The Rejected Candidate: John III Vasa, the Polish-Lithuanian royal elections (1573/1575) and early-modern political decision-making

Abstract

This article analyses the candidacy of King John III Vasa in the royal elections of Poland-Lithuania in 1573 and 1575. Although the ‘Polish-minded’ policy of John Vasa is commonly known in earlier historiography, Swedish and Finnish historians have not given much attention to John III’s election campaigns in Poland-Lithuania in the 1570s. This article contemplates John III’s candidacy and rejection from the perspective of Poland-Lithuania. The royal elections are analysed as a political decision-making process by the Polish-Lithuanian estates. Thus the article emphasizes the existence of past alternatives and conditions of decision-making in early-modern history.

Keywords:

• composite state
• decision-making process
• early-modern history
• elective monarchy
• Poland-Lithuania
• state formation

Notes

1 See e.g. Grotenfelt, Suomen historia uskonpuhdistuksen aikakaudella 1521–1617, 256–349; Harrison and Eriksson, Sveriges historia 1350–1600, 414–26; Lappalainen, Susimessu; Pohjolan-Pirhonen, Suomen historia 1523–1617, 398–475; and Renvall, ‘Baltian kysymyksen kriisi’, 337–75.

2 Roberts, The Early Vasas, 261.

3 Ericson Wolke, Johan III, 242. Both Finnish and Swedish historians often speak only of ‘Poland’ instead of Poland-Lithuania. In my view, this is a mistake caused by the fact that Scandinavian historians are not familiar with the history of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Rzeczpospolita, Res publica).

4 Hildebrand, Johan III och Europas katolska makter, 181–205, 241–9.

5 See e.g. Gustafsson, Gamla riken, nya stater; Gustafsson, ‘A State that Failed?’; and Lavery, Germany’s Northern Challenge, passim.

6 This article is mostly based on my PhD thesis, Res publica Redefined? The Polish-Lithuanian Transition Period of the 1560s and 1570s in the Context of European State Formation Processes. See also Ijäs, ‘Puola-Liettuan kuninkaanvaalit ja eurooppalainen valtiokehitys’.

7 Roşu, ‘Contractual Majesty’, 218–56.

8 See e.g. Adair, Decision Making and Problem Solving Strategies, 17–33.

9 See e.g. the introduction by George Steinmetz in Steinmetz, State/Culture, 1–49, esp. 20–3; and Adams, ‘Culture in Rational-Choice Theories of State-Formation’.

10 See e.g. Elster, ‘When Rationality Fails’, 19; Tilly, Roads from Past to Future, 39–40; and Tversky and Kahneman, ‘Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions’, 60.

11 See e.g. Elster, ‘When Rationality Fails’, 24–39.

12 Tilly, Roads from Past to Future, 35–48.

13 See e.g. Tilly, ‘Reflections on the History of European State-Making’, 79.

14 Talcott Parsons developed the idea of social functions in several works during his lifetime. From these works, perhaps the most compact presentation of the social functions is in Parsons, ‘An Outline of the Social System’.

15 See Hallenberg, Holm, and Johansson, ‘Organization, Legitimation, Participation’. In addition, the model of change by Hendrik Spruyt has similarities with that of Parsons, although Spruyt does not mention Parsons in his theoretical discussion. See Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors.

16 Górnicki, Dzieje w Koronie Polskiej, 148–50, 154.

17 King Sigismund August to Mikołaj Czarny Radziwiłł, 16 November 1562. In Kaniewska, Listy króla Zygmunta Augusta do Radziwiłłów, 397–402.

18 Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych (AGAD), Zbiór dokumentów pergaminowych, 5519. See also Cynarski, Zygmunt August, 174; and Lavery, Germany’s Northern Challenge, 44.

