Socio-economic development impacts, attendant challenges and mitigation measures of infrastructure vandalism in Southern Africa

ABSTRACT

This paper explores the scourge of infrastructure vandalism in South Africa and Zimbabwe, with a particular focus on electricity and rail transport companies within the two countries. The paper sought to document the manifestation of infrastructure vandalism; identify the socio-economic impacts of infrastructure vandalism; and explore the challenges of curbing vandalism. The paper reveals that vandalism mainly manifests through copper cable theft; vandalism of transformers, pylons and rail infrastructure; theft of transformers; and tampering with railway points machines. Vandalism of infrastructure comes with direct and costs to the utility companies, as well as negatively impacting the economy, essential services, and the overall community safety. Involvement of employees in the criminal activities, corruption, incessant power cuts, well organised crime syndicates and a weak legal framework were identified as the current challenges to anti-vandalism efforts. The paper also proffers mitigatory measures to deal with the scourge.

KEYWORDS:

• Vandalism
• electricity infrastructure
• rail infrastructure
• socio-economic development
• cable theft

1. Introduction

The adequate supply of infrastructure services has long been viewed as essential for economic development, and no meaningful socio-economic development can be achieved without the requisite infrastructure. It is thus expected that governing bodies must secure national assets which ensure the necessities of daily life, for example, assets that provide transport, telecommunications, electricity, and revenue. Any threat to these life preserving assets is ultimately a threat to national security and it will undermine the core governance and security in the country (Pretorious, 2012). One of the contemporary threats that has affected infrastructure globally, and particularly the African continent, is vandalism (UN-HABITAT, 2011). Vandalism is a criminal offence involving damage to or defacing of property belonging to another person or the public (Ceccato & Haining, 2005). In general vandalism is wilful or malicious damage to property, such as equipment or buildings (Scott et al., 2007), and manifests in different forms. Although not replicated in all regions of the world, global trends in vandalism reveal that vandalism rates have been on the rise (UN-HABITAT, 2017).

The threat of infrastructure vandalism has been more pronounced on the African continent and most of the African nations have had to contend with the twin threats of vandalism and low levels of infrastructure investment (UN-HABITAT, 2011). In his survey of 20 African countries on electricity shortages and unemployment, Mensah (2018) revealed that vandalism is one of the leading factors for electricity outages, among other factors such as theft and climatological factors. Moreover, unreliable electricity supply contributes to unemployment on the African region (Mensah, 2018). In Nigeria, a study by Edun et al. (2023) notes oil pipeline vandalism as one of the serious forms of vandalism in the Niger-Delta region, with the vandalism attributed to factors such as poverty and unemployment. Oil infrastructure vandalism has also been attributed to corruption, mismanagement and marginalisation of the Niger-Delta region (Umar & Othman, 2017). In Tanzania, a study by Akim (2022) established that electricity infrastructure vandalism rife in municipalities, with the major socio-economic costs being power blackouts, inability to operate electricity-powered machines and the high costs of repairs.

In this paper, we explore infrastructure vandalism in South Africa and Zimbabwe – two neighbouring Southern African countries with strong economic ties. The paper sought to address four key research questions namely: how is infrastructure vandalism manifesting in South Africa and Zimbabwe?; what are the socio-economic implications of infrastructure vandalism in South Africa and Zimbabwe?; what challenges impede the fight against vandalism?; and what can be done to curb vandalism in South Africa and Zimbabwe. The paper also proffers some strategies to reduce infrastructure vandalism within the two countries. Whilst infrastructure vandalism affects different facets of the economy, this paper focuses on infrastructure vandalism on the energy and transport sectors, with a particular focus on electricity supply infrastructure and rail transport infrastructure. The rationale is that these two sectors are the backbone of the economy and all other sectors hinge on their efficiency. Moreover, and as will be revealed in this paper, electricity supply infrastructure and rail transport infrastructure have been prime targets for vandalism. Thus, the paper focuses on Electricity Supply Commission (ESKOM) of South Africa and Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa (PRASA), as well as the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) and National Railways of Zimbabwe (NRZ).

This paper adds to the existing body of knowledge on a problem that has had serious implications on economic development and social well-being. The paper gives context-specific information on the trends, impacts and control of infrastructure vandalism within the two neighbouring countries. The paper also gives sound contemporary documentary evidence of the threat of vandalism within the two countries. Results from this paper will assist policy makers and the security architecture of the two countries in crafting informed infrastructure protection and crime control policies. Importantly, impediments that have been hindering the fight against vandalism are also highlighted, as well as suggestions for dealing with the scourge. The paper also takes a comparative approach in analysing the scourge of vandalism within the two neighbouring countries, and very few researchers have attempted to take a comparative approach. The two neighbouring countries have different macro-economic and socio-economic environments, hence the need for a comparative approach between two distinct nations. As will be revealed in the paper, Zimbabwe is predominantly a source country for stolen copper cables and vandalised equipment, whilst South Africa provides the market. Thus, a comparative approach is paramount.

