Teachers’ use of technology and the impact of Covid-19

Abstract

Teaching online poses challenges for teachers trained primarily to work face to face. The Covid-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdown of schools has forced teachers to move online to ensure students continue their studies. This is not an easy transition and success depends on educators having the skills, knowledge, and competencies for online teaching. As part of the Adaptive and Inclusive Learning Environment (AILE) project, this study surveyed 38 primary and post-primary teachers in Ireland on their use of technology and the impact of Covid-19 on their work. The findings present teachers’ perceptions of their own skills and competencies and the challenges experienced in using technology. The research highlights the technological requirements for successful online teaching.

Keywords:

• Technology use
• Covid-19
• teaching online
• training

1. Background

Technology is a major factor influencing education today. Schools are expected to use technology to enhance the education of their students yet challenges to its use have been identified (Johnson et al. 2016). First are factors external to teachers such as availability of equipment, access to resources, training and support. If students and teachers do not have access to computers and fast internet connections then implementing online teaching is not feasible. Second are factors internal to teachers such as attitudes and beliefs about technology use, their skills and knowledge. If teachers have not had sufficient training in technology then they lack the necessary skills. Ertmer (1999) describes these factors as ‘first and second order barriers’ either of which can limit efforts to integrate technology. Effective strategies are needed to address both.

In-school help and support are also critical. Working online means teachers have ‘to adapt to new pedagogical concepts and modes of delivery of teaching for which they have not been trained’ (Schlichter 2020, 4). According to OECD’s Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS 2018) 40% of teachers had no professional development in technology use and almost 20% saw a high need for more training. Younger teachers were found to use technology more frequently than older colleagues as were teachers who had in-service training. The National Literacy Trust (Picton 2019) found most teachers supported using technology but cited lack of training as the major barrier. Almost a quarter (23.3%) had no training in using technology in literacy teaching. Research shows that training is essential if teachers are going to integrate technology successfully (Hepp, Fernandez, and Garcia 2015). Teachers must know how and when to use technology which, when used appropriately, is an important tool in the classroom (Hollebrands 2020). Teachers’ levels of technological skills and capacity to adapt both the quality and quantity of curriculum are essential for success.

Government decisions during the Covid-19 pandemic have resulted in the closure of many schools. This has made it necessary for teachers to work online where they face the prospect of designing lessons, homework, assignments and assessment suitable for online learning. Many teachers who report having little or no training in technology are faced with a major change in their practice. Change is usually done in small steps, testing what works and what does not, however the speed of response to the Covid-19 pandemic has not allowed for a slow and steady approach. In effect, almost overnight the nature of teachers’ work shifted radically. It moved into unchartered territory where there are no guidelines and where much of what works in person may not work online. Milman (2020) describes this teaching online response to the crisis as Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) and not just online teaching. Hodges et al. (2020) also propose that ERT is a more suitable term. Regardless of the terminology, this shift will be challenging for teachers. This move also resulted in a radical shift in student learning. It cannot be assumed that all students will have access to the appropriate technology and home support. We also cannot assume that all teachers will be successful online (Palloff and Pratt 2007), or that all students will be successful online learners (Leidner and Jarvenpaa 1995).

The move to ERT is likely to result in learning loss for many students. Factors associated with learning loss include student stress, lack of motivation, and less time spent learning. This loss will affect disadvantaged children more since they may not have access to computers, the internet and other necessary technologies (Willis 2020). These are what Ertmer (1999) calls ‘first-order barriers’. Compounding this is that some students may not have a suitable learning space at home. According to findings from TALIS (2018), across OECD countries, nine percent of 15-year-old students did not have anywhere to study at home. Parental support, both direct and indirect, may also be lacking (Di Pietro et al. 2020). Successful online learners must be disciplined, motivated, self-directed and good at time management (Brown 2019). This may be more challenging for students working at home and who lack support. While all children will be impacted, those educationally disadvantaged will experience more learning loss.