19 See e.g. Lappalainen, Susimessu, 145–8.

20 Queen Catherine Jagiellon to King Sigismund August, 19 February 1569; Queen Catherine Jagiellon to King Sigismund August, 2 January 1569. Riksarkivet (RA), Stockholm, Kungliga arkiv, Svenska drottningars arkiv. Volym K73–K74, microfilm F035–31606, no. B0057, 5. Drottning Katarina Jagellonica, a) utgångna brev. In general, the new royal couple of Sweden blamed the previous king, Eric XIV, as responsible for the war and thus tried to alter the peace terms more favourable towards Sweden. See Lavery, Germany’s Northern Challenge, 177.

21 King Sigismund August to Jan Chodkiewicz, 24 October 1570. In Scriptores Rerum Polonicarum I, 150.

22 Instructions of John III Vasa to his envoys in Poland, 31 July 1572. RA, Diplomatica: Polonica vol. 301. H. Bielkes, G. Baners och M. Stures beskickning 1572–1573.

23 Sigismund August, Lublin 25 May 1569. RA, Extranea: Polen vol. 86. Bref från och till Sigismund II August.

24 Instructions of John III Vasa to his envoys in Poland, 31 July 1572. RA, Diplomatica: Polonica vol. 301. H. Bielkes, G. Baners och M. Stures beskickning 1572–1573.

25 ‘Warsaw Confederation’, trans. M.B. Biskupski; in Biskupski and Pula, Polish Democratic Thought, 131–3. In the original language (Polish), in idem, 134–6.

26 On the ethnic and religious pluralism in Poland-Lithuania, see esp. Kopczyński and Tygielski, Pod wspólnym niebem.

27 According to Almut Bues, the Habsburg dynasty launched its active plans for the Polish-Lithuanian succession in 1566, when the wife of Sigismund August, Queen Catherine (Habsburg), returned to her native land in Austria. Bues, Die habsburgische Kandidatur für den polnischen Thron, 4–7.

28 Kempa, ‘Plany separatycznej’, 30–2.

29 Nuntius Vincenzo Lauro to Cardinal secretary Tolomeo Gallio, 20 December 1574. Archivio Segreto Vaticano (ASV), Segr. Stato, Polonia 10 (registrum), ff. 76r–82r.

30 The first native candidate to be elected on the Polish-Lithuanian throne was the magnate Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki (r. 1669–1673), and after him Jan Sobieski (r. 1674–1696). After these two native kings, the Saxon era on the Polish-Lithuanian throne began. See e.g. Wisner, Rzeczpospolita Wasów, 47.

31 Nuntius Vinzenco Lauro to Cardinal secretary Tolomeo Gallio, 18 December 1575. ASV, Segr. Stato 8, f. 436r–v.

32 Nuntius Vincenzo Lauro to Cardinal secretary Tolomeo Gallio, 15 November 1575. ASV, Segr. Stato, Polonia 11 (registrum), ff. 23v–25r, here f. 24r: ‘Hora quando l’Arcivescovo mi proposi di voler nominar’ l’Imperatore il Sueco et il Mosco; io gli risposi sorridendo, che per compimento ci mancava il quano mi dimandò, chi sarebbe à proposito; et io li feci mentione del Turco; egli si maraviglio; perche havessi nominato il Turco; perché (gli risposi io) se per la vicinanza è lecito à un capo del’Ordini Ecclesiastico et di tutta questa Repubblica conditionatamente proporre un’heretico et un Scismatico, si può nela medesima maniera nominar’ un’Infedele, con conditione che egli prometta farsi Christiano; et cosi l’openione del Primati del Regno sarà al tutto popolare in favore deli Cattolici heretici Scismatici et Infedeli […].’

33 In the 16th and 17th centuries, there were several attempts at rapprochement between the Holy See and Muscovy in order to join forces against the Ottomans. However, these attempts came to a halt because of theological disagreements. Santich, Missio Moscovitica.

34 Sultan Selim II to the Polish-Lithuanian estates, s.d. 1573. ASV, Segr. Stato, Polonia 3, ff. 54r–55r.

35 Envoy Andreas Taranowski to Royal Chancellor Walenty Dembiński, 5 April 1575. ASV, Segr. Stato, Polonia 8, f. 108r; Andreas Dudith to Emperor Maximilian II, 17 September 1574. In Szabó, Kovács, and Maciejewska, Andreas Dudithius Epistulae, vol. 3, 252–8, here esp. 254; and Hildebrand, Johan III och Europas katolska makter, 242–3.