2. Socio-economic conditions: The precursor to infrastructure vandalism

Infrastructure vandalism has been spurred by a myriad of factors in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of these factors are socio-economic challenges, with Ikejemba and Schuur (2018:2) remarking, ‘the incompetence and failure of government to generate jobs, social security and other essential necessities arouses the antagonism within the people and as such lead to the vandalization of infrastructure’. Thus, people resort to criminal activities where governments fail to provide for the basic needs of citizens. A study on electricity infrastructure vandalism in Zimbabwe by Chingozha and Kwashirai (2021) established poverty and the need to survive as the drivers to electricity infrastructure vandalism. An earlier study on telecommunication infrastructure vandalism in Zimbabwe by Mazikana (2019) noted high levels of unemployment as the leading cause for telecommunication infrastructure vandalism in Zimbabwe. Therefore, the current macro-economic challenges that characterise the nation of Zimbabwe act as a stimulant to the commission of vandalism. In South Africa, Mmakwena (2022) and Irish-Qhobosheane (2023) also note the high level of unemployment as the major driver to electricity infrastructure vandalism, with criminals stealing copper to eke out a living. Irish-Qhobosheane (2023) also notes the difficulties faced in policing scrap metal shops, as they are often located in informal high-density areas. Thus, the social structure of some neighbourhoods creates a conducive environment for criminal activities such as theft and vandalism of infrastructure to flourish.

3. Theoretical perspective of infrastructure vandalism

This section focuses on two theories that can help to explain the causation of infrastructure vandalism, namely routine activities theory and the conflict theory. Routine activities are defined as recurrent and prevalent activities which provide for basic population and individual needs (Mugari, 2021). In other words, they are the day-to-day activities characterising a particular community. In disorganised communities, the routine activities are such that they practically invite crime. Routine activities theory assumes that crime is likely to take place when three factors are simultaneously present; (1) motivated offenders, (2) attractive target, and (3) an absence of guardianship (Felson, 2000). It looks at crime from the points of view of both the offender and crime prevention. In the context of infrastructure vandalism and theft, a crime will only be committed when a motivated offender believes that he or she has found something (for example, copper cables) worth stealing or something to vandalise (for example, rail infrastructure), that lacks a capable guardian. The high prices offered for copper cables by scrap metal dealers, coupled with manpower challenges to protect electricity and rail infrastructure, creates fertile ground for infrastructure vandalism and theft.

The conflict theorists believe that societies have many groups which have different, often conflicting values and they emphasise the repression of the weak by the powerful (Mugari, 2021). Empirical studies have revealed that institutional weakness, injustices, marginalisation and corruption force people to fight for justice in a negative way (Al-Kasim et al., 2013; Dzhumashev, 2014). This results in anger frustration and loss of confidence in the government which in turn encourages youths reacting through vandalism. Umar and Othman (2017) also contend that vandalism may arise as a result of perceived marginalisation, which is a state of denial, deprivation and exclusion from societal resources, socioeconomic backwardness that result in little or no control over an individual or a group of individuals’ lives and resource. Thus, marginalised societies may end up resorting to copper cable theft and other forms of infrastructure vandalism for both survival and expressing their displeasure with the government.

4. Methodology

This paper is largely based on a literature survey of articles and documents that were written on the subject of vandalism of electricity and rail infrastructure in South Africa and Zimbabwe. The paper specifically focuses on ESKOM and PRASA of South Africa, as well as the ZESA and NRZ of Zimbabwe. These institutions were selected due to the presence of expansive online articles and reports on them. Moreover, electricity supply and rail transport infrastructure are critical for driving socio-economic activities and development.

An internet search was conducted on Google Chrome after administering the incognito mode of the browser to prevent any interference of cookies or other browser settings. The three-pronged search was conducted using the following search phrases: Infrastructure vandalism of electricity and rail infrastructure in Zimbabwe and South Africa; Impacts of vandalism of electricity and rail infrastructure in South Africa and Zimbabwe; Measures to curb vandalism of electricity and rail infrastructure in South Africa and Zimbabwe. The main criteria that the articles and documents needed to fulfil for them to be considered for selection were that they contained words such as vandalism, theft, PRASA, ESKOM, ZESA and NRZ in the title, abstract, executive summary, introduction, or key words. Moreover, the articles and documents had to relate to the two countries.

For online news articles, the criterion was that the articles were written within the past six years from 2016 to 2022. This period was considered recent enough to reveal the current trends in the vandalism scourge. For journal articles and other policy documents, the criterion was that they should have been published in the past 10 years. This period was considered important to give a historical context of the problem of vandalism. The internet search yielded a total of 46 articles and documents that met the criteria. Included for the review were: online news articles (n = 32); journal articles (n = 8); policy reports and presentations (n = 4), thesis (n = 2).

