the other indirect and direct associations in the models (B between 0.17 and 0.39). Taken together, all EFS partly mediated the relationship between emotional problems and study delay.
Figure 1. Path diagram of the mediation model; values of the estimates are shown in table 3.
Table 3a. Degree to which executive functioning skills as mediated of the association between depression and dichotomised scores for study delay; results of mediation analyses using hayes PROCESS mediation model 4 leading to regression coefficients (B) and bootstrapped confidence intervals (LLCI, ULCI) derived from 5000 bootstrapped samples (n = 2,531).
Table 3b. Degree to which executive functioning skills as mediated of the association between anxiety and dichotomised scores for study delay; results of mediation analyses using hayes PROCESS mediation model 4 leading to regression coefficients (B) and bootstrapped confidence intervals (LLCI, ULCI) derived from 5000 bootstrapped samples (n = 2,531).
Table 3c. Degree to which executive functioning skills as mediated of the association between stress and dichotomised scores for study delay; results of mediation analyses using hayes PROCESS mediation model 4 leading to regression coefficients (B) and bootstrapped confidence intervals (LLCI, ULCI) derived from 5000 bootstrapped samples (n = 2,531).
Table 3d. Degree to which executive functioning skills as mediated of the association between the total of emotional problems and dichotomised scores for study delay; results of mediation analyses using hayes PROCESS mediation model 4 leading to regression coefficients (B) and bootstrapped confidence intervals (LLCI, ULCI) derived from 5000 bootstrapped samples (n = 2,531).
Finally, for all five EFS, we found statistically significant indirect mediating effects for the relationship between emotional problems (depression, anxiety, and stress, and total score) and study delay, as calculated by the bootstrapping method. However, even though we found significant results for all performed analyses, all models have shown rather low model fits (r2 between 0.11 and 0.17).
4. Discussion
In this study, we assessed whether five executive functioning skills (EFS; cognitive inhibition, task initiation, sustained attention, planning, and time management) mediated the association between emotional problems and academic performance, among Dutch undergraduate students. We found that all five EFS significantly mediated the association between emotional problems and study delay. This was true for overall emotional problems as well as for depression, anxiety, and stress separately.
Undergraduate students that scored relatively high on emotional problems experienced more study delay when facing difficulties with cognitive inhibition, task initiation, sustained attention, planning, and time management. Our study is the first to assess this full mediation pathway for a wide range of EFS in the association between emotional problems and academic performance. For the two parts of the pathway, our findings are in line with existing research that found negative associations between emotional problems and experiencing problems with EFS (Bredemeier et al. Citation2016; Shields et al. Citation2016; Shields, Sazma, and Yonelinas Citation2017), as well as other studies that found relations between certain EFS and having academic difficulties (Pascual, Moyano, and Robres Citation2019; Thorell et al. Citation2013). There are two possible explanations for how emotional problems and academic performance may be related. First, emotional problems might lead to difficulties with EFS, which in turn has a negative impact on academic performance. These findings were consistent with previous research on early adolescents, which found a mediation effect of working memory on the relationship between anxiety and depression and academic performance (Owens et al. Citation2012). This is in line with the theory that working memory, similar to EFS as proposed by Diamond (Citation2013), plays a crucial role in academic success. Previous studies conducted among students with dyslexia have also provided support for this notion (Abbott-Jones Citation2021; Carroll and Iles Citation2006; Ghisi et al. Citation2016; Jordan, McGladdery, and Dyer Citation2014; Nelson, Lindstrom, and Foels Citation2015; Riddick et al. Citation1999). Second, poor academic performance and difficulties with EFS might also lead to more emotional problems. Such reciprocal associations line up with existing research that showed that certain EFS were already identifiable during a first episode of depression (Ahern and Semkovska Citation2017), indicating that academic failure might be the cause of emotional problems. Longitudinal research is needed to provide insight in the direction, causality, and development of the associations between emotional problems, EFS, and academic performance.