36 In their own sphere of influence, the sultans were both capable and willing to cooperate with their Christian subjects and allies when it was considered beneficial. See Kafadar and Matar, ‘The Ottoman Empire and Morocco’, 255; and Kármán and Kunčević, The European Tributary States.

37 Nuolivaara, Uskonvapaustaistelu Puolassa 1500-luvulla, 125–6, 143–4.

38 See e.g. Andreas Dudith to Emperor Maximilian II, 3 March 1575. In Kotońszka, Andreas Dudithius Epistulae, vol. 4, 114–23.

39 Besala, Stefan Batory, 120.

40 Swedish envoy Anders Lorichs to the election Sejm, 11 April 1573. In Biaudet, Le Saint-Siège et la Suéde, vol. 1, 38. According to Karl Hildebrand, John III did not renounce his demand on Catherine Jagiellon’s share of the Neapolitan sums. See Hildebrand, Johan III och Europas katolska makter, 189–93, 196–9.

41 John III Vasa to his envoy Anders Lorichs, 19 April 1573. In Biaudet, Le Saint-Siège et la Suéde, vol. 1, 40–1.

42 As a strong Orthodox ruler, the tsar of Muscovite was an appealing candidate especially for the Lithuanian Orthodox nobility. In addition, Tsar Ivan IV had been victorious in conquering the Khanates of Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556). The epithet Groznyj is generally translated as ‘Terrible’, which underlines the negative image of Ivan IV in Western Europe. However, the adjective groznyj can also be understood as fearsome, awesome or severe. Thus, the adjective or epithet is not altogether negative, especially not in the early-modern understanding of the term. In fact, it has a ‘majestic touch’. See Lehtovirta, Ivan IV as Emperor, 239–43.

43 ‘Candidati Regem Poloniae praesentantes et de iisdem iudicium’. RA, Diplomatica: Polonica vol. 301. H. Bielkes, G. Baners och M. Stures beskickning 1572–1573.

44 Early-modern political rhetoric often accused that monarchs acted as tyrants. Sometimes, the epithet was well deserved. See e.g. Lahtinen, ‘A Nobleman’s Death’.

45 Hildebrand, Johan III och Europas katolska makter, 199–200.

46 ‘Rationes quamobrem regiae maiestati Poloniae regno renunciandum est (1573)’. RA, Diplomatica: Polonica vol. 301 förhandlingar 1500-talet. H. Bielkes, G. Baners och M. Stures beskickning 1572–1573. See also Biaudet, Le Saint-Siège et la Suéde, vol. 1, 62.

47 Zamoyski, Oratio, f. 8r–v.

48 Cameron, The European Reformation, 375.

49 See e.g. Augustynowicz, Die Kandidaten und Interessen des Hauses Habsburg; and Rhode, ‘Wahlkönigtum und Ständepolitik’, esp. 214, 216.

50 Sejm in Stężyca, May 1575. ASV, Segr. Stato, Polonia 8, ff. 214r–217v, here f. 215r–v.

51 On the partitions of Hungary, see e.g. Bonney, The European Dynastic States, 291–4; Cartledge, The Will to Survive, 81–5, 99–100; Pálffy, ‘An “Old Empire” on the Periphery of the Old Empire’; and Papp, ‘The System of Autonomous Muslim and Christian Communities, Churches, and States in the Ottoman Empire’, 412.

52 As voivode of Transylvania, Stefan Batory was officially a vassal to the Ottoman sultan. In secrecy, however, Batory had a contract also with the Holy Roman Emperor. This balancing act illustrates the precarious nature of the principality of Transylvania between the two superpowers. See Oborni, ‘Between Vienna and Constantinople’, 76–7.

53 Stefan Batory to Pope Gregorius XIII, 28 March 1575. ASV, Segr. Stato, Polonia 8, f. 85r–v.

54 Bues, ‘Die päpstliche Politik’, esp. 132–133; and Karttunen, Jean III et Stefan Batory, 19.

55 ‘Pacta conventa, 1574ʹ, translated by Clifford S. Broeniman; in Biskupski and Pula, Polish Democratic Thought, 137–42. In the original language (Latin) in idem., 147–50.

