The relationship between a set of selected variables characterizing FET phase South African geography teachers and their self-directed learning abilities

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the relationship between a set of selected variables of geography teachers and their self-directed learning abilities. A quantitative research method based on the Self-Directed Learning Abilities Instrument (SDLi) was used. Geography teachers (n = 130) in the Further Education and Training phase in two districts in North West province completed the SDLi. Most of the teachers held the perception that they possessed the necessary SDL abilities. The results show that these teachers’ perceptions of their preparedness to teach geography to learners had a moderate but significant correlation (r = 315; p = .000) with their perceptions of their SDL abilities, while satisfaction with their profession as geography teachers had a weak but significant correlation with their SDL abilities (r = 0.276; p = .001). The results show no relationship between the teachers’ teaching experience, school quintile or teaching qualifications and their SDL abilities. Geography teachers with a postgraduate degree held more positive perceptions of their SDL abilities in comparison to teachers with an undergraduate degree or a teaching diploma. Small practically significant differences between teachers teaching in no-fee schools (Quintiles 1 to 3) and geography teachers teaching in fee-paying schools (Quintiles 4 and 5) were reported, with the teachers in no-fee schools holding slightly more positive perceptions of their SDL abilities.

KEYWORDS:

• Geography education
• geography teachers
• self-directed learning
• self-directed learning abilities
• FET phase geography

Introduction

Geography education in South African schools is characterized by disparities between teacher geography knowledge and teacher resourcefulness in the different quintile schools (Wilmot, 2018). Most geography teachers in the FET phase (Grades 10 to 12) experience challenges, such as large class sizes (Nel, 2010) and poorly resourced classes (Bongani, 2019; Wilmot, 2018), that hinder the implementation of meaningful active learning. As teacher-centred instruction is still predominantly implemented in most FET phase geography classrooms (Felix, 2021; Mukondeleli, 2018; Mungoo & Moorad, 2015), it is no surprise that FET phase learners perform poorly in geography (Atiso-Ahiaku & Mncube, 2018).

Although formal professional teacher development plays an important role, the question arises as to what extent it contributes to the improvement of geography teachers’ subject knowledge and pedagogical skills (Wuam & Bulus, 2022; Zohar & Agmon, 2017). Self-directed professional learning is recommended to urge geography teachers to take control of their learning to improve their geography knowledge, enhance their teaching and learning practices and deal with context-specific challenges in fostering meaningful learner-centred geography instruction in their classrooms (see Golightly, 2022; Paravato Taylor et al., 2020; Thenga et al., 2020; Wuam & Bulus, 2022). In this regard, Choi and Jacobs (2011) point out that teachers with higher self-directed learning (SDL) skills and self-awareness tend to participate with greater enthusiasm in self-directed professional development activities. So, if it is expected of geography teachers to take more responsibility for and initiative in their professional learning, they must possess the abilities or skills to learn on their own (Bernard, 2018; Ehlers, 2022; Smith, 2017). Unfortunately, there is not much research dealing with geography teachers’ SDL abilities. Against this background, the purpose of this study is to investigate geography teachers’ SDL abilities and the relationship between a set of selected variables characterizing geography teachers and their SDL abilities in two districts in North West province, South Africa.

Conceptual framework

For geography teachers to improve their geography knowledge and pedagogical skills, they need to become self-directed learners to address their learning needs throughout their teaching careers (L. M. Guglielmino, 2013). SDL is associated with concepts such as lifelong learning, autonomous learning, independent learning, self-initiated learning, self-study, self-regulated learning and self-teaching (Cadorin et al., 2013). For this study, the concept ‘self-directed learning’ or SDL will be used.

Slavit and McDuffie (2013) describe SDL, as practised by teachers, as a way of exploring questions, challenges and problems that are generated because of their teaching practices in the classroom and then deciding on the best solutions to those specific problems or challenges. This is in line with Knowles’ definition of SDL (1975, p. 18), namely that it is a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, to diagnose their learning needs, formulate learning goals, identify human and material resources for learning, choose and implement appropriate learning strategies, and evaluate learning outcomes. SDL involves the ability to initiate and manage learning tasks without being directed by others and to take the initiative and manage one’s learning process (Anshu et al., 2022). In this regard, Kirk (2012), Cheng et al. (2010) and Porter and Freeman (2020) highlight that teachers with the required SDL skills will transform their teaching and learning in the classroom to support their learners in also becoming self-directed learners. The ability to reflect on one’s geography knowledge and pedagogy skills and then act on that reflection indicates professional growth as a geography teacher.