Establishing and maintaining a ‘presence’ online as described by Garrison (2017) can be difficult. Due to the lockdown, many students will not have had an opportunity to meet classmates or form friendships that would happen naturally in a classroom. The social presence online demands much more teacher to student interaction and feedback. It is especially significant when students are worried by a global crisis (Salmons 2020). Being part of a community of learners helps to reduce stress and feelings of loneliness.

Increased numbers of children use the internet today and do so at very young ages (Hooft-Graafland 2018). Current research shows that 52% of 3–4-year-olds and 82% of 5–7-year-olds in the UK are online (Ofcom 2019). These children are already engaged with technology which creates opportunities for teachers to integrate technology in the classroom. This emphasises the need for teachers to be able to use technology confidently and effectively.

1.1. Study objectives

The study was conducted as part of the Adaptive and Inclusive Learning Environment (AILE) project¹ and reports on the findings from the Irish sample. The objectives were to:

1. Examine teachers’ use of technology;

2. Identify teachers’ skills in using technology;

3. Examine barriers to the successful use of technology;

4. Investigate the impact of the Covid-19 restrictions on the use of technology.

2. Methods

2.1. Procedure

An online survey was used as it allowed the researchers to collect a broad range of data on participants and their use of technology (Fowler 2002). The original survey, created for the AILE Erasmus+ project, was adapted for use with Irish teachers. Follow up interviews to further probe issues arising from the survey were planned, however, due to Covid-19 restraints were not completed. The final survey, consisting of 55 questions, was developed using Survey Monkey™. It included closed questions to capture biographical details and student profiles, and rating questions to determine skill levels and use of online technologies. Sample questions are included in the Appendix.

Open ended questions were also used. Open ended questions developed from the study objectives (e.g. barriers to using technology; impact of Covid-19) offered opportunities for respondents to provide extensive insights into their pedagogical practices online through self-reporting. Sample questions included: How have the recent changes to education caused by Covid-19 impacted on your use of technology? What student learning and behavioural difficulties have affected your use of technology?

Quantitative data were analysed using Survey Monkey™, providing descriptive data on the percentage of respondents in each category (see Appendix). Qualitative data were analysed thematically.

2.2. Participants

Thirty-eight Irish primary (47%) and post-primary (53%) teachers, predominantly working in urban locations (87.5%) completed the online survey. Table 1 provides details of participant age and years of teaching.

Table 1. Overview of participant age range and years of teaching experience.

Demographic information	Percentage
Age ranges
20–29 years old	28
30–39 years old	22
40–49 years old	19
50 and over	31
Teaching experience
20 years plus	34
15–19 years	6
10–14 years	16
5–9 years	19
1–4 years	25

3. Results

3.1. Teachers’ technology use and skills

3.1.1. Frequency of technology use

Respondents were asked to identify how frequently they use technology in their teaching on a weekly basis (for sample question, see Appendix). Responses were recorded on a Likert Scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely high). Approximately one-third (32%) report ‘extremely high’ frequency with a further group (32%) reporting ‘high’ level use. Responses show that technology is used most frequently for administrative and teaching tasks and less often for homework activities. This may reflect that teachers know not all students have access to the internet or the equipment necessary to do the assigned tasks.

3.1.2. Skills

Respondents were asked to describe the level they are at in relation to technology use. A small number report being at an awareness level and avoid using technology where possible while some identify themselves as being at a basic stage of understanding technology. Sometimes, they express a sense of frustration or a lack of self-confidence. Almost half feel there are several technologies that could help and that they could use in their teaching if available and they had training. Table 2 presents an overview of respondents’ skill levels in using a range of software.

Table 2. Respondents’ skill level in technology use.

	No awareness	Beginner	Medium	Advanced	Expert
Email	0%	4%	12%	42%	42%
Word processing	0%	0%	24%	44%	32%
Presentation software	4%	8%	29%	42%	17%
TV monitors, computers, interactive whiteboard	4%	8%	56%	16%	16%
Projectors	4%	12%	36%	32%	16%
Multimedia use (e.g. video)	8%	12%	36%	20%	24%

3.1.3. Ideal use

Responses indicate that teachers’ ideal use of technology is associated with integration and enhancement of teaching and learning.

