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Abstract
In 1905 the Norwegian Parliament voted to terminate the union with Sweden, established in 1814. The dissolution agreement that completed the termination of the union consists of i.a. a management agreement of the common watercourses – the Watercourse Convention of 1905. The article discusses the watercourse question in an environmental and diplomatic perspective. It thus demonstrates how diplomatic history can gain by bringing nature in by studying how a cross‐national drainage system affects a political process.
Notes
1. CitationHeiberg, ed., Unionens opløsning, 301 (“obehörigt intrång för det ena rikets invånare vid begagnande af vattendrag, som delvis falla inom det andra rikets gränser”).
2. See CitationTvedt, “Økologihistoriske betraktninger”; Tvedt and CitationJakobsson, eds., Water Control and River Biographies; CitationJakobsson, “Industrialized Rivers”, 55–74.
3. K. CitationDeutsch, Political Community at the International Level, 17; CitationDeutsch (ed.), Political Community and the North Atlantic Area.
4. Such is the case for CitationLindgren, Norway‐Sweden, 145–146, where the watercourse question is mentioned without explaining it. So is also the case in the long row of Norwegian national histories, as in CitationHagemann, Det moderne gjennombrudd, and in the innovative comparatively version of the history of the Scandinavian union, CitationStråth, Union og demokrati, 507–529. Surprisingly enough, the watercourse question is missing in those standard theses that explicitly deal with the Karlstad negotiations, namely CitationTerjesen, Vi skiltes i fred; CitationGlomstein, “Karlstad‐forhandlingene”, 90: CitationVedung, Unionsdebatten 1905.
5. So is the case in CitationBerg, Norge på egen hånd; CitationBerg, “Karlstad 1905”, 59–82. The watercourse question is treated briefly, based on preliminary work in CitationBerg, “Fra den norsk‐svenske grenselinjens historie”, 192, and in CitationBerg, “De små spørsmål i 1905 – og de store”, 19–20.
6. CitationWeibull, “Unionsupplösningen”, 38.
7. On the military, psychological and political realities on the border fortresses and the war risk question, see CitationBerg, “Mobilisering og militære vurderinger i 1905”.
8. CitationGlomstein, “Karlstad‐forhandlingene”.
9. CitationHeiberg, ed., Unionens opløsning, 371.
10. Ibid., 347–379, 515–616, 627–672, 701–702. See CitationVedung, Unionsdebatten 1905 on the reception of the Karlstad agreement. On the Karlstad negotiations, see CitationWåhlstrand, ed., Karlstad‐konferensen 1905; CitationUrbye ed., Karlstadforhandlingene 1905.
11. CitationHeiberg, ed., Unionens opløsning, 669–672 (Norwegian, Swedish and French texts).
12. For a concise list, see CitationJohansen, “De svensk‐norske grænsevasdrag”, 47.
13. Vol. 232a File “Statshvälfvingen …”, Vol. 240, memo on “Vatterrättsfrågan”, “Uppgift å de Vattendrag …”, 29.8.05, Utrikesdepartementet 1902, Riksarkivet, Stockholm; Vol. 008, Mp. 08, dokumenter vedrørende unionsoppløsningen, Utenriksdepartementet til Departementet for offentlige arbeider, 24.4.26, “Dokumenter benyttede under forhandlingerne i Karlstad”, skogdirektør Saxlund's memo, 16.8.05, Industridepartementet, Avd. for vassdrags‐ og elektrisitetsvesen, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
14. Vol. 008, Mp. 08, dokumenter vedrørende unionsoppløsningen, Utenriksdepartementet til Departementet for offentlige arbeider, 24.4.26, “Dokumenter benyttede under forhandlingerne i Karlstad”, “Fløtning, vassdrag som flyter gjennem baade Norge og Sverige”, signed H.I., 5.8.05, Industridepartementet, Avd. for vassdrags‐ og elektrisitetsvesen, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
15. Correira and da CitationSilva, “Transboundary Issues in Water Resources”, 315.
16. During the union period, Norway was represented by the Swedish foreign minister in diplomatic affairs, see Bjørgo, Rian and CitationKaartvedt, Selvstendighet og union, 231–364.