SDL instruments

The SDL questionnaires or instruments most used in educational research to measure SDL skills or abilities are L. M. Guglielmino’s (1978) Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale, Williamson’s (2007) Self-Rating Scale of Self-Directed Learning, the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale of Fisher et al. (2001) and the Self-Directed Learning Abilities instrument (SDLi) developed by Cheng et al. (2010). For this study, the SDLi was used to measure teachers’ SDL abilities. The SDLi was found to be a valid and reliable instrument for assessing teachers’ and students’ SDL abilities (Shen et al. 2014). The instrument has only 20 items, and thus not take long to complete. According to Cheng et al. (2010), SDL abilities consist of four domains, which can be defined as follows: a) learning motivation refers to people’s motivation or desire to learn and take responsibility for their learning; b) planning and implementing refer to people’s ability to set learning objectives on their own and identify and use appropriate learning strategies and resources to attain learning goals; c) self-monitoring describes people’s ability to monitor the learning process and learning outcomes to promote their learning; and d) interpersonal communication refers to people’s ability to collaborate with others to promote their learning. In the South African context, Sebotsa (2020) and Ehlers (2022) have implemented the SDLi developed by Cheng et al. (2010) to measure life sciences and primary school teachers’ SDL abilities respectively.

Teachers’ SDL skills and abilities

As far as could be ascertained, in the context of geography education, no studies are available on geography teachers’ SDL skills or abilities. In a South African context, Kamandhree (2011) mentions that there is, in general, not much information on teachers’ SDL skills. Only a few international and national studies (not in geography education) have dealt with teachers’ SDL skills to take responsibility for their professional learning (e.g. Bartlett, 1999; Çetin & Çetin, 2017; Ehlers, 2022; He et al., 2022; Kabataş & Yılmaz, 2018; Kirk, 2012; Sebotsa, 2020; Torabi et al., 2013).

While some of the above-mentioned studies reported on teachers’ SDL skills and abilities, different SDL instruments were used in these studies. Kirk (2012), for example, reports that teachers tend to have higher SDL scores compared to adults in general. Wagner (2011) states that elementary school teachers in the US fall within the above-average zone for SDL readiness. According to Torabi et al. (2013), teachers in Esfahan have high SDL levels, while Bartlett (1999), using two different SDL instruments, has found that business teachers in Pennsylvania are moderately strong self-directed learners and have higher-than-average SDL skills. Furthermore, He et al. (2022) reported that the Chinese teachers in their study had high SDL skills. In two Turkish studies, teachers were found to have high levels of lifelong learning tendencies (Çetin & Çetin, 2017; Kabataş & Yılmaz, 2018). In South Africa, Ehlers (2022) found that primary school teachers perceived themselves as possessing the necessary SDL skills to take control of their learning. In a study involving South African life sciences teachers, Sebotsa (2020) reported that most of those teachers received high scores for the four SDL subdomains as indicated in the SDLi.

All of the above-mentioned studies report that teachers have above-average SDL skills and abilities. In this regard, Rowe (2009) points out that although teachers do not always regard pedagogical preparation as learning, and their planning for teaching as a self-directed activity, because of their profession, they consistently prepare and design their teaching and learning activities. Therefore, teachers’ professional responsibility challenges them to do self-directed research to improve their subject content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge, and in doing so, they develop a high level of ownership of their own learning (Admiraal et al., 2016). Kirk (2012) attributes teachers’ higher levels of SDL readiness to their higher levels of educational attainment overall.

Gender differences between teachers and SDL

A few researchers in other disciplines have reported on gender differences and students’ or adult learners’ SDL skills and abilities. Bernard (2018) reports no gender differences relating to self-directedness in learning for members of the Association for Talent Development of the Human Resource Development practitioners in the US, while Demir-Basaran and Sesli (2019) report that Turkish teachers’ lifelong learning tendencies vary significantly according to gender, where female teachers have higher lifelong learning tendencies compared to male teachers. Tekkol and Demirel (2018) found gender differences concerning Turkish university students’ SDL skills, where the female students had higher SDL scores. Golightly and Brockett (2010) found no significant difference between the perceptions of first- and fourth-year male and female education students at a university in South Africa with regard to SDL skills. However, in Golightly’s (2018) study with South African geography student teachers, the female students held more positive perceptions of their SDL readiness compared to their male counterparts.

Reio and Davis’s (2005) study with high school learners, university dental students and adult educational centre students in the United States of America reported no gender differences regarding these students’ SDL readiness. Furthermore, Premkumar et al. (2013) and Zeb et al. (2018) reported no significant influence of gender on medical students’ SDL scores at universities in Canada and Pakistan. Öz (2022) included 51 studies in a meta-analysis, and it was found that gender differences in lifelong learning tendencies were significant, positively correlated and in favour of female participants in Turkey. Demir-Basaran and Sesli (2019) highlight that Turkish female teachers are more curious and willing to do research and attend training and seminars for their personal and professional development and devote effort to training and self-improvement.

