A Changing Mediterranean: Regional Organisations and North Africa during the Arab Spring

Abstract

This article discusses the role played by the European Union, African Union and Arab League in the recent revolutions in Tunisia, Egypt and Libya. It focuses in particular on the use and impact of political and economic conditionality, the decision-making processes within each organisation and the inter-regional forums created to deal with the crisis. The analysis acknowledges the increasingly active and vocal role played by regional organisations in the so-called ‘Arab spring’, but it highlights not just that they had few legal powers to intervene in these crises, but also that they seemed very reluctant to use any form of political or economic conditionality. It also reveals that the main purpose of inter-regional forums was arguably not to generate consensus internationally but rather to manage dissent. As such, the article encourages a reflection on the specific challenges and opportunities that North Africa and the Mediterranean region pose to regional conflict management.

Keywords:

• Arab spring
• North Africa
• conditionality
• regional organisations
• intervention

Notes

¹ L. Baker, “Arab League to Guide on Libya Rebels – EU's Ashton”, Reuters, 10 March 2011, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/03/10/uk-libya-eu-arableague-idUKTRE7296XF20110310/.

² B. Obama, “Letter About Efforts in Libya”, New York Times, 20 May 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/21/world/africa/21libya-text.html?_r=1/.

³ Barnett and Solingen, “Designed to Fail?”; Okoth, “Conflict Resolution in Africa”; Tavares, Regional Security.

⁴ Møller, The African Union as Security Actor, 6.

⁵ By 13 January the death toll of the Jasmine revolution was estimated between 23 and 66 casualties (R. Rifai, “Timeline: Tunisia's Uprising”, Al Jazeera, 23 January 2011, http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/spotlight/tunisia/2011/01/201114142223827361.html), which contrasts with the 846 people killed during the Egyptian revolution (FIDH, The Price of Hope, 8) and the estimated 50,000 dead in the Libyan civil war (Reuters, “Libya Commander Says 50,000 Dead in Uprising”, Reuters, 30 August 2011, http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/30/us-libya-casualties-idUSTRE77T3PE20110830/).

⁶ Manners, “Normative Power Europe”, 242; Tocci, EU and Conflict Resolution, 8.

⁷ Council of the European Union, Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2008:115:0047:0199:en:PDF.

⁸ Euro-Mediterranean Agreement Establishing an Association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the One Part, and the Republic of Tunisia, of the Other Part, Brussels, 17 July 1995, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:21998A0330(01):ES:HTML/.

⁹ Ibid.

¹⁰ “EU and Tunisia Agree to Work Towards Advanced Status”, ENPI Info Centre, 11 May 2011, http://www.enpi-info.eu/mainmed.php?id_type=1&id=21537/.

¹¹ Ibid.

¹² L. Phillips, “Mediterranean EU States Block Stronger Action on Tunisia”, EUobserver.com, 14 January 2011, http://euobserver.com/24/31644/.

¹³ V. Pop, “Barroso to Tunisia: More Money if you Want your Migrants Back”, EUobserver.com, 13 April 2011, http://euobserver.com/9/32169/.

¹⁴ “Tunisia: EU Commission, Advanced Status Talks Premature”, ANSAmed, 5 April 2011, http://www.ansamed.info/en/news/ME.XEF21750.html.

¹⁵ European Commission, Statement by Commissioner Stefan Füle.

¹⁶ “Ashton Hails Clear Signal as Tunisia Signs Up for Key Human Rights Conventions”, ENPI Info Centre, 4 July 2011, http://www.enpi-info.eu/mainmed.php?lang_id=450&searchtype=simple&id=25782&id_type=1.

¹⁷ L. Phillips, “Mediterranean EU States Block Stronger Action on Tunisia”, EUobserver.com, 14 January 2011, http://euobserver.com/24/31644/.

¹⁸ Council of the European Union, A Secure Europe in a Better World.

