Looking for Nordic allies. The interest of the Kohl government in enlarging the European Community to the north 1985–1992

ABSTRACT

The reunification of Germany positioned the country back to its dominant place in the middle of Europe. Anchoring Germany in the European Community and deepening European integration became the guiding principles of the Chancellor of Germany, Helmut Kohl, who wanted to ease the suspicions related to the continuities of German foreign policy. The northern enlargement of the European Union belonged to this same dynamism. Even so, Mediterranean countries feared that the accession of the Nordic candidates to the organization would serve German interests. Despite the controversies, the support of the Kohl government for Finland, Norway and Sweden has not evoked scientific research. Based on archival sources in Berlin, this article analyses the northern dimension of Germany’s European policy. It argues that Bonn saw the Nordic countries as a building block in its eastern policy.

KEYWORDS:

• Finland
• Sweden
• Norway
• Germany
• European Community

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. Aunesluoma, Vapaakaupan tiellä, 410–7.

2. Uutela, “Closer to Germany than Sweden,” 1067–80.

3. Ingebritsen and Larson, “Interest and Identity,” 207–22.

4. Koivisto, Historian tekijät; Kuosmanen, Finland’s Journey to the European Union; Liikanen, Brysselin päiväkirjat 1990–1994; Brundtland, Dramatiske år: 1986–1996; Nedrebø, Den tyske utfordringa; and Carlsson, Så tänkte jag.

5. Majander, Komplekseja, kilpailua ja kumppanuutta Suomen ja Ruotsin suhteissa; Juntunen and Pesu, “Mistrust within Trust,” 129–57; Uutela, “Closer to Germany than Sweden”; Schumacher, Die Nordische Allianz; and Ingebritsen, The Nordic States and European Unity.

6. Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 534, 542–5.

7. Blomberg, Vakauden kaipuu, 517, 524; Grunert and Rigler, eds. The Accession Negotiations, 43.

8. Browning, “Branding Nordicity,” 27–51; Kettunen et al., “The Nordic Model,” 69–91.

9. Grøn et al., “Still the “other” European Community?” 1–12; Hansen and Waever, eds. European Integration and National Identity.

10. Grunert and Rigler, eds. The Accession Negotiations, 11–3.

11. Granell, “The European Union’s Enlargement,” 128, 134.

12. Kühnhart, European Union – The Second Founding, 226.

13. Schwarz, Helmut Kohl, 712.

14. “Frischer Wind.”

15. Uutela, “Closer to Germany than Sweden,” 1073.

16. Kundnani, German Power, 113–4.

17. Spohr Readman, Germany and the Baltic Problem, 106–8.

18. Featherstone, “Introduction,” 5–11.

19. Ette and Faist, “The Europeanization of National Policies,” 14.

20. Kohl, Erinnerungen 1990–1994, 330–5, 385, 505.

21. Genscher, Erinnerungen, 385–99.

22. Ibid., 383–5.

23. Schwarz, Helmut Kohl, 710–2.

24. An inquiry from Bonn October 17, 1985; A conclusion December 19, 1985. Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amts (PA AA), Berlin, HELS, Bd. 27178.

25. An inquiry from Bonn October 17, 1985. PA AA, HELS, Bd. 27178.

26. Embassy report from Copenhagen November 27, 1985. PA AA, HELS, Bd. 27178.

27. Embassy report from Stockholm November 8, 1985. PA AA, HELS, Bd. 27178.

28. Embassy report from Helsinki December 2, 1985. PA AA, HELS, Bd. 27178.

29. Tamnes, Oljealder 1965–1995, 228–9.

30. Nedrebø, Den tyske utfordringa, 222–6.

31. Petersson, “Sweden and the Scandinavian Defence Dilemma,” 221–9.

32. Frøland, “Norway and German Reunification,” 471–2.

33. Olesen, “Under the National Paradigm,” 189–211.

34. Genscher’s speaking notes February 3, 1989 for unofficial discussions with Thorvald Stoltenberg. PA AA, Zwischenarchiv (ZA), Bd. 171332.

35. Memo from a meeting between Genscher and Kjell Magne Bondevik November 28, 1989. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 171332.

36. Genscher’s speech draft October 2, 1989. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178332.

37. Memo September 29, 1989 and memo setting out West German objectives for the state visit. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178332.