Teachers’ academic qualifications and SDL

Literature on the relationship between teachers’ academic qualifications and their SDL skills is scarce. However, an OECD report (2009) states that teachers from various countries with a master’s degree or higher qualification are more involved in professional development activities than those with a bachelor’s degree or less. Ho et al. (2016) reported a significant relationship between Hong Kong teacher qualifications and teachers’ perceptions of their involvement in professional learning communities. Interestingly, as teachers’ professional qualifications increase, they become more involved in professional learning communities. Ayanoglu and Guler (2021) reported that the level of education influenced Turkish teachers’ lifelong learning competencies, and teachers who have a postgraduate degree have higher lifelong learning competencies compared to undergraduate teachers. Bernard (2018) found that members of the Association for Talent Development of the Human Resource Development practitioners in the US with a master’s degree had higher SDL skills compared to members who had only a high school diploma or equivalent qualification.

School quintiles of geography teachers and their SDL skills and abilities

As far as could be ascertained, no studies dealing specifically with the relationship between the socio-economic status of South African schools and teachers’ SDL skills or abilities could be found. However, Mushayikwa and Lubben (2009) emphasize that teachers engage in self-directed professional learning under conditions of adversity, and ‘when teachers are fighting for professional survival, they tend to become tenacious in their bid to improve themselves’ (p. 381). In this regard, Moller et al. (2013) point out that teachers’ self-directed professional learning activities, such as their collaboration in professional development communities, have been shown to increase the achievement of their learners in South African schools with lower socio-economic status.

In a South African context, Spaull (2013) as well as Bernstein and Batchelor (2022) highlight that the ‘poor receive a far inferior quality of education when compared to the wealthier counterparts’ (p. 2). Department of Basic Education (South Africa), (2011) aims to counteract the socio-economic effects on education by directing more funds to learners with lower socio-economic status by using a quintile system. Allocating funds in such a way provides less funding for affluent schools and redirects it towards poorer areas, schools and learners. The lower quintile schools (Quintiles 1, 2 and 3) indicate a higher level of poverty, whereas Quintiles 4 and 5 indicate more affluence (Longueira, 2016). In the lower quintile schools (Quintiles 1, 2 and 3), parents do not pay any school fees, while in Quintile 4 and 5 schools, they pay school fees (Dass & Rinquest, 2017).

Despite all these efforts, the lower quintile schools still show a lack of adequate resources, poorly trained teachers who lack content and pedagogical knowledge, overcrowded classrooms and a lack of parental support (Bernstein & Batchelor, 2022; Geduld, 2019). According to Naicker et al. (2016), the school quintile system has neither produced quality teaching and learning nor enhanced learner achievement. Against this background, it would be interesting to determine whether the socio-economic status of the area in which a school is located influences geography teachers’ SDL abilities and skills.

Teaching experiences of geography teachers and SDL

Teachers’ teaching experience, or years of teaching, is an important aspect that can influence their perceptions of their SDL skills (Ehlers, 2022). The skills associated with SDL continue to develop as teachers progress through their teaching careers (Wilmshurst, 2013). Ehlers (2022) reported that primary school teachers in Mpumalanga with more than 20 years of teaching experience displayed confidence in their SDL skills, whereas those with 10 years or less of teaching experience seemed less confident and uncertain about their SDL skills. In other studies, Demir-Basaran and Sesli (2019) reported that Turkish teachers’ lifelong learning tendencies decreased with an increase in teaching experiences, while Kirk (2012) found no significant relationship between Tennessee teachers’ SDL skills and teaching experience.

Empirical investigation

Research design

A non-experimental survey design (see Maree, 2016) was chosen for this study as it lacks the manipulation of an independent variable. In this study, the relationship between a set of selected variables characterizing FET phase geography teachers and their self-directed learning abilities was determined. The data collection entailed administering a survey to FET phase geography teachers using the SDLi developed by Cheng et al. (2010). The empirical investigation followed a quantitative methodology embedded in the post-positivist paradigm (see Maree, 2016). To post-positivists, objectivity is relative and there is no absolute truth when studying human actions (Panhwar et al., 2017). In this study, geography teachers provided their perceptions of their SDL abilities, and some of them may have inflatable perceptions of their SDL abilities.

Participants

The participants in this study were geography teachers (n = 130) in the FET phase (Grades 10 to 12) in Quintile 1 to 5 schools in two districts (Dr Kenneth Kaunda and Bojanala Platinum districts) of North West, a province in South Africa. The participants differed in their level of teaching experience. In line with Richter et al. (2011) and Day and Gu (2009), this study distinguished between early-career teachers (five years or less teaching experience), mid-career teachers (six to 20 years’ teaching experience) and late-career teachers (21 years and more teaching experience). These geography teachers have different educational qualifications: a diploma on NQF level 6 (Education Diploma and Advanced Diploma in Education); a degree on NQF level 7 (BEd and BA/BSc with a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE); or postgraduate qualifications (BEd Honours, MEd or PhD) on NQF levels 8, 9 or 10.