5. Overview of vandalism and theft of public infrastructure

Research has shown that vandalism within the two countries is more pronounced in the electricity utility companies, hence ESKOM and ZESA have been the major targets of vandalism activities. In South Africa, ESKOM has had to contend with adverse effects on its generation capacity following incessant incidents of vandalism, cable theft and metre tampering (Gross, 2022). Another worrying trend is the theft of pylon steel, which often results in the collapse of electricity pylons (Midrand Reporter, 2022). In July 2021, six electricity pylons were left tumbling onto the ground after vandals had stolen structural components and copper tubes in Johannesburg (Ash, 2021). During the same period, transformers were also stolen in another unidentified location in Johannesburg, leaving residents of the surrounding community without power (Ash, 2021). Closely related to this phenomenon is the siphoning of oil from transformers, leading to overheating and explosions (Comaro Chronicle, 2021). Cable theft is perhaps the most egregious crime that confronts ESKOM, largely because of its immense ramifications which we will later highlight in this paper. In March 2022, a team comprising of the South African Police Service (SAPS), Hawks and ESKOM investigators busted a fourteen-member cable theft syndicate in Mpumalanga, leading to the recovery of large quantities of stolen cables (Smith, 2022). While ESKOM has been grappling with cable theft for many years, the scourge accelerated during the hard lockdown in 2020, with rising unemployment worsening the situation (Ash, 2021). In yet another manifestation of vandalism, ESKOM picked up cases in Mpumalanga of people throwing metal chains and wires onto power lines. These metal objects cause flashovers on the lines, which then trip and lead to power outages (Comaro Chronicle, 2021). Illegal connection is also another problem that ESKOM is having to grapple with, and this is putting pressure onto the national electricity grid. Sand mining around pylons has also been reported in some areas and this weakens the pylons, with some of them eventually falling (Comaro Chronicle, 2021).

Just like in South Africa, the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Association has faced challenges of vandalism and theft. A study by Chingozha and Kwashirai (2021) established that vandals target various components on the electricity distribution network that include cables, pylons, transformers, transformer windings, transformer oil and poles. An earlier study by Mazikana (2020a) revealed transformer vandalism, cutting and damaging of electricity poles, vandalism of ring main units, and overhead copper conductor theft as the main forms of vandalism for ZESA. A report in 2019 revealed that ZESA had lost up to 1 000 km of power lines to cable thieves (Ndlovu, 2019). In April 2018, the Herald reported that a total of 1600 transformers were vandalised countrywide, with most of the vandalism cases occurring in the urban areas (Moyo, 2018), and the figure had risen to 4 000 by October 2019 (Ndlovu, 2019). In 2020, the Standard reported that transformer oils have become vandals’ main target, followed by copper and aluminium products, which are mainly exported (Tsokota et al, 2020). According to Sithole (2016) and Ndlovu (2019), most of the vandalised material from ZESA infrastructure components find their way into South Africa, where there is a ready market for copper conductors and cables. A report by the Commercial Farmers Union also established that the bulk of the stolen copper is smuggled into neighbouring South Africa where there is a ready market (The Chronicle, 2021a).

The rail transport systems within the two countries have also been affected by vandalism. In South Africa, the Parliamentary Committee on Transport, Public Service and Administration, Public Works and Infrastructure noted with concern the damage caused by vandalism and theft of PRASA infrastructure (Parliamentary Monitoring Group (PMG), 2020). The Committee noted that PRASA had received a total of 274 cases of vandalism and malicious damage to property in July 2020 alone (PMG, 2020). Between January and October 2021, a total of 1,000 km of copper cable was stolen and an average of 600 cases of vandalism and theft were reported per month during the same period (Business Tech, 2021). The most dominant forms of vandalism at PRASA are theft of copper cables; vandalism of substations which are crucial to the running of its electrified fleet; theft of wiring and cable from locomotives; and theft of wooden rail sleepers (Business Tech, 2021). In 2021, the South African President labelled damage to public infrastructure as an act of sabotage after raising concern over an alarming increase in infrastructure theft and vandalism that affected Metrorail networks in Gauteng, the Western Cape and Kwazulu Natal (Khoza, 2021). The NRZ has also experienced numerous incidents of vandalism and theft with several articles identifying it as one of the institutions that is mainly affected by the scourge in Zimbabwe (Chingozha & Kwashirai, 2021; Phiri, 2021a; Kazunga, 2022). As with PRASA, theft of copper cables is the main form of vandalism for NRZ (Phiri, 2021a). Tampering with rail infrastructure such as points machines and railway lines are also some of the manifestations of vandalism for the NRZ (Kazunga, 2022). There has also been a growing trend of vandalism by illegal gold miners, who conduct their mining activities along the railway lines, leading to derailment (The Chronicle, 2021b).