38. Uutela, “The End of the Finlandization,” 410–23.

39. Memo July 12, 1989 and Genscher’s speaking notes February 3, 1989 for unofficial discussions with Thorvald Stoltenberg. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 171332.

40. Ingebritsen and Larson, “Interest and Identity,” 214–5.

41. Memo November 7, 1989 and October 22, 1990. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 171331; Memo November 15, 1990. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 171332.

42. Memo January 20, 1989 from the talks between Carlsson and Genscher. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178333.

43. Makko, “The Road to Salvation?” 399–400, 410–4.

44. Kühnhardt, European Union – The Second Founding, 161–2.

45. Kohl, Erinnerungen 1990–1994, 408; and Genscher, Erinnerungen, 390–1.

46. Schwarz, Helmut Kohl, 710–1.

47. Memo December 7, 1989 and December 18, 1989. PA AA, HELS, Bd. 27178.

48. Bailes and Messervy-Whiting, Death of an institution? 16, 19, 20–1.

49. Memo February 1990. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178333.

50. German embassy report from Stockholm November 2, 1990. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178333.

51. Helmut Kohl in the Financial Times October 29, 1990. Available at: The electronic document archive of the Konrad Adenauer Stiftung: https://www.helmut-kohl-kas.de/index.php?menu_sel=17&menu_sel2=&menu_sel3=&menu_sel4=&msg=1376 (accessed February 8, 2021).

52. Harnisch, “Germany and EU Foreign Policy,” 6–7.

53. Andersson’s speaking notes February 13, 1991. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178333.

54. Memo February 6, 1991. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178333.

55. Memo from a meeting between Genscher, Koivisto, Väyrynen and Suominen July 12, 1991. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178330.

56. Uutela, “Closer to Germany than Sweden,” 1071–72.

57. Aunesluoma, Vapaakaupan tiellä, 82–91.

58. Uutela, “Operaatio Pax,” 161–2, 171–3; and Ritvanen, “Komissarov olisi kääntynyt haudassaan,” 74–86.

59. Aunesluoma, Vapaakaupan tiellä, 424–6, 450–1.

60. Kansikas, “Dismantling the Soviet Security System,” 83–104.

61. Embassy report from Helsinki November 7, 1991. PA AA, HELS, Bd. 27223.

62. Embassy report from Helsinki October 21, 1991. PA AA, HELS, Bd. 27223.

63. Makko, “The Road to Salvation?” 412–3.

64. Memo for Genschers talks with Ugglas Decmber 6, 1991. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178333.

65. Memo from a meeting between Genscher and Väyrynen January 16, 1992. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178330.

66. Moisio, “Finlandisation Versus Westernisation,” 77–93.

67. Blomberg, Vakauden kaipuu, 459–463, 466, 473–6.

68. Memo from a meeting between Genscher and Väyrynen January 16, 1992. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178330.

69. Memos dealing with the meeting between Genscher and Stoltenberg January 7, 1992. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 171332.

70. Ibid.

71. Uutela, “Closer to Germany than Sweden,” 1074, 1076.

72. Blomberg, Vakauden kaipuu, 355–6.

73. Williams, Zur Konstruktion einer Region.

74. Koivurova and Rosas, “The CBSS as a vehicle,” 211–5.

75. Dauchert, ‘Anwalt der Balten’, 281, 319–20, 321–2.

76. Documents related to the conference of the German and Swedish ambassadors January 22, 1992, April 6, 1992 and May 19, 1992. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178334.

77. Spohr Readman, Germany and the Baltic Problem, 162–3, 171–2, 179.

78. Memo from a meeting between German and Swedish state secretaries April 8, 1991. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178334.

79. Talks between Genscher and Stoltenberg January 7, 1991. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 171332.

80. Embassy report from Helsinki August 28, 1991. PA AA, HELS, Bd. 29179.

81. Kohl’s speech in the Nordic Council in Helsinki in March 5, 1992. PA AA, HELS, Bd. 27227.

82. Memos July 2, 1992 and July 7, 1992. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 178330.

83. Memo July 17, 1992. PA AA, ZA, Bd. 171331.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Ella and Georg Ehrnrooth Foundation.

Notes on contributors

Marjo Uutela

Marjo Uutela is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Department for Northern European Studies, Humboldt University of Berlin. She received her doctorate at the University of Helsinki in 2018. Her current research focuses on Nordic-German relations after the end of the Cold War.