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ABSTRACT
The electronics industry is often regarded by scholars as an example of a sector driven by endless technological innovation and major competition between a few large companies, thus embodying the common view whereby the free market leads firms to innovate. On the other hand, some business historians have also emphasised that, since the beginning of the twentieth century, most of these companies were engaged in various international cartel agreements. The business and economic history literature on this industry reveals a clear-cut divide between the inter-war years and the post-war era. In this paper, however, we argue that technical and commercial cooperation between large electronics companies continued in various forms despite the spread of anti-trust policies after 1945. In this case study, we explore the global X-ray equipment industry from its beginnings around 1900 to the advent of the CT scanner in the early 1970s. The paper focuses on Siemens and Philips, the two largest manufacturers of radiological equipment. It demonstrates that both companies pursued their commercial and technical cooperation at least until the 1970s, although it was much less overt as during the interwar years.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1 Siemens Medical Archives, Erlangen (SMA), Der med. Röntgenweltmarkt und seine langfristige Entwicklung, October 1970, p. 6.
2 Philips Company Archives (PCA), Statistiek. Resultaten en Omzetten, 1953/54 t/m 1961/62, p. 29-30.
3 On the technological history of X-rays and radiology, (see Thomas and Banerjee, Citation2013; Hofman, Citation2010; Kevles, Citation1998; Blume, Citation1992; Chandler Jr., Citation1990, pp. 218–19).
4 SMA 1093, Vertrag, 12 September 1923.
5 SMA 789, Vertrag, 12 February 1924.
6 SMA 789, Rundschreiben an unsere in- und ausländischen Geschäftsstellen, 14 February 1925.
7 SMA, Agreement between Siemens-Schuckertwerke GmbH and Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, 17 October 1924.
8 SMA Verträge SRW-CHFM/Philips, Protokoll über eine Besprechung, 8 November 1927.
9 Ibid.
10 SMA 662, Entente commerciale pour le marché français, 15 January 1932.
11 SMA 662, Conventions relatives aux ampoules type Coolidge, art. I, 15 January 1932.
12 SMA 682, Vertrag, 12 October 1932. This company was founded in 1921 and, with the radiologist Erik Lysholm, developed a screen for X-ray machines. This was the company’s most successful product until its merger with Elema in 1955. Manchester University Library, Papers of Derek Guttery, GB 133 GUT/1/17, documents on Schönander.
13 SMA Verträge SRW-CHFM/Philips, Besuch der Herrn Direktor Loupart und Dr. Brümmer von Philips-Eindhoven, 4 November 1932.
14 SMA Verträge SRW-CHFM/Philips, Röntgenvertrag zwischen Philips / Müller und SRW, 2 February-16 March 1934.
15 SMA 682, Verabredung, 7 March 1934.
16 SMA 682, Vertrag, 9 June 1936.
17 SMA 682, Entwurf zu einer Meldung an Herrn Dir. Dr. V. Buol., 5 March 1942.
18 SMA Verträge, Agreement between Philips and SRW, 19 January-6 February 1939.
19 AkzoNobel Historical Archive (ANHA), 551, Participations 1951, Report of the vice-chairman of the Dutch Committee of Industrial Interests in Germany on his trip to Cologne, Frankfurt, and Bonn, 4–12 July 1951.
20 PCA, Aktenvermerk, Marienbaum, 5.10.1949. Ivo J. Blanken, Een Industriële Wereldfederatie. Geschiedenis van Koninklijke Phlips Electronics N.V. (1950-1970) (Zaltbommel: Europese Bibliotheek 2002) p. 89.
21 PCA, Jenneskens to Wensing, 18.6.1954.
22 PCA, Ibid., p. 2.
23 PCA, Apparate- und Gerätevertrag zwichen N.V. Philips’Gloeilampenfabrieken, Eindhoven, der Alldephi Verwaltung G.m.b.H., Hamburg, C.H.F. Müller A.G., Hamburg und Siemens-Reiniger-Werke Aktiengesellschaft, Erlangen, 10 February 1955.
24 SMA, 14-44, Länderberichte.
25 SMA 7010 3-5-7, Verträge und Vereinbarungen mit ausländischen Gesellschaften, 11 March 1963.
26 SMA 649, Rundschreiben No. 1/1963, 25 February 1963.
27 SMA 649, Declaration of Intent, 6 November 1967.
28 Taniguchi Collection, GE Gaylords papers, World market opportunities and foreign competition, undated [1961].
29 SMA 649, Declaration of Intent, 6 November 1967.
30 Ibid.
31 SMA, 14-44, Länderberichte.
32 SMA 649, Rahmenvertrag, 29 December 1969 and 3 April 1970.
33 Bibliothèque nationale de France (BNF), WZ 1100, CGR’s annual reports, 1939-1967.
34 SMA 554, Reisebericht Meinel, 7 November 1961.
35 SMA Westinghouse, Agreement between SRW and Westinghouse, 1 February 1963.
36 SMA, 93, Protokoll der L – Sitzung vom 27 January 1969.
37 SMA 554, Letter from Westinghouse Medical Division to Siemens Medical Division, 14 January 1970.
38 SMA 554, Übersetzung eines Zeitungsausschnittes aus Electroniques Actualités vom 15.1.1971.
39 Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, WZ1100, annual reports of CGR.
40 Ibid.
41 SMA, 93, Protokoll der L – Sitzung vom 1. February 1968.
42 SMA, 93, Protokoll der L – Sitzung vom 15. November 1968.
43 SMA, 93, Protokoll der L – Sitzung vom 27. January 1969.
44 In 1951, after the start of the Korean War, Philips got its security clearance back from the US government.
45 SMA 714, Letter from SRW to Philips Congo SCARL, 26 June 1965.
46 SMA 714, Memorandum über die Zusammenarbeit zwischen Ph Eindhoven und SRW Erlangen, undated (around 1965).
47 SMA, 14-44, Länderberichte.
48 SMA 7607 1-1-04, Contrat, 16 June 1965.
49 SMA, 14-44, Länderberichte.
50 SMA, 14-44, Länderberichte.
51 SMA, 7615, 1-5-02, Annual reports, 1949-1965.
52 See, for example, SMA, 649, Protokoll über eine Besprechung am 19.6.1975 in Frankfurt, 2 July 1975.
53 SMA, 7615, 1-5-02, Annual reports, 1949-1965.
54 Philips Company Archives (PCA), Statistiek. Resultaten en Omzetten, 1953/54 t/m 1961/62, p. 30.
55 Siemens Medical Archives, Erlangen (SMA), Der med. Röntgenweltmarkt und seine langfristige Entwicklung, October 1970, p. 7.