6. The socio-economic impacts of vandalism and theft

6.1. Direct costs

To begin with, infrastructure vandalism has had direct costs on the operations of electricity utility companies and rail transport companies. Overall, in South Africa, cable theft and infrastructure vandalism is costing state-owned enterprises ESKOM, PRASA, Transnet and Telkon R7 billion a year in direct losses (Larkin, 2021). In the City of Johannesburg, there was a loss of R2.2 million just for the month of January 2021 after recording 144 incidents of cable theft (Tlou, 2021). Similarly, the City of Cape Town spent R15.5 million between January 2020 and March 2021 repairing and replacing infrastructure damaged by vandalism, theft and illegal connections across the metro (Naidoo, 2021). In March 2022, the South African Minister of Transport, Fikile Mbalula, indicated that PRASA needed R4 billion to repair and rehabilitate vandalised infrastructure, with Gauteng, Western Cape and Kwazulu-Natal having suffered the most devastating vandalism of rail infrastructure (South Africa News, 2022). Earlier, a Parliamentary Portfolio Committee had reported that R364 million was lost to looting and burning of trains in 2019 (PMG, 2021).

In Zimbabwe, it is estimated that the nation is losing US$100 m (about R1,5 billion) worth of property per year to vandalism, with the vandalism activities more pronounced at ZESA and NRZ (Tsokota et al., 2020). The Zimbabwe Commercial Farmers Union (ZCFU) notes that ZESA is losing more than $2 million annually as a result of copper cable theft and vandalism (The Chronicle, 2021). Similarly, an independent newspaper outlet, The Standard, notes that ZESA lost over US$11 million between January 2015 and March 2019 due to vandalism of electricity distribution infrastructure (Mazikana, 2020b). At one time ZESA required about US$40 million to replace 4 000 transformers which had been vandalised across the country (The Chronicle, 2021). The NRZ reportedly lost equipment worth US$168 000 in 2020 due to vandalism and theft (Phiri, 2021b).

6.2. Indirect costs

Other than the direct costs of infrastructure vandalism, we also have indirect costs which include loss of income and costs of security measures (Tsokota et al., 2020). As regards the loss of income, electricity distribution companies rely on income from electricity generation to fund their operations. Theft of electricity cables, illegal connections and vandalism of infrastructure such as pylons and transformers reduce electricity generation capacity, thus leading to loss of revenue (Ash, 2021). Electricity and rail transport companies within the two countries have had to incur huge costs of securing infrastructure. In South Africa, PRASA had to consider costly security measures such as employing additional 5 000 security personnel, building concrete walls along identified rail corridors and use of electric fences in the face of increase in vandalism of rail infrastructure (Business Tech, 2021). Ironically, in a CAPETALK radio station interview with a PRASA spokesperson in December 2021, it was established that PRASA has more security guards than employees in operations (Le Roux, 2021). The NRZ also had to recruit more security personnel in an attempt to reduce the incidents of infrastructure vandalism (Phiri, 2021). In 2021, the NRZ targeted to acquire drones and closed-circuit televisions to aid its operations (Phiri, 2021), with both measures having significant cost implications on the struggling parastatal. There have also been civil claims against electricity utility companies in South Africa (Noah, 2012) and Zimbabwe (Madziyanike, 2019), with majority of them emanating from death and injury of innocent people due to electrocution.

6.3. Disruption of other essential services

Vandalism of infrastructure also affects other essential services. For example, cable theft leads to a direct interference with the supply of internet connectivity, as well as telephone communications (Tsokota et al, 2020; Chingozha & Kwashirai, 2021). Many small businesses have become heavily reliant on internet to be able to conduct their business operations during the COVID-19 pandemic and a disruption of internet connectivity due to theft of cables and vandalism will put the businesses at a disadvantage (Mail & Guardian, 2021).

Passenger rail transport has also been heavily impacted by vandalism. In March 2022, all trains in the Western Cape of South Africa came to a halt following cable vandalism of the Eskom Tafel Bay substation (O’Regan, 2022). In Zimbabwe, NRZ had to discontinue use of electric trains due to theft of overhead electric cables and the parastatal had to resort to diesel-powered locomotives, which are less efficient (Sithole, 2016; Tsokota et al., 2020). There have also been reports of tampering with points machines at NRZ. If the points machines are tampered with, this results in the machines failing to open or close properly, resulting in wheels going off the tracks and derailment (Maravanyika, 2018). A study by Mmakwena (2022) established that copper cable theft is disrupting the free flow of rail and road traffic, leading to derailment and collisions. The theft of the copper cables on traffic lights is one of the major causes of traffic light downtime in the City of Johannesburg with negative consequences on the flow of traffic (Mmakwena, 2022). Ultimately, the movement of people and cargo, which is essential for the smooth functioning of the economy, will be disrupted.

