PLAGUES AND GOVERNMENTS

Abstract

This paper examines the range of preventive means at the authorities' disposal by describing the public policies which were adopted against plague in early modern Finland. Interest is focused on the question whether the various actions taken by the authorities had other aims than just the prevention of plague. The paper raises questions about the extent of social breakdown and resistance to government regulation in time of plague, and whether or not the methods adopted were effective. The general argument taken in the article is that human action played a major role in the disappearance of the disease.

Notes

1. According to Finnish sources, there were plague epidemics in the early 1420s, 1495, 1504, 1508, 1517, 1530, 1533, 1537, 1566, 1571, 1580, 1588, 1603, 1629–1630, 1639–1640, 1657, and 1710–1711. Kallioinen, Rutto ja rukous, 28–41.

2. See, for example, Gottfried, The Black Death, 77; Harrison, Stora Döden, 71–72.

3. Gottfried, The Black Death, 49, 57, 68, 75; Ziegler, The Black Death, 116.

4. Most parts of Sweden, for instance, were touched by the plague. Myrdal, Digerdöden, pestvågor och ödeläggelse, 32–38, 153, 155.

5. Carmichael, “Public Health and Sanitation in the West before 1700”, 198.

6. Finlands medeltidsurkunder , n. 5052–5053, 5055, 5071.

7. Ell, “Disease Ecologies of Europe”, 514; Slack, “Introduction”, 12, 15–16.

8. Benedictow, Plague in the Late Medieval Nordic Countries, 194; Slack, “Introduction”, 3.

9. Carmichael, “Public Health and Sanitation in the West before 1700”, 198.

10. Slack, “The response to plague in early modern England”, 171.

11. Gustafsson, Traditionernas ok, 57; Hjelt, Svenska och finska medicinalverkets historia, 197–198.

12. Svenska Riksrådets protokoll XVII, 169, 182.

13. Kallioinen, Rutto ja rukous, 168.

14. Nieroth's book of duplicates , Declaration for refugees 11th October 1710.

15. Ranta, Turun kaupungin historia, 610.

16. Kallioinen, Rutto ja rukous, 169.

17. Svenska Riksrådets protokoll VIII, 3.

18. Carmichael, Plague and the poor in renaissance Florence, 108; Slack, “The response to plague in early modern England”, 170.

19. Hjelt, Svenska och finska medicinalverkets historia, 197–198.

20. Ranta, Turun kaupungin historia, 610.

21. Samling utaf kongl. bref II, 182–183.

22. Svenska Riksrådets protokoll VII, 356, 585.

23. Svenska Riksrådets protokoll XVII, 231–232, 242; Kallioinen, Rutto ja rukous, 171.

24. Carmichael, “Public Health and Sanitation in the West before 1700”, 198; Kallioinen, Rutto ja rukous, 171.

25. Ranta, Turun kaupungin historia, 610.

26. Samling utaf kongl. bref VI , 28–35, item 8.

27. Samling utaf kongl. bref VI , 47.

28. Hult, “Pesten i Sverige 1710”, 162–163.

29. Nieroth's book of duplicates , General order concerning plague 29th October 1710, items 6–7, letter to von Lieven 27th September 1710; Samling utaf kongl. bref VI , 28–35, item 17.

30. Takolander, Ekenäs stads historia, 355.

31. Nieroth's book of duplicates , letters to Palmberg 3rd November 1710 and 18th January 1711, a declaration for the town of Turku 20th November 1710.

32. Nordenstreng, Haminan kaupungin historia, 113.

33. Kallioinen, Rutto ja rukous, 176.

34. Rimpiläinen, Läntisen perinteen mukainen hautauskäytäntö Suomessa ennen isoavihaa, 72.

35. Ottosson, “Fear of Plague and the Burial of Plague Victims in Sweden 1710–1711”, 376–392.

36. Rimpiläinen, Läntisen perinteen mukainen hautauskäytäntö Suomessa ennen isoavihaa, 289.

37. Historiska Handlingar IX, 44–45.

38. Nieroth's book of duplicates , letters to Creutz 8th and 15th October 1710, to von Lieven 9th November 1710, to the commission of defence 24th October 1710.

39. Samling utaf kongl. bref VI, 2–3.

40. Samling utaf kongl. bref VI, 24–27, 28–35.

41. Nieroth's book of duplicates , Nieroth's general order related to plague 29th October 1710.

42. Nieroth's book of duplicates , letter to Palmberg 8th October 1710.

43. Suolahti, Elämää Suomessa 1700‐luvulla, 286.

44. Carmichael, “Public Health and Sanitation in the West before 1700”, 195.

45. Flinn, The European Demographic System 1500–1820, 60–61.

46. Suolahti, Elämää Suomessa 1700‐luvulla, 287–288, 292–294.

47. Slack, “The response to plague in early modern England”, 170; Watts, Epidemics and History, 21.

48. Samling utaf kongl. bref II, 182–183.

49. Svenska Riksrådets protokoll VII, 356.

50. Watts, Epidemics and History, 2, 16–17.

51. Moseng, “Gud, pesten, legekunsten, mottiltakene og staten”, 470–471.

52. Historiska Handlingar VII, The Council of State to the king 16th August 1711, 263–265.

53. Österberg, “Bönder och centralmakt i det tidigmoderna Sverige”, 74, 77–80, 86–90; ibid., “Folklig mentalitet och statlig makt”, 94–95.

54. Slack, “Introduction”, 12; Watts, Epidemics and History, 18.

55. Slack, “The response to plague in early modern England”, 174.

56. In particular, see Slack, “The Disappearance of Plague: An Alternative View”, 161–173.

57. Post, “Famine, Mortality, and Epidemic Disease in the Process of Modernization”, 31–33, 35.