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Abstract
A group of slaves owned by the King of Denmark-Norway, termed Royal Slaves, performed essential and specific functions in the urban colonial society of the Danish-Norwegian West Indies. This article traces the development of this group of slaves and examines their standard of living and level of skills compared to plantation slaves in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies. The article argues that the Royal Slaves, through their access to provision grounds, had opportunities for a better life and developed a particular group identity, and that particular Royal Slaves possessed skills which led them to have positions of substantial social status in the social hierarchy of colonial society. Lastly, the article compares the conditions of living of the Danish-Norwegian Royal Slaves to Royal Slaves in other contemporary slave communities in order to further assess how, and if, the Danish-Norwegian Royal Slaves lived and worked under considerably different conditions than other Royal Slaves across the Caribbean.
Acknowledgement
This article has been based on the master thesis written by the author in 2010 at the University of Copenhagen.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Anderson, Subaltern Lives.
2 Tyson, ‘Getting It Straight’, 313.
3 There were slaves owned by the king other than this group of urban slaves. The majority of Royal Slaves laboured on plantations, owned either by the king or transferred to the Crown as the main creditor due to bankruptcy of the previous owner.
4 Only selected years in the period between 1792 and 1848 form part of the statistics presented in this article: 1792, 1793, 1794, 1800, 1801, 1802, 1803, 1806, 1807, 1815, 1816, 1832, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1847, 1848 and 1849. Tables based on DNA, AA/WIA, Main account books: St. Croix 1755–1917, 571:5.20, 1792; 571:5.21, 1793; 571:5.22, 1794; 571:5.28, 1800; 571:5.29, 1801, 571:5.30, 1802; 571:5.31, 1803; 571:5.34, 1806; 571:5.35–5.36, 1807; 571:5.37, 1808; 571: 5.43–5.44, 1815; 571:5.45, 1816; 571:5.61, 1832; 571:5.62, 1833; 571:5.63, 1834; 571:5.64, 1835; 571:5.76, 1847; 571:5.77, 1848; 571:5.78, 1849 & DNA, AA/WIA, Main account books: St. Thomas & St. Jan, 1755–1917, 571:1.37, 1792–1793; 571:1.39–1-40, 1794; 571:1.1.45–1.46, 1800–1801; 571:1.47–1.49, 1801–1804; 571:1.51, 1806; 571:1.52–1.53, 1807(−1808); 571:1.59, 1815; 571:1.60, 1816; 571:1.76, 1832; 571:1.77, 1833; 571:1.78, 1834; 571:1.79, 1835; 571:1.91, 1847; 571:1.92, 1848; 571:1.93–1.94, 1849. Please note that the data for 1815 and 1847 on St. Croix is an estimate based on the numbers of Royal Slaves in nearby years, as the records do not provide exact details for 1815. This is also the case for St. Thomas and St. Jan for the years 1800, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1807, 1815, 1832, 1833, 1834, 1835 and 1847. The few that occur in this statistic for the years 1832, 1833 and 1834 have been set as belonging to the hospital due to their names, such as ‘Barber’. See also Hall, Slave Society, 5; Johansen, ‘Slave Demography’.
5 Please note that for the following years, these numbers on St. Thomas and St. John are estimates – 1800–1802, 1806–1807, 1815, 1832–1835 and 1847–1848 – as the sources do not give detailed information.
6 The reason for this presumed decline may of course be due to the state more frequently using hired help to fulfil the work usually done by Royal Slaves. However, an examination of this is beyond the scope of this paper.
7 Hall, Slave Society, 5, 71.
8 For example, Jennings, ‘State Enslavement’; Jennings, ‘State Slavery’; Landers, ‘Transforming Bondsmen’; Morgan and O’Shaugnessy, ‘Arming Slaves’.
9 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:1.45–1.46; 571:1.52–1.53.
10 Olsen, Toldvæsenet, 114. Original text: ‘[han er,] naar han er ædru, en af de stærkeste Negere ved Veierboden’. DNA, CC/WIGRO, 365:8, Copies of Royal Resolutions regarding West Indian and Guinean matters, 1760–1771.