The health delivery system is also heavily impacted by vandalism and theft of electricity infrastructure. Commenting on the impacts of theft of transformers on the health delivery system, a leading local newspaper wrote;

Patients could not get their meals on schedule as the hospital resorted to coal to cook food. The renal or kidney unit had to be closed temporarily, threatening the lives of the patients. Most departments had to be switched to diesel-powered generators to ensure they stayed open for at least emergency cases. (Mushanawani, 2020)

While the concerned hospitals had to resort to alternative energy sources, the cost of coal and diesel are prohibitively high. Vandalism of electricity infrastructure has also had effects on water supply by local authorities, as the purification process of water requires uninterrupted supply of electricity (Chingozha & Kwashirai, 2021).

6.4. Effects on the economy

Apart from the impacts on other essential services, infrastructure vandalism has a knock-on effect on the overall performance of the economy. For example, electricity drives the economy and vandalism of electricity distribution infrastructure will impact every facet of the economy. It is reported that the knock-on loss to the South African economy due to vandalism of state-owned entities is estimated around R187 billion a year (Larkin, 2021; Smith 2022). Money that is lost through repairs of vandalised infrastructure could have been channelled towards developing the nation’s electricity infrastructure (Mutingwende, 2019), especially given the importance of infrastructure investment for economic growth. The depressed generation capacity by ZESA has resulted in the importation of power from South Africa’s ESKOM and this leads to a strain on the already depressed national fiscus. Industry operations and agricultural activities rely on uninterrupted supply of electricity and these two key sectors have been negatively impacted by vandalism induced power cuts. Businesses that have no access to generators have to close and unfortunately lose money during periods of load shedding (Mail and Guardian, 2021).

Delays as a result of damage to rail infrastructure negatively impacts the supply chain as large corporates rely on rail transport for bulk supplies. As such, it has become difficult to produce and transport goods that are needed to drive the economy (Moichela, 2022). Such delays have been witnessed in Zimbabwe and have been compounded by the use of slow-moving diesel locomotives after the theft of overhead electric cables for electric trains. Vandalism of rail infrastructure also impacts on the mobility of commuters, who depend on affordable rail services to access economic opportunities in major urban centres (Khoza, 2021). Key sectors such as mining and agriculture require an efficient rail transport system for bulk transportation of minerals and agricultural produce, but the NRZ has failed to live up to expectations due to vandalism (Kazunga, 2022).

6.5. Impacts on community safety and well being

Load shedding is one of the major consequences of theft and vandalism on electricity distribution infrastructure and it comes with significant impacts on community wellbeing. Loadshedding can generate considerable fear within communities as people live in darkness and poor or no lighting has been associated with increased criminal activities within communities (Naidoo, 2021). As cable theft results in power outages, this affects traffic lights, leading to congestion on the roads and disruption of street lighting (Mail and Guardian, 2021). Load shedding has also increased the cost of living as people resort to alternative expensive sources of energy for cooking and heating (Mazikana, 2020). There have been reports that innocent people, especially children have been electrocuted after getting into contact with live electricity cables that would have been left dangling by vandals. Reports of suspected copper cable thieves being electrocuted have also been on the increase (Ndlovu, 2019; The Chronicle, 2021). Though it can be argued that this could be deterrent to potential cable thieves, this has, however, not deterred the vandals (Ndlovu, 2019). At times, roads have also been blocked by falling electrical lines due to vandalism of pylons, thus putting lives in danger (Smith, 2022).

Vandalism induced loadshedding has also led to violent service delivery protests in some parts of South Africa, which at times leads to further destruction of property. In June 2021, there were violent protests in Soweto over electricity, as some parts of the township were experiencing incessant blackouts (Deklerk, 2021). In December 2021, the SABC News channel reported the intensification of the violent protests over electricity within the same community (Magubane, 2021). Similar protests were also witnessed in Kwazulu Natal in January 2022 when angry residents threatened to burn down Hammersdale Power Station in protest over a spike in power cuts (Kobbie, 2022).

7. Challenges of dealing with infrastructure vandalism

Notwithstanding the current measures to curb infrastructure vandalism and theft, which we will highlight later in this paper, the mitigatory efforts face several hurdles. In this section, we highlight these challenges under five themes namely: involvement of employees; corruption and vulnerable economy; threat of illegal settlements and gold mining; non-vandalism induced power cuts; well organised crime syndicates; and a weak regulatory framework.

7.1. Involvement of employees

One major challenge that confronts efforts to deal with vandalism in the electricity sector is the involvement of ESKOM and ZESA employees in the commission of crimes. In a statement by a leading local newspaper in Zimbabwe, the Zimbabwean President Emmerson Mnangagwa had this to say;

We are convinced that those who steal transformers either work for ZESA or are related to ZESA workers because you need some degree of information and technology to steal these transformers, and you must know that there is some danger involved. (Ndlovu, 2019)

The sentiments by the President could be true as it does not take an ordinary criminal to embark on a risky venture of draining oil from transformers. In South Africa, there are also reports of ESKOM employees being involved in cable theft and vandalism. In March 2022, an ESKOM employee was arrested for stealing pylon steel, with similar reports of involvement of ESKOM employees in criminal activities having been received in the past (Midrand Reporter, 2022). ESKOM security employees were also part of a cable theft syndicate that was arrested by ESKOM, SAPS and Hawks in Mpumalanga in March 2022 (Smith, 2022). It becomes a challenge to deal with theft and vandalism when people who are supposed to be protecting the infrastructure become the perpetrators.