Interestingly, in a population of undergraduate students, we found that all five EFS significantly mediated the relationship between emotional problems and academic performance in a similar fashion. We found this pathway for the overall level of emotional problems, as well as for each of the separate subscales of depression, anxiety, and stress. Our findings differ from previous research that emphasised a larger role for anxiety in impairing the EFS sustained attention compared to stress or depression, using cognitive ability tests (Ajilchi and Nejati Citation2017). In contrast, we found that all separate subscales (depression, anxiety, and stress) had a similar mediating role in the relationship between emotional problems and academic performance, while also taking into consideration that depression, anxiety, and stress can co-occur. Additionally, our results contrasted with those of Alfonso and Lonigan (Citation2021) who found that anxiety as a personality trait enhanced EFS and led to improved academic performance, in a study of a small sample of adolescents. A possible explanation for the latter may be that, although associated, personality traits and emotional problems seem to differ in their impact on academic performance (Klein, Kotov, and Bufferd Citation2011). Furthermore, emotional problems and EFS may only partly explain the association, as other factors outside the scope of our study may also be contributing. Examples of such factors may be the influence of peers (Double, McGrane, and Hopfenbeck Citation2020) and teachers (Wentzel and Wigfield Citation1998), which have demonstrated to affect academic outcomes.
4.1. Strengths and limitations
A major strength of our study is its large sample. The participants are students from a large variety of academies within one university of applied sciences (17 academies), which ensures a heterogeneous mix of backgrounds. Furthermore, the current study is one of the first to examine the mediating role of five EFS, which is a rather broad range compared to previous research.
This study also has some limitations that need to be taken into consideration when interpreting the findings. First of all, despite the large sample size, these participants only represent a small percentage (9.3%) of the total population of students at this university of applied sciences. The impact on our findings is likely to be limited given that we focused on associations in students from a broad range of faculties within the university. Second, this was a cross-sectional study, which means that we cannot make full causal inferences. Further longitudinal research may help establish causality and provide a more holistic perspective of academic performance, including other factors interfering with and enhancing academic performance outcomes, such as study delay. For example, financial circumstances, illness or taking a gap year to travel or work. A third limitation was that all measures were self-reported. This could add measurement error of the occurrence of problems. Nevertheless, all measurement scores were reliable and anonymity was assured (de Beurs et al. Citation2001).
4.2. Implications
The results of the present study demonstrated that focusing on the cognitive processes; cognitive inhibition, task initiation, sustained attention, planning, and time management, could be a fruitful strategy for preventing academic delays. While concerns on students’ wellbeing have reached the top of the public health agenda these past two decades (Auerbach et al. Citation2016) and the request for student mental health services increased, questions also arise on the effectiveness of student counselling (Broglia et al., Citation2023). This may help to support professionals who work with undergraduate students in timely addressing problematic EF domains and detect emotional problems, such as depression, anxiety or stress, so study delay may be prevented. Given the potentially reciprocal relationship of emotional problems and academic performance, interventions on these mediators may be of particular importance. For example, interventions such as Focused Academic Strength Training (FAST) and Mindset showed promise in improving academic outcomes for students with mental health issues. FAST can potentially increase self-efficacy and cognitive strategy use, while decreasing academic difficulties among students with mental health problems (Mullen et al. Citation2017). Meanwhile, a feasibility study showed that Mindset, a cognitive remediation training, has potential in supporting the academic participation of young adults with psychotic disorders (Otto et al. Citation2020).
Further research is needed to examine the direction of the associations in a longitudinal setting, preferably throughout the entire time of undergraduate education or even longer. In addition, conducting qualitative studies to gather in-depth insights from students’ perspectives would also provide valuable information. Especially, since previous research on the developmental trajectories of EFS already demonstrated differences between age-groups (7-, 11-, 15-, and 21-year olds; Huizinga, Dolan, and van der Molen Citation2006). This emphasises even more the importance of expanding future research on the role of EFS in longitudinal data.
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, this is one of the first studies among undergraduate students to assess the associations of symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress and academic performance, with problems with five important EFS (cognitive inhibition, task initiation, sustained attention, planning, and time management) mediating the association. Our results emphasise the importance of EFS in achieving academic success pursuing an undergraduate degree.
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References
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