11 Thode Jensen, For the Health, 153.
12 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:5.34.
13 Rigsdaler was the Danish currency. The currency in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies was the Daler Vestindisk Courrant (Rd. v.c.), with the exchange rate of 128 Danish Rigsdaler to 100 Daler Vestindisk Courant. In St. Croix, the Rd. v.c. was used interchangeably with the term Pieces of Eight.
14 See Note 5.
15 From the Late Middle Ages, barbers, due to their experience with razors, were called onto perform minor surgery, especially in the military. ‘Ordbog over det danske sprog. Historisk ordbog 1700–1950.’ 2012. Det Danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab. From ODS, vol. 1, 1919. www.ordnet.dk (accessed 13 July 2012).
16 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:1.37; 571:1.51; 571:1.52–1.53; 571:1.76.
17 Hall, Slave Society, 107.
18 DNA, AA/WIA,571:5.34.
19 Hall, Slave Society, 105. For example, DNA, SC, 684:38.31.5 Police journals 1798–1846, 1815–1818.
20 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:5.31; 571:5.34.
21 DNA, CC/IO, 371:620, Extract of Royal Resolutions regarding the West Indies and Guinea 1819–1845, 1819–1824; 371:621, 1830–1836.
22 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:5.34; 571:5.35–5.36; 571:5.30; 571:5.31.
23 This, again, was somewhat akin to the self-perception detailed by the members of the Free Negro Company. See Signe Harboe Flygares’, The Free Negro Company of Christiansted, this volume.
24 Clothing was of course also provided to the Royal Slaves. This aspect of their provisions, however, is not included in this article, as it will be published elsewhere.
25 Thode Jensen, For the Health, 179. Thode Jensen also describes measurement calculations, which I will not go into detail about here.
26 Hall, Slave Society, 60.
27 Olwig, Cultural Adaptation, 54.
28 Heinrich Ernst Schimmelmann (called Ernst Schimmelmann, 1747–1831) had a prominent position in the Danish-Norwegian government and was appointed to various posts within the Kommercekollegie and Gehejmestatsrådet. He owned a number of plantations in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, took part in the steps towards abandoning the slave trade. Den Store Danske: http://www.denstoredanske.dk/ (accessed 19 July 2012).
29 Thode Jensen, For Slavernes Sundhed, 181.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid., 182–5.
32 Ibid., 200.
33 Ibid., 201.
34 Hall, Slave Society, 79.
35 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:118.1, Notes on, as well as decisions, receipts: provisions-, material, ammunition- and inventory accounts 1776–1807, 1767–1807.
36 DNA, DA, 1000:M1883, 374.
37 Thode Jensen, For Slavernes Sundhed, 181.
38 USNA, RG 55, 197:576, Misc. Regulations, instructions, decrees etc.
39 Thode Jensen, For Slavernes Sundhed, 183–5.
40 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:118.1, 1767–1807. DNA, DAN, 1000:M1883, 374.
41 Hall, Slave Society, 138.
42 Hall, Slave Society, Chapter 4, 70–86.
43 DNA, AA/WIA, 571: 5.78, for example expenses for June.
44 Mintz, Caribbean Transformations.
45 Mintz, Caribbean Transformations, 132.
46 Mintz, ‘From Plantations’, 135.
47 Mintz, ‘From Plantations’, 133, 135.
48 Mintz, ‘From Plantations’, 134.
49 Mintz, ‘From Plantations’, 139.
50 Hall, Slave Society, 114.
51 C. G. A. Oldendorp, a Moravian missionary inspector who was in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies between 1767 and 1768, wrote extensively about the society and his experiences there: Oldendorp, Historie. And in a shorter, English version: Oldendorp, History.
