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Abstract
In recent years, thousands of radical citizens and residents from Europe have joined the so-called ‘Islamic State’ (IS) in Syria and Iraq. Unlike other European countries, Italy has traditionally been characterised by the prevalence of individual pathways of radicalisation over group mechanisms. Nevertheless, recent cases show interesting indications of the increasing role of small groups based on pre-existing personal relationships (family and friendship ties). This kind of bond can be particularly salient for IS, a jihadist “proto-state”, which needs not only ‘foreign fighters’ but also new ‘citizens’ of different sexes and ages, including entire families.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the ‘Banca del Monte di Lombardia’ Foundation.
Notes
1 Bakke, “Help wanted?”.
2 Nesser et al., “Jihadi Terrorism in Europe”.
3 Malet, Foreign fighters.
4 See Schmid and Tinnes, Foreign (Terrorist) Fighters, 7, 27; Van Ginkel and Entenmann, The Foreign Fighters Phenomenon.
5 E.g., Khalil and Shanahan, Foreign fighters in Syria and Iraq.
6 In particular, Schmid and Tinnes, Foreign (Terrorist) Fighters.
7 Hegghammer, “The Rise of Muslim Foreign Fighters”, 57-8.
8 Lia, “Understanding jihadi proto-states”.
9 Bakker and de Bont, “Belgian and Dutch Jihadist Foreign Fighters”, 847.
10 IS and other jihadist armed groups in Syria and Iraq, basing their activity on a rigid interpretation of Sharia law, normally prefer not to use women in military combat. See, among others, Peresin and Cervone, “The Western muhajirat of ISIS”.
11 Bakker and de Bont, “Belgian and Dutch Jihadist Foreign Fighters”, 849.
12 Marone, Italy’s Jihadists, 15.
13 Coolsaet, Facing the fourth, 39-40.
14 Marone, “Italian Jihadists”, and Italy’s Jihadists.
15 Many studies have pointed out that jihadists, including foreign fighters, present a variety of individual profiles. Therefore in the literature there has been a general tendency to “shift the focus away from profiling extremists to profiling the radicalization pathways they take” (Hafez and Mullins, “The Radicalization Puzzle”, 959). See also Horgan, “From Profiles to Pathways”.
16 Schmid and Tinnes, Foreign (Terrorist) Fighters, 35.
17 Press conference of the Commission of experts on the phenomenon of jihadist radicalisation and extremism, Rome, Italian Government, 5 January 2017, http://www.governo.it/media/la-riunione-della-commissione-di-studio-sul-fenomeno-della-radicalizzazione-e-dell-estremismo.
18 For example, the 2015 annual report to Parliament of the Italian Interior Ministry confirmed that: “[i]n relation to the conflict in Syria it should be pointed out that the Italian territory has turned out to be a transit ‘hub’ for foreign fighters who left other European countries and travelled to the abovementioned theatre of conflict” (Italian Interior Ministry, Relazione al Parlamento - Anno 2015 [Report to Parliament], 12).
19 E.g., Björkman, “Salafi-Jihadi terrorism in Italy”.
20 Tuck et al., ‘Shooting in the right direction’.
21 Tribunale di Milano (Court of Milan), Ordinanza [Court order].
22 Bakker and de Bont, “Belgian and Dutch Jihadist Foreign Fighters”, 838.
23 Press conference of the Commission of experts on the phenomenon of jihadist radicalisation and extremism, 5 January 2017.
24 Cf. Boncio, “Italian Foreign Terrorist Fighters”.
25 Ibid, 10.
26 Marone, Italy’s Jihadists.
27 Ibid., 5.
28 See Schmid and Tinnes, Foreign (Terrorist) Fighters; Van Ginkel and Entenmann, The Foreign Fighters Phenomenon.
29 Cf. Lindekilde et al. “Who Goes, Why”, 860.
30 Cf. De Bie et al., “Shifting Modus Operandi”, 420.
31 Lindekilde et al. “Who Goes, Why”, 861.
33 Marone, Italy’s Jihadists, 15.
34 Ibid, 30.
36 Serafini, Maria Giulia che divenne Fatima [Maria Giulia becomes Fatima]; Tribunale di Milano, Ordinanza, 11.
37 Tribunale di Milano, Ordinanza.
38 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
41 Biondani and Ronchetti, “Is, la strana storia del jihadista di Varese” [IS, the strange story of the jihadist from Varese”], L’Espresso, 28 January 2016.
42 “Terrorismo, Alfano: ‘Due espulsi’” [“Terrorism, Alfano: Two people deported”], Ansa, 20 May 2016.