Where it is fully integrated into my teaching and the students are interacting with it to achieve learning objectives. (p1)

Technology should support teaching and learning; pedagogy is always first. It should support students in their learning journey, allowing learners to involve themselves in different types of activities to discover and experience learning by themselves. (p23)

To facilitate learning, the students need to be using it rather than the teacher just using it as a way of delivering information. (p26)

3.1.4. Preferred technology programmes

Reporting on the technology they would most like to use, most referenced are the interactive whiteboard, Microsoft teams and OneNote.

Interactive whiteboard as it combines application of technology with teaching and learning objectives. (p1)

Microsoft Teams and OneNote. Learning platforms that can be accessed by students at any time and used by the teacher to store resources and class materials. (p11)

Microsoft OneNote and Teams help you connect to staff and students. OneNote is a wonderful way to record, file and store information. The platform has saved our sanity during social distancing. (p16)

3.1.5. Factors influencing use

Three main factors influence teachers’ use of technology. They are the experience of other teachers; availability of technology in the classroom and availability of in-school training. Some teachers lack confidence in using technology and this influences their use. They feel in-school support is urgently needed.

I would like the confidence and experience to be able to use technology in the classroom – I don’t have enough expertise to use it as competently as I would like. (p5)

Having a full time IT technician on our staff to help with any problems. (p12)

3.1.6. Impact of Covid-19

Most respondents report that recent changes to education caused by Covid-19 have increased their use of technology. They explained:

We now teach using zoom, emails, class dojo, YouTube, interactive videos, PowerPoint. (p6)

I have accessed more apps and websites than I have done previously. (p7)

I’ve had to rely solely on technology to continue producing and presenting content to my students. (p19)

With reference to the impact on children, respondents say:

It is very useful. If we didn’t have IT, no child would be able to learn from home. (p15)

Children have adjusted easily to using technology for school work, might be more likely to assign online homework in future. (p21)

In our school we have managed to keep a good level of learning and engagement going for students right from the off when the school was closed. (p26)

Responses involving confidence in using technology are mixed. Some responses indicate a lack of confidence and a need for support. Most feel more confident using technology following the Covid-19 restrictions:

Google Classroom, Zoom have given me more confidence to teach remotely. (p21)

I am still learning about online learning platforms and don’t feel confident yet. (p7)

I need to become more proficient in how to vary delivery and content to students and to make their response more interactive. (p26)

3.2. Student profiles

Participants responded to questions on student learning and behaviour such as motivation, curiosity and enthusiasm. Most report having students who lack these qualities. Explanations include:

Parents not being involved leads to children not engaging. (p6)

They don’t all have their own devices, space in the home, good broadband and some need your physical presence to keep them motivated. (p30)

The majority report having students exhibiting learning and behavioural characteristics including:

• passivity and resistance to new experiences

• low self-confidence, shyness or insecurity

• difficulty interacting appropriately with their peers

• problems interacting with the teacher or asking for help

• attentional difficulties and distractibility

• impulsivity

• failure to follow class rules

Participants provided explanations for some of the difficulties. For example, difficulty organising themselves could be a reflection of their age and stage of development ‘I teach a young age group so this is common’ (p7). Writing difficulties may be the result of a learning disability, ‘Student with Dyspraxia’ (p21).

3.2.1. Home support

The majority of teachers have some students who lack adequate home support. Most believe their students can access technology at home if needed, however, some do not have any access. Of note is that some teachers report not knowing about students’ access to technology at home. Since learning online from home is essential as a result of the pandemic, teachers would be expected to be aware of student technology access.

4. Discussion

Consistent with previous research the findings highlight the dynamic interplay of internal and external factors that influence teachers’ use of technology (Ertmer 1999; Ertmer 2001; Sadaf, Newby, and Ertmer 2016). The following factors were found to influence teachers’ use of technology:

1. The experience of other teachers

This suggests teachers are utilising the knowledge and skills of colleagues. The situation arising from the pandemic presents an opportunity in this area.