Data collection and analysis

The SDLi developed by Cheng et al. (2010) consists of 20 items divided into four domains, namely learning motivation (6 items), planning and implementing (6 items), self-monitoring (4 items) and interpersonal communication (4 items). The responses to the items are rated by using a five-point Likert-type scale (1=never; 2=seldom; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always).

The researcher employed the following quantitative data analysis techniques:

• The internal reliability of the SDLi was measured by the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient. Cronbach alpha values for the subdomains of the instruments were calculated, and all but one were on an acceptable level of .7 and higher (see Table 1). However, Taber (2018) stated that Cronbach alpha values of 0.6 and higher are also acceptable.

  Table 1. Cronbach alpha values for the subdomains of the SDLi.

  SDL subdomains	Cronbach alpha
  Learning motivation	.754
  Planning and implementing	.852
  Self-monitoring	.816
  Interpersonal communication	.621

• Descriptive statistics, such as the mean and standard deviation for the items in the subdomains of the SDLi, were applied to organize, analyse and interpret the quantitative data regarding the geography teachers’ perceptions of their SDL abilities.

• Spearman correlation coefficients were calculated to determine the strength of the relationship between the set of selected variables (gender, school quintile, teaching experience, teacher qualification, geography teachers’ satisfaction with their profession as a geography teacher and their perceptions of their preparedness to teach Grade 10 to 12 school geography) characterizing geography teachers and their SDL abilities.

• The statistical procedure also involved the calculation of the practical significance (effect size) of the differences regarding the relationship of the set of selected variables on the geography teachers’ perceptions of their SDL abilities. Practical significance indicates whether the difference is large enough to have an effect in practice (Ellis & Steyn, 2003).

Results

Geography teachers’ perceptions of their SDL abilities

The results of the FET phase geography teachers’ perceptions of their SDL abilities is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Geography teachers’ perceptions of their SDL abilities.

Subdomains of SDL and items	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly agree	$\bar{\mathbf{X}}$	SD
Learning motivation
As a geography teacher, I know what I need to learn.	0 (0%)	1 (0.8%)	6 (4.6%)	49 (37.7%)	74 (56.9%)	4.51	0.63
Regardless of the results or effectiveness of my learning, I still like to learn.	0 (0%)	1 (0.8%)	4 (3.1%)	57 (43.8%)	68 (52.3%)	4.48	0.60
As a geography teacher, I strongly hope to constantly improve and excel in my learning.	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	5 (3.8%)	35 (26.9%)	90 (69.2%)	4.65	0.55
My successes and failures as a geography teacher inspire me to continue to learn.	1 (0.8%)	2 (1.5%)	5 (3.8%)	43 (33.1)	79 (60.8%)	4.52	0.72
As a geography teacher, I enjoy finding answers to questions.	0 (0%)	1 (0.8%)	1 (0.8%)	37 (28.5%)	91 (70%)	4.68	0.53
As a geography teacher, I will not give up learning because I face some difficulties.	0 (0%	1 (0.8)	10 (7.7%)	41 (31.5%)	78 (60%)	4.51	0.67
Total						4.56	0.42
Planning and implementing
As a geography teacher, I can pro-actively establish my learning goals.	0 (0%)	3 (2.3%	12 (9.2%)	65 (50%)	50 (38.5%)	4.25	0.72
As a geography teacher, I know what learning strategies are appropriate for me to reach my learning goals.	0 (0%)	4 (3.1)	14 (10.8)	67 (51.5%)	45 (34.6%)	4.18	0.74
As a geography teacher, I set the priorities of my learning.	0 (0%)	2 (1.5%)	15 (11.5%)	58 (44.6%)	55 (42.3%)	4.28	0.73
Whether in the practicum, classroom or on my own, I am able to follow my own plan of learning.	0 (0%)	2 (1.5%	16 (12.3%)	68 (52.8%)	44 (33.8%)	4.18	0.70
As a geography teacher, I am good at arranging and controlling my learning time.	1 (0.8%)	6 (4.6%)	22 (16.9%)	60 (46.2%)	41 (31.5%)	4.03	0.86
As a geography teacher, I know how to find resources for my learning.	0 (0%)	5 (3.8%)	18 (13.8%)	59 (45.4%)	48 (36.9%)	4.15	0.80
Total						4.18	0.58
Self-monitoring
As a geography teacher, I can connect new knowledge with my own personal experiences.	0 (0%)	3 (2.3%)	4 (3.1%)	71 (54.6%	52 (40%)	4.32	0.65
As a geography teacher, I understand the strengths and weaknesses of my learning.	0 (0%)	2 (1.5%)	9 (12.3%)	70 (53.8%)	49 (37.7%)	4.28	0.66
As a geography teacher, I can monitor my learning progress.	0 (0%)	2 (1.5%)	16 (12.3%)	70 (53.8%)	42 (32.3)	4.17	0.70
As a geography teacher, I can evaluate my learning outcomes on my own.	0 (0%)	6 (4.6%	22(16.9%)	66 (50.8%)	36 (27.7%)	4.02	0.80
Total						4.20	0.56
Interpersonal communication
My interaction with other geography teachers helps me plan for further learning.	2 (1.5%)	5 (3.8%)	14 (10.8%)	44 (33.8%)	65 (50%)	4.27	0.91
As a geography teacher, I would like to learn the language and culture of those with whom I frequently interact.	1 (0.8%)	3 (2.3%)	18 (13.8%)	55 (42.3%)	53 (40.8%)	4.20	0.82
As a geography teacher, I am able to express messages effectively in oral presentations.	0 (0%)	1 (0.8%)	12 (9.2%)	65 (50%)	52 (40%)	4.29	0.66
As a geography teacher, I am able to communicate messages effectively in writing.	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	11 (8.5%)	64 (49.2%)	55 (42.3%)	4.34	0.63
Total						4.28	0.52