52 Oxholm and Oldendorp, quoted in Hall, Slave Society, 74–80.
53 Hall, Slave Society, 67.
54 Oxholm, De Danske.
55 For example: DNA, CR/FIC, 303:2323.3–2323.5, West Indian Journal, 1771–1773, 17 June 1771–29 October 1772. DNA, CCC/IO, 365:141a-142, West Indian Copy Books, 1771–1934, 1772–1775, case no. 368,73, 8 March 1774.
56 DNA, CR/FIC, 303: 2323.3–2323.5, no. 262.
57 DNA, CR/FIC, 303: 2323.3–2323.5, no. 714.
58 Dahl and Licht, Opmålinger, 14–15. Original from DNA.
59 DNA, CR/FIC, 303: 2323.3–2323.5.
60 Olwig, Cultural Adaptation, 54.
61 Hall, Slave Society, 210.
62 Thode Jensen, For Slavernes Sundhed, 170.
63 Hall, Slave Society, 79.
64 Hall, Slave Society, 76–8.
65 Hall, Slave Society, 93.
66 Dahl and Licht, Opmålinger, 14–15. Original from DNA.
67 Dahl and Licht, Opmålinger, 87. Original from DNA.: DNA CR/CMD, 337, 325.
68 Matheus is also to be found in DNA, AA/WIA, 571:1.41–1.42.
69 Olwig, Cultural Adaptation, 45.
70 DNA, CR/CMD, 337, 304; DNA CR/CMD, 337, 315.
71 DNA CR/CMD, 337, 304.
72 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:5.21; 371:5.22.
73 DNA, CC/IO, 371:620, no. 206, Negerboliger på St. Thomas – Videre udgifter v. disses opførsel’ [Negro houses on St. Thomas – Further expenses in relation to the building of these] 29 October 1820.
74 Jensen, ‘Sundhed, Citroner’, 7.
75 DNA, CC/IO, 371:620, no. 390, ‘Negerhus, opfører v. Frederiksted hospital’ [Negro house, erected by the Frederiksted hospital] 14 August 1821 & no. 166 Ang. Husleie’ [Regarding rent] 23 August 1820.
76 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:5.78.
77 Hall, Slave Society, 85–6.
78 Thode Jensen, For Slavernes Sundhed, 67.
79 Thode Jensen, For Slavernes Sundhed, 68.
80 Thode Jensen, For Slavernes Sundhed, 66–8.
81 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:5.78, for example expenses for June.
82 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:1.37.
83 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:1.39–1.40.
84 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:1.39–1.40.
85 The entitlement of Madame was used only for midwives.
86 DNA, AA/WIA, 571:5.21; 571:5.22; 571:5.31; 571:5.35–5.36; 571:5.37.
87 Thompson, Unprofitable Servants. Díaz, The Virgin. A recent but only somewhat relevant study is Reese, Facilitating.
88 Thompson, Unprofitable Servants, 157–62.
89 Ibid.
90 Thompson, Unprofitable Servants, 180.
91 Thompson, Unprofitable Servants, 184–5.
92 Díaz, The Virgin, 30.
93 Díaz, The Virgin, 222–3.
94 Díaz, The Virgin, 242.
95 Hall, Slave Society, 62.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Vibe Maria Martens
Vibe Maria Martens (b. 1981) is a PhD researcher at the European University Institute in Florence, Italy. She holds an MA degree in History from the University of Copenhagen and a BA degree in Modern History from the University of Westminster, London. Her research includes the study of Danish colonial trade in Indian cotton textiles in the long 18th century and its effect on Danish consumption and material culture. This work is performed by applying an interdisciplinary methodology, making use of traditional historical study as well as museum studies, technical and dye analysis of historical textiles. She has previously studied both English and Danish colonial history. Among her publications are: ‘The Theft of Fashion: Circulation of Fashionable Textiles and Garments in 18th-century Copenhagen’, in Engelhardt Mathiassen, Nosch, Ringgaard, Toftegaard and Venborg Pedersen (eds.), Fashionable Encounters. Perspectives and Trends in Textile and Dress in the Early Modern Nordic World (Oxbow Books, 2014).
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