Recommendation: The existing skills and knowledge of staff should be identified and used collaboratively through mentoring and in-school teams. Depending on staff numbers, a buddy system could be helpful in developing skills. Working with other teachers and observing them use various technologies impacts on teachers’ attitudes and beliefs and can help build confidence in using technology (Ertmer 2001; Sadaf, Newby, and Ertmer 2016). Experienced teachers can be used as role models. In the case of small schools, twinning with a larger school may be beneficial.

• (2) Availability of technology in the classroom

This suggests that the participants may not have the technology to work online. It must be recognised, however, that there is a high cost to purchasing and maintaining equipment.

Recommendation: Schools need a teacher to take inventory and identify what is available, how it is being used, functionality and what technology is needed.

• (3) Availability of in-school training

Findings show participants would like more in-school training. They want input on specific software and applications, and how to develop multi-media for educational purposes.

Recommendation: School district consultants can be engaged in school based in-service days. A school technology team could also provide support, advice and training for staff.

• (4) Students’ lack of access to technology at home

This influences the types of tasks teachers can assign for lessons, homework or long-term projects. It is a critical factor associated with learning loss in the pandemic. There are considerable inequalities in pupil access to technology at home. Those from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to have digital resources or a suitable home learning environment (Di Pietro et al. 2020).

Recommendation: This is a difficult issue for schools. They are unlikely to have sufficient resources to supply disadvantaged pupils with individual equipment. School districts may have to lobby relevant Government Departments for support. Giving pupils access to school buildings on a rotational basis could be a possible option. Winters DiMarco (n.d.) presents a number of useful strategies for students lacking internet access at home.

• (5) Student learning and behaviour

The student profiles identify a range of difficulties that some students experience. This will impact on the technology teachers choose to use and the types of tasks they assign. Planning online work that can be adapted for students with different learning abilities will require careful collaboration. Regardless of teachers’ experience and skills in using technology, putting in place adaptations that will enable students to work successfully online presents additional challenges and highlights the need for guidelines regarding universal design for learning.

Recommendation: Teachers should maximise the advantages online learning has over a traditional classroom (Carnagey 2001). Examples include that pacing of work can be adjusted to individual student’s needs and students can choose different ways to demonstrate their knowledge. Teachers might explore Universal Design for Learning (UDL) that uses digital material where possible and provides more flexibility and fewer barriers to learning (see O’Hanlon 2005). Special software such as Speech recognition or Screenreader can also be useful.

5. Conclusion

Technology is a major factor influencing education today. Schools are expected to use it to enhance the education of their students. Two issues have been identified as the main challenges to its successful use (Johnson et al. 2016). These are factors related to equipment, resources and training that are external to teachers, described by Ertmer (1999) as ‘first-order barriers,’ and internal factors such as attitudes and beliefs, confidence and skills described as ‘second-order barriers’.

Teacher participants use technology on a regular basis and have a good level of skill in using a wide variety of programmes and apps. There is still, however, a small number who lack confidence, are afraid to use technology and avoid using it (Kim 2016; Glasel 2018). Notwithstanding the high level of use reported here, barriers still exist. Participants want in-school training and support as well as appropriate equipment to integrate technology fully. Although technology is required in the curriculum, research highlights that teachers must believe in it and be willing to use it in their daily practice (Ertmer 2005; Tondeur et al. 2017). In reviewing the factors that these respondents identify as influencing their technology use, it is noted that they generally are external to the teacher, consistent with Ertmer’s ‘first-order barriers’ (e.g. lack of equipment, training, lack of home equipment and support, student characteristics). It may be that these are tangible and therefore easy to identify or it may be a function of the way in which questions were posed in the survey. Either way, an important question needs to be asked: ‘Are teachers aware of how “second-order” factors such as their beliefs and attitudes impact on their use of technology in teaching?’ Indeed, are teachers going to admit that they have negative attitudes towards technology or do not see its usefulness to their discipline (Orji 2010).

School closures due to the pandemic have increased teacher’s engagement with technology and for the most part, have increased their confidence in using it. Covid-19 will have many far-reaching consequences for society as a whole, and for education, teachers, students and parents in particular. On the positive side, it has helped to enforce the potential of technology. It has also accelerated the rate of teacher engagement with technology and students have gained skillsets useful for further education and the world of work. It will be many years before the full impact of this pandemic becomes clear.