All the SDL domains and items received high ratings (a high rating refers to a mean of 4 and higher) from the geography teachers. The ‘Learning motivation’ and ‘Interpersonal communication’ subdomains received the highest ratings with respective means of 4.56 and 4.28. Most of the geography teachers agreed or totally agreed with all the items for the different SDL domains. In the learning motivation domain, the items ‘As a geography teacher, I enjoy finding answers to questions’ and ‘As a geography teacher, I strongly hope to constantly improve and excel in my learning’ received the highest scores of 4.68 and 4.65 respectively. In the planning and implementing domain, the item ‘As a geography teacher, I set the priorities of my learning’ received the highest rating ($\bar{X}$=4.28), while the item ‘As a geography teacher, I can connect new knowledge with my own personal experiences’ in the self-monitoring domain received the highest rating ($\bar{X}$=4.32). In the interpersonal domain, the item ‘As a geography teacher, I am able to communicate messages effectively in writing’ received the highest rating ($\bar{X}$ = 4.34) from the geography teachers.

Geography teachers’ gender and perceptions of their self-directed learning abilities

In the study, the effect size for male and female geography teachers was calculated for SDL abilities and the different SDL subdomains. Table 3 shows that there is no practically significant difference between the perceptions of male and female geography teachers for SDL abilities and all the SDL subdomains.

Table 3. Gender differences in geography teachers’ perceptions of their SDL abilities.

Subdomains of SDL	Gender	N	$\bar{\mathbf{X}}$	SD	P value	d value
Learning motivation	Male	71	4.55	0.40	.943	0.01
	Female	59	4.56	0.43
Planning and implementing	Male	71	4.21	0.55	.479	0.12
	Female	59	4.14	0.61
Self-monitoring	Male	71	4.20	0.59	.982	0.00
	Female	59	4.19	0.53
Interpersonal communication	Male	71	4.29	0.50	.747	0.05
	Female	59	4.26	0.56
SDL total	Male	71	4.33	0.39	.723	0.06
	Female	59	4.30	0.45

(d value: small effect: d$\approx$ 0.2; medium effect: d$\approx$ 0.5*; and large effect; d 0.8**)

Geography teacher’s academic qualifications and the perceptions of their SDL abilities

In this study, no significant correlation was found between geography teachers’ academic qualifications and their perceptions of their SDL abilities (r = 0.157; p = .076). Table 4 shows that the geography teachers with postgraduate qualifications (honours, master’s or doctoral degree) received higher ratings for their perception of their self-directed learning abilities when compared to the geography teachers with a degree (BEd or BA/BSc with a PGCE) or a diploma (Education Diploma or Advanced Diploma in Education), with medium to small practically significant differences. The subdomain ‘Self-monitoring’ received higher mean scores from the geography teachers with postgraduate qualifications when compared to geography teachers with a degree (BEd or BA/BSc with a PGCE) a diploma (Education Diploma or Advanced Diploma in Education), with high to medium practically significant differences (d values of 0.79 and 0.49). However, the geography teachers with a postgraduate qualification or an undergraduate qualification responded more positively to the ‘Learning motivation’ subdomain compared to the geography teachers with a diploma, with medium practically significant differences of 0.50 and 0.41 respectively.