¹⁹ EU–Tunisia, Euro-Mediterranean Agreement.

²⁰ Olsen, “Europe and the Promotion of Democracy”, 367.

²¹ Council of the European Union, Council Conclusions on Egypt.

²² European Council, Conclusions.

²³ Council of the European Union, Council Conclusions on Egypt, emphasis added.

²⁴ Blockmans and Wessel, “The European Union and Crisis Management”, 288–90.

²⁵ A. Rettman, “Egypt: Over 100 Dead, Tourists Evacuated, Multiple EU Statements”, EUobserver.com, 31 January 2011, http://euobserver.com/24/31721/.

²⁶ Blockmans and Wessel, “The European Union and Crisis Management”, 289.

²⁷ European Council, Conclusions.

²⁸ “EU Leaders Demand Egypt Transition ‘Now’”, Agence France Presse English, 4 February 2011.

²⁹ European Council, Conclusions.

³⁰ “EU Fights to Get Envoy Ashton into Egypt”, Agence France Presse, 10 February 2011, http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/5355/Egypt/Politics-/EU-fights-to-get-envoy-Ashton-into-Egypt.aspx/.

³¹ African Union, Constitutive Act of the African Union.

³² “Tunisia: Statement by the Chairperson of the African Union Commission on the Situation in the Country”, allAfrica.com, 14 January 2011, http://allafrica.com/stories/201101141019.html/.

³³ H. Vesperini, “African Union Urges Egypt Reforms”, Agence France Presse, 30 January 2011, http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jHuPin2AkxVSPT6qEgxgyjwPYj0w?docId=CNG.bc937a1a30aafcea92c02296ce113ff6.5d1/.

³⁴ M. Roussow, “South Africa Calls for Mubarak to Step Down”, Mail & Guardian, 4 February 2011, http://mg.co.za/article/2011-02-04-sa-calls-for-mubarak-to-step-down/.

³⁵ African Union, “The African Union Supports a Peaceful and Short Transition to Democratically-Elected Institutions in Egypt”, Press release, Addis Ababa, 11 February 2011, http://www.au.int/en/content/african-union-supports-peaceful-and-short-transition-democratically-elected-institutions-egy/.

³⁶ “Arab League Head Wants Egypt Multi-Party Democracy”, Reuters, 30 January 2011, http://af.reuters.com/article/egyptNews/idAFLDE70T0B620110130?pageNumber=1&virtualBrandChannel=0/.

³⁷ A. Blomfield, “Calls for Amr Moussa to Lead Post-Mubarak Egypt”. The Daily Telegraph, 5 February 2011, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/8306069/Calls-for-Amr-Moussa-to-lead-post-Mubarak-Egypt.html/.

³⁸ Ibid.

³⁹ “King Slams Acts of ‘Fitnah’ in Egypt”, Saudi Gazette, 30 January 2011, http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=2011013092468/.

⁴⁰ Arab League, “The Implications of Events in Libya”.

⁴¹ Cameron, “Opening Speech of the London Conference on Libya”.

⁴² Hanggi et al., “Interregionalism”, 6.

⁴³ African Union, “Consultative Meeting on the Situation in Libya”.

⁴⁴ Ibid.

⁴⁵ M. Golovnina and M. Georgy, “Western Powers Strike Libya; Arab League has Doubts”. Reuters, 20 March 2011, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/03/20/us-libya-idUSTRE7270JP20110320/.

⁴⁶ M. Quarterman, “Libya as a Multilateral Moment”. Commentary, Centre for Strategic and International Studies, 3 March 2011, http://csis.org/publication/libya-multilateral-moment/.

⁴⁷ Rüland, “Interregionalism: An Unfinished Agenda”, 300.

⁴⁸ Haas, “Conflict Management and International Organizations”.

⁴⁹ “Libya Contact Group: Chair's Statement”. News Release, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London, 13 April 2011, http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/news/latest-news/?view=News&id=583592582/.