17. de CitationVilliers, Water Wars, 81.
18. CitationWolf, “Conflict and cooperation along international waterways”, 251–252.
19. CitationTvedt, The River Nile in the Age of the British.
20. CitationCelsing, ”Allmänna väg‐ och broarbeten i Sverige 1841–1870.”
21. Vol. 232a File “Statshvälfvingen …”, Vol. 240, memo on “Vatterrättsfrågan”, “Uppgift å de Vattendrag …”, 29.8.05, Utrikesdepartementet 1902, Riksarkivet, Stockholm.
22. Ibid.
23. CitationWåhlstrand, ed., Karlstad‐konferensen 1905, 51; see CitationJakobsson, “Värmlands vita kol”, 40–51 on the economic activity in the Klar valley that would be directly affected by it.
24. CitationHall, Storsvensken som blev fredsfurste.
25. CitationJakobsson, “Värmlands vita kol”, 40–62.
26. CitationJakobsson, Industrialisering av älvar, 156–166; CitationJakobsson, “Industrialization of Rivers”, 49–51; CitationJakobsson, “Flottning – konflikter och politik om vatten”, 90–106.
27. Vol. 232a File “Statshvälfvingen …”, Vol. 240, memo on “Vatterrättsfrågan”, ”Uppgift å de Vattendrag …”, 29.8.05, Utrikesdepartementet 1902, Riksarkivet, Stockholm.
28. Vol. 008, Mp. 08, dokumenter vedrørende unionsoppløsningen, Avskrift av skrivelse fra Ordføreren i Romskogen Kommune i Smaalenene til Den Norske Regjering, 14.8.05, Industridepartementet, Avd. for vassdrags‐ og elektrisitetsvesen, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
30. CitationDahle, Røros kobberværk 1644–1894, 168.
31. Vol. 008, Mp. 08, dokumenter vedrørende unionsoppløsningen, Utenriksdepartementet til Departementet for offentlige arbeider, 24.4.26, “Dokumenter benyttede under forhandlingerne i Karlstad”, skogdirektør M. Saxlund's memo 16.8.05, Industridepartementet, Avd. for vassdrags‐ og elektrisitetsvesen, Riksarkivet, Oslo; CitationDahle, Røros kobberværk 1644–1894, 168.
33. Ibid., 42; CitationDahle, Røros kobberværk 1644–1894, 182.
35. CitationSætren, Beskrivelse af Glommen, 29.
36. Vol. 008, Mp. 08, dokumenter vedrørende unionsoppløsningen, Utenriksdepartementet til Departementet for offentlige arbeider, 24.4.26, “Dokumenter benyttede under forhandlingerne i Karlstad”, skogdirektør M. Saxlund's memo 16.8.05, Industridepartementet, Avd. for vassdrags‐ og elektrisitetsvesen, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
37. Citation“Innstilling fra den norsk‐svenske vassdragskommisjon av 1951”, 41; CitationDahle, Røros kobberværk 1644–1894, 170.
39. Ibid., 39.
40. Ibid., 42.
41. Ibid.
42. CitationSætren, Beskrivelse af Glommen, 28–29.
43. Vol. 008, Mp. 08, dokumenter vedrørende unionsoppløsningen, Utenriksdepartementet til Departementet for offentlige arbeider, 24.4.26, “Dokumenter benyttede under forhandlingerne i Karlstad”, skogdirektør M. Saxlund's memo 16.8.05, Industridepartementet, Avd. for vassdrags‐ og elektrisitetsvesen, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
44. Ibid., Don's memo, 28.8.05 on Saxlund's memo 16.8.05.
45. CitationDahle, Røros kobberværk 1644–1894, 182.
47. Vol. 008, Mp. 08, dokumenter vedrørende unionsoppløsningen, Utenriksdepartementet til Departementet for offentlige arbeider, 24.4.26, “Dokumenter benyttede under forhandlingerne i Karlstad”, Lars Berg's memo, 31.12.1882; copy of letter from the director for the logging industry at River Klar, 23.11.1887, 1 (on the aim of the project). Industridepartementet, Avd. for vassdrags‐ og elektrisitetsvesen, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
49. Vol. 232a File “Statshvälfvingen …”, Vol. 240, unsigned and undated note, “Vattendragen”, Utrikesdepartementet 1902, Riksarkivet, Stockholm.