7.2. Thriving scrap metal market

There is also a thriving market of scrap metal in South Africa and this, coupled with rampant corruption at border posts, has led to a rise in incidents of vandalism and theft of ZESA and NRZ infrastructure in Zimbabwe. Whilst cross-border smuggling of stolen cables is more rampant, there has also been an increase in local demand for scrap metal in Zimbabwe due to the proliferation of small steel companies. The growth in operations of steel companies has created strong demand for scrap metal, which inadvertently contributes to a rise in vandalism (Phiri, 2022). Mmakwena (2022) also points out that the combination of unscrupulous scrap dealers, the alleged involvement of large scrap processing companies and lax penalties means that much of the stolen copper ends up back in the legitimate supply chain.

7.3. Corruption and vulnerable economy

Other than dealing with vandalism and theft, the electricity and rail utility companies also have to contend with corruption during the investigation and prosecution of vandalism cases. A study by Chingozha & Kwashirai (2021) established that there were 27 cases of corruption that originated from cases of vandalism to ZESA property, particularly copper cables in 2018. The study established that due to the severity of the cases, attempts to engage in corruption through bribing a police officer or a judiciary occurred (Chingozha & Kwashirai 2021). The nation of Zimbabwe is currently facing some economic challenges, and this impacts efforts to deal with vandalism in two ways. First, high incidents of poverty due to these economic challenges push citizens to engage in vandalism and theft; and second, poor salaries for investigators and judiciary officers may push them to engage in corrupt activities.

7.4. Threat of illegal settlements and goldmining

The threat of illegal settlements around rail reserves in South Africa and illegal gold mining along railway lines in Zimbabwe have contributed to the challenges of dealing with theft and vandalism within the two countries. Reports have shown increased cases of vandalism around areas that are occupied by illegal squatters in South Africa (PMG, 2021). Updating the National Council of Provinces on damage to infrastructure during the COVID-19 lockdown, the South African President, Cyril Ramaphosa indicated that efforts to curb damage to rail infrastructure was being hampered by illegal settlements built on the tracks and inside the rail reserve (Khoza, 2021). Whilst efforts to remove the squatters have been frequently made, the groupings around these rail reserves have often contested their removal, indicating that relocation can only occur when proper housing is availed (PMG, 2021).

Almost similar to the challenge of illegal settlements on rail reserves for in South Africa, the NRZ has had to contend with the scourge of illegal gold mining along the railway lines (The Chronicle, 2021b). This is happening despite the presence of a law which prohibits human activities within 45 metres on either side of the railway line. These illegal gold miners leave large holes along the railway lines, and they sometimes take away some of the rail infrastructure (The Chronicle, 2021b). Dealing with illegal miners along the rail tracks becomes a challenge as it may imply a 24-hour surveillance of all the areas with gold reserves along the railway lines. Whilst electronic surveillance would be ideal, the theft of electric overhead cables makes it impossible to undertake electronic surveillance. On the other hand, physical surveillance will not be financially feasible.

7.5. Non-vandalism induced power outages

Research has shown that most of the vandalism occurs during power outages. However, not all incidents of load shedding are triggered by vandalism and theft. At times load shedding within the two countries is triggered by increased demand, especially during winter. In Zimbabwe, load shedding has also often been triggered by the reduction of water levels at Kariba dam, from where hydro-electric power is generated. It is during these periods of power outages that criminal activities such as theft of cables, theft of transformers and transformer oil occur (Moyo, 2018; Mazikana, 2020; Mail and Guardian, 2021). In most cases, the electricity distribution companies make prior announcements about the periods of load shedding, a scenario which is akin to advising the criminals on the proper times to carry out their criminal activities.

7.6. Well organised syndicates

At times vandalism and theft of cables is perpetrated by well-organised crime syndicates, making it difficult to either crack the crime syndicates, or to investigate (Smith, 2022). At times, these organised crime syndicates will be heavily armed and the utility companies’ internal security may not be adequately equipped to deal with them. Govender (2017) also feels that a security official does not pose any danger to criminals as they are ill equipped to protect Eskom installations. Tsekota et al (2013) also note that there are well organised syndicates which include some law enforcement agents, employees, cross border transporters and border control staff. The transborder dimension of these organised crime syndicates pose a challenge during investigations.