Table 4. Practically significant differences between geography teachers’ academic qualifications and their perceptions of their SDL abilities.

Subdomains of SDL	Qualification	N	$\bar{\mathbf{X}}$	SD	P value	d value
						Education Diploma	BEd degree BA/BSc & PGCE
Learning	Education Diploma	24	4.39	0.49	.069
motivation	BEd degree or BA/BSC degree (PGCE)	82	4.59	0.39		0.41*
	Postgraduate qualification	23	4.64	0.37		0.50*	0.12
Planning and	Education Diploma	24	4.17	0.53	.650
implementing	BEd degree or BA/BSC degree (PGCE)	82	4.16	0.61		0.02
	Postgraduate qualification	23	4.28	0.52		0.22	0.21
Self-monitoring	Education Diploma	24	4.06	0.50	.038
	BEd degree or BA/BSC degree (PGCE)	82	4.16	0.60		0.17
	Postgraduate qualification	23	4.46	0.42		0.79**	0.49*
Interpersonal	Education Diploma	24	4.21	0.45	.365
communication	BEd degree or BA/BSC degree (PGCE)	82	4.26	0.55		0.10
	Postgraduate qualification	23	4.41	0.47		0.43*	0.27
SDL total	Education Diploma	24	4.22	0.42	.166
	BEd degree or BA/BSc degree (PGCE)	82	4.31	0.43		0.21
	Postgraduate qualification	23	4.45	0.38		0.55*	0.33

(d value: small effect: d$\approx$ 0.2; medium effect: d$\approx$ 0.5*; and large effect; d$\approx$ 0.8**)

Relation between geography teachers teaching at different quintile schools and their SDL abilities

The geography teachers’ teaching at different quintile schools had no significant correlation with their perceptions of their SDL abilities (r = 0.157; p=.075). Interestingly, the teachers who taught at lower quintile schools received a higher mean score ($\bar{X}$ = 4.37) for their ratings of their SDL abilities compared to the teachers in high quintile schools ($\bar{X}$ = 4.21), with a small practically significant difference of 0.34. Regarding the SDL subdomains, the teachers in lower quintile schools also received a higher rating when compared to the teachers in higher quintile schools, with small practically significant differences (refer to Table 5).

Table 5. Practically significant differences between geography teachers in different school quintiles and their perceptions of their SDL abilities.

Subdomains of SDL	Quintile	N	$\bar{\mathbf{X}}$	SD	P value	d value
Learning motivation	Low	83	4.61	0.41	.051
	High	47	4.46	0.42		0.36
Planning and implementing	Low	83	4.25	0.48	.106
	High	47	4.06	0.71		0.27
Self-monitoring	Low	83	4.26	0.48	.145
	High	47	4.09	0.68		0.24
Interpersonal communication	Low	83	4.32	0.49	.223
	High	47	4.20	0.58		0.21
SDL total	Low	83	4.37	0.38	.052
	High	47	4.21	0.48		0.34

(d value: small effect: d$\approx$ 0.2; medium effect: d$\approx$ 0.5*; and large effect; d$\approx$ 0.8**)

Geography teachers’ teaching experience and their perceptions of their SDL abilities

In this study, it was found that the geography teachers’ teaching experience had no significant relationship with their perceptions of their SDL abilities (r = 0.091; p = .305). Table 6 shows that for SDL abilities and the subdomains of SDL, the early-, mid- and late-career geography teachers received nearly the same ratings, with no to small practically significant differences.

Table 6. Practically significant differences between geography teachers’ teaching experience and SDL abilities.

Subdomains of SDL	Teaching experience	N	$\bar{\mathbf{X}}$	SD	d value
					Early- career	Mid-career
Learning motivation	Early-career	49	4.59	0.38
	Mid-career	45	4.54	0.43	0.11
	Late-career	36	4.52	0.45	0.15	0.05
Planning and implementing	Early-career	49	4.11	0.65
	Mid-career	45	4.21	0.46	0.16
	Late-career	36	4.22	0.61	0.17	0.01
Self-monitoring	Early-career	49	4.12	0.55
	Mid-career	45	4.23	0.52	0.19
	Late-career	36	4.26	0.63	0.21	0.05
Interpersonal communication	Early-career	49	4.28	0.57
	Mid-career	45	4.31	0.52	0.06
	Late-career	36	4.23	0.47	0.08	0.16
SDL total	Early-career	49	4.29	0.44
	Mid-career	45	4.34	0.37	0.10
	Late-career	36	4.32	0.46	0.06	0.03

(d value: small effect: d$\approx$ 0.2; medium effect: d$\approx$ 0.5*; and large effect; d$\approx$ 0.8**)

Influence of geography teachers’ satisfaction with their profession and their preparedness as a teacher on their perceptions of their SDL abilities

This study found a relation between the affective variables of the geography teachers and their perceptions of their SDL abilities. There was a moderate but highly significant relationship between the geography teachers’ preparedness as geography teachers and their perceptions of their SDL abilities (r = 0.315; p = .001). With reference to the geography teachers’ satisfaction with their profession and their perceptions of their SDL abilities, a weak but highly significant relationship (r = 0.276; p = .001) was found.