50. Citation Svenskt Biografiskt Lexikon . Vol. 3, 351–354.
51. Ibid., 353. Lars Berg was one of that small minority of Swedish politicians who resisted the dissolution of the union and even propagated for a military invasion into Norway with the purpose of forcing the Norwegian separatists to adhere to the union and to recreate it, see CitationVedung, Unionsdebatten 1905, 261, 340; CitationSørensen, “Hvad vi manglet, er politisk religiøsitet” on the hardliners in both countries.
52. Correira and da CitationSilva, “Transboundary Issues in Water Resources”, 318f; see CitationWolf (ed.), Conflict Prevention and Resolution in Water Systems for several articles that are of relevance.
53. de CitationVilliers, Water Wars, 82; see also CitationWolf (ed.), Conflict Prevention and Resolution in Water Systems 239–427.
54. On the international, concurrent legal situation, see CitationKaeckenbeeck, International Rivers.
55. Vol. 240, memo on “Vatterättsfrågan”, “Uppgift å de Vattendrag …”, unsigned and undated note, Utrikesdepartementet 1902, Riksarkivet, Stockholm ([…] som […] en allmän folkrätslig regel, torde ex fortiore ratione kunne slutas, att folkrätten likaledes förbjuder vidtagande af sådana åtgärder med ett gemensamt […] vattendrag, som skulle göra dess användning som farled omöjligt).
56. Citation Svenskt Biografiskt Lexikon . Vol. 18, 175–187.
57. Van CitationAlstyne, “International Law and Interstate River Disputes”, 602. See even CitationReid, International Servitudes in Law and Practice, 146–165 on the 19th century development of international river legislation.
58. Van CitationAlstyne, “International Law and Interstate River Disputes”, 611. See even CitationVáli, Servitudes of International Law, 182–184 on the Prusso‐Netherlands boundary treaty of 1816.
59. Van CitationAlstyne , “International Law and Interstate River Disputes”, 603; CitationChapman, The International River Basin, 22.
60. Correira and da CitationSilva, “Transboundary Issues in Water Resources”, 319.
61. Van CitationAlstyne, “International Law and Interstate River Disputes”, 604.
62. Ibid., 605, 610.
63. Correira and da CitationSilva, “Transboundary Issues in Water Resources”, 319.
64. Van CitationAlstyne, “International Law and Interstate River Disputes”, 610.
65. Ibid.
66. Ibid., 612.
67. Ibid.
68. Ibid., 616–621.
69. Correira and da CitationSilva, “Transboundary Issues in Water Resources”, 319.
70. Van CitationAlstyne, “International Law and Interstate River Disputes”, 611.
71. For introductions to environmental history, see CitationMcNeill, Something New Under the Sun; CitationSimmons, Environmental History. A Concise Introduction; CitationCronon, ed., Uncommon Ground. Toward Reinventing Nature; CitationOpie, Nature's Nation; see CitationIbsen, Menneskets fotavtrykk for a Scandinavian example. For examples of water system perspectives in environmental history, see CitationTvedt, “Økologihistoriske betraktninger”; CitationWorster, Rivers of Empire; CitationCioc, The Rhine. An Eco‐Biography; CitationJakobsson, “Introduktionen av WC i Stockholm – ett vattensystemperspektiv på staden”; for a bibliography on water system history, see CitationJakobsson, Industrialisering av älvar, 29–61; CitationJakobsson, “How do historians of technology and environmental historians conceive the harnessed river?”
72. CitationJakobsson, “Värmlands vita kol”, 50.
73. CitationJakobsson, Industrialisering av älvar, 15–28.
74. CitationVedung, “Varför blev det inte krig mellan Sverige och Norge 1905?”.
75. See CitationWolf, “Conflict and cooperation along international waterways”.
76. CitationWith, ed., Illustrert biografisk leksikon, 446; see even Foliausen, “De svensk – Korske grcekoevois drag”.
77. CitationJakobsson, “Värmlands vita kol”, 51–52.
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