7.7. Weak legal framework

The existing legislation has been found to be weak in dealing with vandalism of electricity distribution and rail transport infrastructure (Mjuzi, 2020; Chingozha & Kwashirai, 2021). Whilst cable is one of the forms of vandalism with devastating effects, Zimbabwe has weak legislation that regulates copper trade, thereby making it difficult to craft strategies for reducing copper cable theft (Chingozha & Kwashirai, 2021). In South Africa, Mjuzi (2020) notes that theft of electricity is not a statutory offence, and the High Court has often ruled that electricity is incapable of being stolen. This legal position makes it difficult to deal with the perennial problem of electricity theft. In countries such as Canada, China, India, Australia and New Zealand, the crime of theft of electricity is clearly spelt out within their statutes (Mjuzi, 2020).

8. Dealing with vandalism and theft

8.1. Overview of current mitigatory measures

Notwithstanding the challenges that confront the electricity and rail transport sectors in dealing with vandalism, several measures have been put in place. One way in which the problem has been dealt with is through the promulgation of relevant statutory provisions, the major highlight being mandatory jail sentences for crimes such as theft or vandalism of transformers and theft of electricity cables (Sithole, 2016; Theron, 2018). The main laws for copper cable theft and vandalism in Zimbabwe are the Copper Control Act [Chapter 14:06], and the Criminal Law (Codification and Reform) Act [Chapter 9:15]. Similarly, South Africa relies on the Criminal Matters Amendment Act 18 of 2015 and the Second-hand Goods Act 6 of 2009. However, while Zimbabwean laws set a ten-year mandatory sentence for copper cable theft, South African laws set a minimum three-year sentence for first time copper theft offenders. Notwithstanding the presence of these laws and as noted in the preceding section, the legal framework within the two countries is inherently weak. In an effort to enforce these laws, arrests have been made and criminals have been prosecuted. For example, it is reported that of the 8, 988 cable theft incidents reported in South Africa between 2012 and 2016, 1,159 arrests were made (Theron, 2018). The National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) of South Africa has made significant inroads into the prosecution and conviction for copper cable theft and infrastructure crime-related matters (Louw, 2021). It has seen an increase in convictions with an average conviction rate 88% over the recent years, which is well above the measured benchmark of 74% (Louw, 2021). While there could be significant results on the prosecution and conviction aspects in South Africa, the argument still subsists that these criminal activities should have been prevented in the first place.

In both countries, there is dedicated are established security departments for the electricity utility companies and the rail transport companies. However, as noted by Govender (2017) these dedicated security departments lack the capacity to deal with copper cable theft, largely due to the extensive open power networks. There have also been joint security operations between the security departments of the institutions and other security arms of the state. In South Africa, joint operations between ESKOM, SAPS and Hawks have often produced positive results, with a number of criminals being brought before the courts (Smith, 2022). Similarly, in Zimbabwe, joint operations between the NRZ, ZESA and the Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) has also yielded positive results, coupled by arrests and recoveries (Phiri, 2021). The companies in both countries have also embarked on recruitment of more security personnel (Business Tech, 2021; Phiri, 2021), though this increases the operating costs. Power utility companies within the two nations have also introduced internal remedies such as stiffer fines for illegal activities such as tampering with electricity metres, illegal connections and bypassing electricity metres (Sithole, 2016; Larkin, 2021). Despite the current efforts to deal with vandalism and theft, cases seem to be on the rise, thus calling for more robust measures to decisively deal with the scourge. In the proceeding section we proffer suggestions for dealing with theft and vandalism.

9. Suggested measures for dealing with vandalism

Given the socio-economic impacts of vandalism as highlighted in the previous sections, and the seemingly inadequacy of the current mitigatory measures, it is imperative that mitigatory measures are put in place to deal with the scourge. We proffer mitigatory measures as informed by research as well as the highlighted challenges. To this end, we discuss the mitigatory measures under five themes namely: stringent punitive measures and regulatory framework; sustained multi-agency cooperation; efficient whistleblowing policy; investment in technology; and target removal and target hardening.

9.1. Punitive regulatory framework

One way of deterring would be vandals is to have stiffer penalties for cases of vandalism and theft. There is a general belief that the current 10-year mandatory sentence for vandalism and theft of copper cables is lenient and should be raised to 20 years. In 2020, the then Zimbabwean Minister of Energy, Fortune Chasi, proposed a 30-year prison sentence for vandalism of ZESA infrastructure and this was widely viewed to be deterrent enough. Repeat offenders should also be given more stiffer penalties, even life sentences (Tsokota et al., 2020).

There is also need for a stringent regulatory framework for the operations of scrap metal dealers. In a leading story in one of Zimbabwe’s leading daily newspapers, it was noted as follows;

One of the reasons why it has apparently been difficult to end vandalism of infrastructure like power lines and transformers is that those fuelling the destruction have not been targeted.