56 Pacta conventa of Maximilian II. ASV, Segr. Stato, Polonia 8, ff. 432r–435v.

57 Sejm in Stężyca. ASV, Segr. Stato, Polonia 8, ff. 214r–217v, here f. 214r.

58 ‘Constitucie Seymu Walnego koronaciey krolewskiey, 30.5.1576ʹ. In Confirmatio generalis, Biblioteka Książąt Czartoryskich (Bibl. Czart.), Kraków, Cimelia 1255 III: f. B1r–B4v.

59 ‘Literae pactorum et conventorum, 8.2.1576ʹ in My rady koronne duchowne y swieckie. Bibl. Czart. Cimelia 96 III: f. A2v–A3v, here f.A3r.

60 In 1587, the Kalmar statutes designed by King John after his son’s election in Poland-Lithuania concentrated on the matter how Swedish governance would be handled during the king’s absence. See e.g. Pohjolan-Pirhonen, Suomen historia 1523–1617, 399.

61 Recently, the perspective of composite state/monarchy has been applied also in studies on early-modern Poland-Lithuania. These studies have concentrated especially on the nature of the Polish-Lithuanian monarchy, but also on the political union created in Lublin in 1569. See e.g. Butterwick, The Polish-Lithuanian Monarchy in European Context; Dybaś, Hanczewski, and Kempa, Rzeczpospolita w WVI–XVIII wieku. Państwo czy wspólnota?; Kempa and Mikulski, Unia lubelska z 1569 roku; and Lichy, ‘Vom dynastischen Unionsreich zur parlamentarischen Union von 1569’.

62 Concerning the early-modern electoral systems, see e.g. Bonney, The European Dynastic States, 92–7; and Roşu, ‘Contractual Majesty’, 51–4.

63 Nuntius Vinzenco Lauro to Cardinal secretary Tholomea Gallio, 17 December 1575. ASV, Segr. Stato, Polonia 12 (registrum), ff. 425r–429v.

64 The ‘double-election’ of Stefan Batory and Maximilian II in 1575 created a problem of legality. Both contemporaries and later historians have tried to solve the matter, which one of the election-procedures was legal, as both of them had their benefits and shortcomings. See e.g. Dubas-Urwanowicz, Koronne zjazdy szlacheckie, 304–6.

65 Karnkowski, De ratione eligendorum regum Poloniae, f. A1v–A2v, A4v.

66 Ostafi Wołłowicz to Andreas Dudith, 22 April 1576. In Báthory, Andreas Dudithius Epistulae, vol. 5, 198–200.

67 On composite and/or conglomerate states, see esp. Gustafsson, ‘The Conglomerate State’; Koenigsberger, ‘Monarchies and Parliaments in Early Modern Europe’; and Elliott, ‘A Europe of Composite Monarchies’.

68 See e.g. Dybaś, Hanczewski, and Kempa, Rzeczpospolita w WVI–XVIII wieku; Kempa and Mikulski, Unia lubelska z 1569 roku; Lichy, ‘Vom dynastischen Unionsreich zur parlamentarischen Union von 1569’, esp. 189–99; and Mazur, W stronę integracji z Koroną.

69 See also Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors, 22.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Miia Ijäs

Miia Ijäs completed her PhD dissertation, Res publica redefined? The Polish-Lithuanian Transition Period of the 1560s and 1570s in the Context of European State Formation Processes, at the University of Tampere, Finland, in the spring of 2014. She completed her master’s degree in 2009 and from 2010–2013 was a member of the Finnish Graduate Programme for Russian and East European Studies, coordinated by the Aleksanteri Institute at the University of Helsinki. Related to her dissertation, Ijäs has conducted archival research in Polish, Swedish and Vatican archives. She has published peer-reviewed articles on early-modern political thought and agency in Poland-Lithuania and diplomacy in the Baltic Sea region.