44 Buizza, “Voleva il martirio in Siria, la Digos infrange il sogno” [“She wanted martyrdom, the DIGOS police special division shatters her dream”], Bresciaoggi, 8 June 2016.
45 Rodella, “Filmati dell’Isis”.
46 On anti-terrorism deportation measures in Italy, see Marone, “The Use of Deportation”.
47 Marone, Italy’s Jihadists.
48 Vidino, Home-Grown Jihadism in Italy, 77 and passim.
49 On the debate about the concept of radicalisation, see, among others, Horgan, “From Profiles to Pathways”; Borum, “Radicalization into violent extremism”; Bartlett and Miller, “The edge of violence”; Neumann, “The trouble with radicalization”; Coolsaet, All radicalisation is local.
50 E.g., Neumann, “The trouble with radicalization”.
51 Schuurman and Horgan, “Rationales for terrorist violence”, 60.
52 See Serafini, “Il padre di Fatima la jihadista italiana: ‘Voglio tornare cattolico: mia figlia mi ha manipolato’” [“The father of Italian jihadist Fatima: ‘I want to go back to being Catholic: my daughter manipulated me’”], Corriere della Sera, 19 November 2015.
53 In particular, Vidino, Home-Grown Jihadism in Italy.
54 Basra et al., Criminal Pasts.
55 Serafini, Maria Giulia che divenne Fatima; Tribunale di Milano, Ordinanza; Petenzi, “Il marito consegnato all’antiterrorismo tunisino”.
56 Schmid and Tinnes, Foreign (Terrorist) Fighters, 38-9.
57 Serafini, Maria Giulia che divenne Fatima; “Le due vite di Sara Pilè”; Tribunale di Milano, Ordinanza.
58 Tribunale di Milano, Ordinanza.
59 Serafini, Maria Giulia che divenne Fatima, 42, 46-7.
60 Marone, Italy’s Jihadists, 24.
61 Ibid., 25; Tribunale di Milano, Ordinanza, 40.
62 Serafini, Maria Giulia che divenne Fatima; Tribunale di Milano, Ordinanza; Petenzi, “Il marito consegnato all’antiterrorismo tunisino” [“Husband handed over to Tunisian anti-terrorism”].
63 De Bie et al., “Shifting Modus Operandi”, 436.
64 Cf. Marone, Italy’s Jihadists.
65 Tribunale di Milano, Ordinanza, 49.
66 See Reynolds and Hafez, “Social Network Analysis”.
67 Sageman, Leaderless Jihad.
68 Schmid and Tinnes, Foreign (Terrorist) Fighters, 35.
69 McCauley and Moskalenko. “Mechanisms of political radicalization”.
70 Marone, Italy’s Jihadists, 28-9.
71 Delnevo, the first Italian-born foreign fighter in Syria, left Genoa in November 2012 and died fighting for an al-Qaeda-linked group in the Aleppo area in June 2013. El-Abboubi, a second-generation ‘born-again’ Muslim from the province of Brescia, joined the ranks of IS in Syria in September 2013. Rehaily, a female ‘second-generation immigrant’ from the province of Padua, left for the self-proclaimed caliphate in July 2015. See Vidino, Home-Grown Jihadism in Italy; Marone, Italy’s Jihadists.
72 Sharia4 is a transnational Islamist movement with autonomous branches in various European countries. See Vidino, “Sharia4”.
73 E.g., Della Porta, Clandestine Political Violence.
74 Hafez and Mullins, “The Radicalization Puzzle”, 964-6.
75 Holman, “‘Gonna Get Myself Connected’”, 7-8.
76 See Holman, “‘Gonna Get Myself Connected’”.
77 Serafini, Maria Giulia che divenne Fatima.
78 Ibid.
79 Tribunale di Milano, Ordinanza, passim.
80 Reynolds and Hafez, “Social Network Analysis”.
81 Spagna, Il network jihadista in Italia [The jihadist network in Italy], 7.
82 Van Vlierden, “Molenbeek and Beyond”.
83 Coolsaet, Facing the fourth, 41-2.
84 Marone, Italy’s Jihadists.
85 Giacalone, “Islamic Extremism”.
86 Serafini, Maria Giulia che divenne Fatima.
87 Tribunale di Milano, Ordinanza, 60.
88 Cf. Hegghammer, “Should I Stay or Should I Go?”.
89 Tribunale di Milano, Ordinanza, 44.
90 See Vidino, Home-Grown Jihadism in Italy; Marone, Italy’s Jihadists.
91 Felson, “The natural history”.
92 Cf. Marone, “L’organizzazione del segreto” [“The social organisation of secrecy”].
93 Granovetter, “The strength of weak ties”.
94 Kennedy and Weimann, “The strength of weak”, 205.