Discussion

This study addressed the lack of research in geography education regarding geography teachers’ SDL abilities. Most of the geography teachers in this study held the perception that they had high SDL abilities. In all the subdomains of SDL abilities, namely learning motivation, planning and implementing, self-monitoring and interpersonal communication, the perceptions of the geography teachers generally obtained high ratings. It is encouraging that most of the geography teachers perceived they possessed the ability to learn on their own. These results concur with those of Sebotsa (2020), Ehlers (2022), Kirk (2012), Çetin and Çetin (2017), Kabataş and Yılmaz (2018), He et al. (2022) and Torabi et al. (2013), who also reported that teachers held the perception that they had above-average SDL skills and abilities. A possible reason for geography teachers’ perceived high SDL abilities in the South African context may be due to teachers’ higher levels of educational attainment in comparison to other adults (Kirk, 2012). It may also be that teachers’ professional responsibility challenges them to do self-directed research to improve their subject content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge, and in doing so, they develop a high level of ownership of their learning (Admiraal et al., 2016).

In this study, geography teachers with postgraduate qualifications held the perception that they had higher SDL abilities in comparison to geography teachers with undergraduate degrees or with a diploma. The results are also in line with studies that indicate that teachers with postgraduate qualifications are more involved in self-directed professional learning activities (Ayanoglu & Guler, 2021; Bernard, 2018; Ho et al., 2016; OECD, 2009), which may explain why geography teachers with higher qualifications held the perception that they have higher SDL abilities. A reason why teachers with postgraduate degrees hold the perception that they have high SDL abilities can be that their involvement in obtaining these qualifications, they are required to take more responsibility for their learning. It is also possible that in obtaining these academic qualifications, teachers are increasingly exposed to fewer structured learning activities and more SDL tasks, guided through consultation with their lecturers or supervisors. Such tasks are predominately problem-based, where the student is required to do self-discovery to achieve the desired learning outcomes of a particular module (Stewart, 2007).

In this study, geography teachers in lower quintile schools held perceptions of slightly higher SDL abilities, as well as the SDL subdomains, compared to the teachers in high quintile schools. A possible reason for this, as highlighted by Mushayikwa and Lubben (2009), can be that geography teachers in low socio-economic status schools, with a higher learner – teacher ratio, large class sizes and a shortage of resources, engage more in SDL activities to cope with the challenges experienced in these low socio-economic geography classrooms. Moreover, teachers’ involvement in self-directed professional learning, such as teacher collaboration and professional development communities, can increase learners’ achievement in lower socio-economic learner groups (Moller et al., 2013).

In this study, no gender differences between male and female geography teachers’ perceptions of their SDL abilities were reported, which concurs with other studies in other disciplines (e.g. Klunklin et al., 2010; Premkumar et al., 2014). Furthermore, no relation between geography teachers’ teaching experience and SDL abilities could be found in this study. This concurs with Kirk’s (2012) findings but differs from those of Ehlers (2022) and situations where teachers’ SDL abilities increase with teaching experience. It also differs from Demir-Basaran and Sesli (2019), where teachers reported a decrease in their lifelong learning tendencies with an increase in teaching experience. A possible reason why there is no real difference between geography teachers’ teaching experience and their perceived SDL abilities is that with regard to teacher professional development in South Africa, geography teachers are mostly regarded as recipients of professional development rather than active participants in their professional learning (Van Veen et al., 2012).

In this study, a moderate positive relationship between geography teachers’ satisfaction with their profession and their perceived SDL abilities and a weak positive relation between their preparedness as a teacher and their perceived SDL abilities were reported. These results concur with the view of M. S. Knowles et al. (2015) that internal pressure, such as a desire for increased job satisfaction, can motivate teachers to take responsibility for their own learning. In a way, it also supports Oliveira and Simoes’s (2006) finding that there is a strong relationship between a person’s self-confidence and his or her self-directedness in learning. De Bruin and Yiannakis (2012) also reported a positive relationship between SDL and job satisfaction. Furthermore, Hiltz (2015) points out that believing in one’s abilities to be successful has been identified by teachers as a benefit to SDL, in combination with the positive impact it has on teacher effectiveness and professional competence (Thoonen et al., 2011). Van der Heijden et al. (2015) reveal that teachers who are passionate about their profession and enjoy being a teacher are more likely to be active agents of change and, therefore, willing to do self-directed research to improve their teaching competence. Moreover, P. J. Guglielmino and Murdick (1997) highlight that as people develop their SDL skills, they tend to become more self-confident in solving their problems on their own. This concurs with De Bruin’s (2007) view that employees with better SDL abilities are more willing to take personal responsibility for their learning to survive the challenges of their profession, which may, in turn, increase their satisfaction with their profession and their preparedness as geography teachers.