6. Limitations

While this is a relatively small study, it offers useful information about teachers’ use of technology. Findings shed light on teachers’ experiences following the Covid-19 lockdown and can contribute to informing a rapid response to support teachers as they transition to remote instruction.

As noted, interviews were omitted so findings are limited to survey data alone. There are limitations associated with self-report. Although data are considered accurate when people understand the questions, have a strong sense of anonymity and no fear of reprisal (Brener, Billy, and Grady 2003), respondents may not always answer honestly. Respondents here are likely to be motivated, technology adept and able to talk freely without fear of reprisal. Future research should involve teachers with more diverse technological knowledge and confidence.

Teachers tend to self-report their skills as higher than they are (Lam and Bengo 2003). Given the high levels of skill reported here, future research should include other data collection instruments such as interviews to further investigate this finding.

Furthermore, as this was a researcher developed survey created in collaboration with a European-based research panel, the questionnaire had not been previously tested. This survey does not capture the complexity of the relationships between pedagogical beliefs, attitudes and technology use. It is recommended that future research examines this and includes sufficient numbers to allow for Primary versus Secondary comparisons (see Hodges and Cullen 2020).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by Erasmus+ programme of the European Union [grant number FR01-KA201-008734].

Notes on contributors

Eileen Winter

Dr. Eileen Winter, (C.Psych. PhD) is an experienced educator and psychologist currently Director of Academic Programmes with ICEP Europe. She has developed and taught on graduate and post-graduate programmes in Special Education, Inclusion and Psychology in N. Ireland, Ireland and Canada. Eileen’s research interests include teachers’ mental health, the use of technology in schools, research methodology and ethics in research with children and vulnerable groups.

Aisling Costello

Dr. Aisling Costello (BSc. Psychology; PhD) formerly a researcher for ICEP Europe, currently works as an assistant lecturer of psychology at the Technological University of Dublin. Her research interests include developmental psychology, well-being, social media, identity, relationships and sexuality education.

Moya O’Brien

Dr. Moya O’Brien (CPsychol, PhD) is a clinical psychologist, co-founder of ICEP Europe and a member of both PSI and BPS. She is involved in ongoing research in the area of resilience, assistive technology and online learning.

Grainne Hickey

Dr. Grainne Hickey (BA Mod (Psychology, PhD) is Research and Projects Manager with ICEP Europe. Dr. Hickeys research interests include applied research, implementation science and evidence-based practice with children, young people and their families.

Notes

1 AILE is an Erasmus+ European project designed to provide teachers with better educational opportunities for the integration of all pupils to meet learning requirements, receive equal opportunities and improve their educational development.

Appendix

Skills

Participants were asked to rate their skill level on the following technologies: email, word processing, presentation software, tv monitors, computers, interactive whiteboard, projectors and multimedia.

Responses were recorded using a Likert type scale from 1 (none) to 5 (expert).

Using the descriptions provided, please select the number that best describes your skills in using technology in the classroom.

Options

Table

None	Beginner	Medium	Advanced	Expert
1	2	3	4	5

None indicates a complete lack of skills.

Beginner has a basic capacity to use technology, requiring consistent support.

Medium indicates having good general skills, requiring some support.

Advanced has high level skills in a wide range of technologies, requiring minimal support.

Expert is very knowledgeable, uses multiple applications without support.

Frequency of use

Participants were asked to rate how frequently they use technology on a weekly basis.

Responses were recorded using a Likert type scale from 1 (not at all) to 5(extremely high)

Using the descriptions below, please select the number that best represents how frequently you use technology on a weekly basis.

Options

Table

Not at all	Low	Moderate	High	Extremely high
1	2	3	4	5

Not at all indicates no use of technology on a weekly basis.

Low indicates technology is used once or twice a week.

Moderate indicates using technology three or more times a week.

High indicates using technology on a daily basis.

Extremely high indicates daily use across the curriculum.