This statement was aimed at scrap metal dealers, who are regarded as major customers of stolen and vandalised equipment. Failure to verify the source of scrap metal by scrap metal dealers should be criminalised and should come with stiffer penalties. A study by Tsokota et al. (2013) recommended that scrap metal dealers should be banned from dealing with copper, a recommendation which is also shared by these researchers. There is also need for enactment of statutes which criminalise theft of electricity in both countries. This offence should encompass activities such as illegal connections, tampering with electricity metres and by-passing of electricity metres. As recommended by Mjuzi (2020) the offence of theft of electricity should also come with heavy penalties.

9.2. Sustained multi-agency cooperation

Internal security of utility companies should cooperate with state security agencies, especially when dealing with organised crime syndicates (Tsokota et al., 2020). This cooperation needs not to be once-off operations, but there should be continuous engagements in the areas of preventive efforts, sharing crime intelligence and conducting sting operations. This cooperation is based on the notion that any threat to critical infrastructure such as electricity and rail infrastructure is a threat to national security, hence the need for engaging all security apparatus of the state. In addition to engaging state security agencies, there is also a need to engage private security companies so as to increase the security of infrastructure. This will increase availability of manpower needed to guard vital infrastructure, patrol high risk power lines and infrastructure, as well as proactive monitoring of vandalism hot spots. From the perspective of the routine activities theory, sustained multi-agency cooperation will enhance ‘guardianship’ for the electricity and rail infrastructure thus reducing the susceptibility of the infrastructure to vandalism and theft.

9.3. Efficient whistleblowing policy

Whistleblowing has been touted as one of the leading ways of dealing with infrastructure vandalism (Sithole, 2016; Chingozha & Kwashirai, 2021). While whistleblowing could be one of the current anti-vandalism measures, the rise in vandalism cases may imply that this important measure is not being fully utilised. Whistleblowing needs to be accompanied by a sustained effort to inform and educate citizens about the implications of vandalism on their livelihoods, thus creating within citizens the urge to report all vandalism cases. There is need for a clear whistleblowing policy, which clearly spells out the methods of whistleblowing, protection mechanisms for whistle blowers, investigative responsibilities upon receipt of anonymous reports, as well as whistleblowing rewards.

9.4. Investment in modern technology

There is need for utility companies to enhance security using modern technology. Noah (2012) proffers the following security measures: implementation of alarm systems, monitoring systems and movement sensors to remotely raise the alarm when the security of premises is breached; implementation of vibration detection, alarm systems and monitoring systems on high-risk cables; and implementation of alarm systems in all high risk sited to dispatch armed response reaction when criminal activities are detected. The use of drones and closed-circuit televisions has also been viewed as instrumental in curbing theft and vandalism of infrastructure for the rail transport (Phiri, 2021). Whilst this idea was mooted by NRZ in 2021 (Phiri, 2021), perhaps its high time that the idea is put into practice. Louw (2021) also supports a technology-centric approach integrated within a risk matrix model in order to deal with the problem of cable theft and electricity infrastructure vandalism. Ultimately, a technology-driven approach will have both a preventive and deterrent effect, as opposed to responding after incidents of vandalism and theft have occurred.

9.5. Target removal and target hardening

Power utility companies should make efforts to replace targeted material with less attractive materials and to increase the efforts for criminals to engage in vandalism and theft. These are critical aspects of target removal and target hardening. In this regard, ESKOM has suggested replacing copper conductors with aluminium and replacing all normal bolts on pylons with anti-theft bolts (Theron, 2018). ESKOM also recommends measures such as engraving support lattices on steel pylons with ESKOM’s name on the steel and installing alarms on overhead lines in such a way that if the line is cut or tampered with, the alarm rings in the control room, thus instigating the dispatch of a reaction unit (Theron, 2018). These target removal and target hardening measures can also be embraced by ZESA. From the perspective of the routine activities theory, target removal and target hardening will remove the ‘attractiveness’ of the copper cables as soft targets for criminals.

10. Conclusion

This paper revealed the manifestations and socio-economic impacts of infrastructure vandalism, particularly within the electricity and rail transport sectors. Electricity utility companies have suffered more due to acts of vandalism, which manifest through copper cable theft, vandalism of transformers and pylons, and theft of transformers. Theft of overhead copper cables has also affected rail transport, with theft, illegal mining along railway lines and tampering with points machines being other forms of vandalism within the rail transport sector. Vandalism of infrastructure comes with direct and indirect costs to the utility companies, as shown by massive replacement and repair costs and security enhancement costs. Vandalism also negatively impacts the economy, essential services, and the overall community safety. Efforts to deal with vandalism have been hampered by the involvement of employees in the criminal activities, corruption, incessant non-vandalism induced power cuts which present criminals with opportunities, well organised crime syndicates which are difficult to crack, and a weak legal framework. Based on the nature of vandalism, impacts and attendant challenges, this paper recommends a punitive regulatory framework, sustained multi-agency cooperation, efficient whistle blowing policies, investment in security enhancement technologies, and target removal and target hardening as ways of dealing with vandalism.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).