Limitations of the study

In this study, a self-report SDLi was used to measure geography teachers’ SDL abilities. It is thus possible that geography teachers did not respond truthfully to the items stated in the SDLi. Some of the teachers rather answer the items in a socially desirable way and where respondents give positive self-description to make them look good. Consequently, caution is needed when generalizing these results. It is further necessary to highlight that the geography teachers in this study were volunteers, and they might have had more positive perceptions of their SDL abilities.

Conclusion and recommendations

This study was conducted to explore geography teachers’ perceived SDL abilities and the relationship between the set of selected variables characterizing geography teachers and their perceived SDL abilities. From the results, most of the geography teachers held the perception that they have high SDL abilities. In this study, geography teachers’ perceptions of their preparedness to teach geography to learners in the FET phase, show a moderate but significant correlation with the geography teachers’ perceptions of their SDL abilities, while the geography teachers’ satisfaction with their profession had a weak but significant correlation with their SDL abilities. With reference to the other selected variables, no relation between the geography teachers’ teaching experience, school quintile and teaching qualifications and their SDL abilities could be found. However, medium to small practically significant differences were reported between geography teachers with postgraduate qualifications and teachers with a BEd or BA/BSc degree with a PGCE and geography teachers with a diploma in education and their perceived SDL abilities. Small practically significant differences were reported between geography teachers in low quintile schools and those in high quintile schools and their perceived SDL abilities. No practically significant difference was reported between male and female geography teachers’ perceived SDL abilities and between geography teachers with different teaching experience and their perceived SDL abilities.

Where geography teachers’ professional growth and development are concerned, the benefits of SDL are not being employed to their fullest. As most geography teachers in this study held the perception that they had high SDL abilities, it is recommended that the Department of Basic Education provide consultation to help geography teachers be more conscious of their professional learning abilities to enhance professional self-awareness. By developing geography teachers’ professional self-awareness through self-reflection, they will have a better sense of their weaknesses and strengths as geography teachers. This will position geography teachers, as self-directed learners, to be more involved in self-directed professional learning activities that are meaningful and relevant to each geography teacher’s contextual school reality. In this regard, the Department of Basic Education, geography subject advisers, school principals and school management in Quintile 1 to 3 schools in South Africa must encourage geography teachers to improve their geography knowledge and pedagogical skills through self-directed professional learning to cope with challenges and improve geography learners’ academic performance. In this regard, the Southern African Geography Teachers’ Association (SAGTA), can also play an important role to assist geography teachers in taking ownership of and making key decisions in their professional learning. For geography teachers to solve these self-identified challenges or problems they experience, they must formulate learning goals, search for quality information through reading learning materials, refer to educational videos on the Internet and discuss this information with fellow geography teachers to find possible solutions to the stated challenges and problems.

It is further recommended that geography teachers have proof of their involvement in self-directed professional learning activities; therefore, geography teachers must have professional learning portfolios where they can keep self-directed professional learning activities to improve their geography knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. Moreover, geography teachers with different academic qualifications and teaching experience and from different school quintiles in neighbouring schools should share and discuss these activities with one another regularly. Geography teachers sharing and discussing their professional learning can enhance their professional self-awareness. With time, these geography teachers can collaborate as self-directed professional learning communities that identify and implement learning projects in their classrooms to improve their teaching effectiveness regarding their contextual challenges and problems.

The Department of Basic Education and teacher training institutions need to ensure that geography teachers are well prepared for teaching geography in South African classrooms. If these teachers will have higher SDL abilities and be willing to involve self-learning, it will ensure that they are satisfied with their profession, which will further encourage them to take on more responsibilities and increase the quality of their geography educational practices. It is also suggested that the Department of Education should have incentives in place to encourage geography teachers to improve their academic qualifications, as this will enhance teachers’ involvement in self-directed professional learning and, consequently, their preparedness as geography teachers and their satisfaction with their profession, which can ultimately increase the quality of geography education in South African classrooms.

Further investigations are needed for a clearer understanding of the relationship between geography teachers’ perceptions of their SDL abilities and their perceived involvement in self-directed professional development activities. It is also further necessary to investigate if geography teachers who held more positive perceptions of their SDL abilities are more willing to implement learner-centred instructional strategies in their geography classrooms to support the development of their learners’ SDL abilities.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).