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ABSTRACT
Snowden’s global surveillance revelations inverted the direction of the European Parliament’s debate on the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). Before Snowden’s revelations, corporations were shaping Europe’s privacy rules. But when Snowden’s revelations raised the salience of Internet privacy issues, the power of corporations went down, and privacy advocates incorporated their preferences into the GDPR. Thus, the fact that Snowden was able to increase the salience of privacy issues was instrumental in defeating organised corporate power and enabling privacy advocates to mobilise Europe’s culture of privacy protection.
Notes
1 Culpepper, Quiet Politics and Business Power.
2 Greenwald, No Place to Hide; Poitras, Citizenfour.
3 Germany, France, the UK, Italy and Spain.
4 Newman, Protectors of Privacy.
5 See, i.a., Beignier, Le Droit de la personnalité; Greenleaf, Asian Data Privacy Laws; Lindsay, “Conceptual Basis of Privacy”; Mullerat, “EU-US Data Protection”; Rotenberg and Jacobs, “Updating the Law of Information Privacy”; Ruyver et al., Strategies Combating Transnational Organized Crime.
6 Kilian, “Germany”.
7 Whitman, “The Two Western Cultures of Privacy”.
8 Steinmo, “American Exceptionalism Reconsidered”, 107.
9 Newman, Protectors of Privacy, 143; Farrell and Héritier, “Negotiating Privacy across Arenas”, 105.
10 Newman, Ibid., 143.
11 Newman, “Innovating European Data Privacy Regulation”.
12 Newman, “Transatlantic Flight Fights”.
13 Ibid., 492.
14 Newman, Protectors of Privacy.
15 Ripoll Servent, “Holding the European Parliament Responsible”.
16 Arthur, “EU Court of Justice Overturns Law”.
17 Among others, Falque-Pierrotin, “Letter from Article 29 Working Party”; Farrell and Hértier, “Negotiating Privacy across Arenas”.
18 Drozdiak and Schechner, “EU Court Says Data-Transfer Pact”.
19 Greenwald and MacAskill, “NSA Prism Program Taps in”; Gellman and Poitras, “U.S., British Intelligence Mining Data”, respectively.
20 EC, “Vice-President Reding’s Intervention”.
21 Culpepper, Quiet Politics and Business Power, 77.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid., 4; Kollman, Outside Lobbying, 9.
24 Culpepper, Ibid.
25 Atkinson et al., “Measuring the Media Agenda”; Boydstun, Making the News; Edwards and Wood, “Who Influences Whom?”.
26 Culpepper, Quiet Politics and Business Power, 5–9; Gormley, “Regulatory Issue Networks”; Wilson, Political Organizations.
27 Oppermann and Viehrig, “Issue Salience”, 242.
28 Culpepper, Ibid; Epstein and Segal, “Measuring Issue Salience”.
29 Atkinson et al., “Measuring the Media Agenda”.
30 Culpepper, Ibid.
31 Atkinson et al., “Measuring the Media Agenda”, 356.
32 Mahoney, “Networking vs. Allying”; Mahoney, Brussels Versus the Beltway.
33 The query terms were: in English, (regulation w/10 “data protection”) OR (internet AND privacy) OR (online AND privacy); in Spanish, (regulación w/10 “protección de datos”) OR “privacidad en la red” OR (privacidad AND online) OR (privacidad AND internet); in French, (régulation w/10 “données personnelles”) OR “confidentialité en ligne” OR (confidentialité AND internet) OR (confidentialité AND online); in Italian, (regolazione w/10 “protezione dei dati”) OR “privacy su internet” OR (privacy AND internet) OR (privacy AND online); in German, datenschutzverordnung OR datenschutzreform OR (datenschutz AND internet) OR (datenschutz AND online).
34 The query term was the same for all languages: (Snowden OR NSA OR PRISM OR xkeyscore OR tempora or XKeyscore). PRISM, xkeyscore and tempora are the names of the most popular NSA programs.
35 Jones and Baumgartner, The Politics of Attention, 68.
36 Derthick and Quirk, The Politics of Deregulation; Wilson, The Politics of Regulation.
37 Lelieveldt and Princen, Politics of the European Union, 256.
38 Kuner, European Commission’s Proposed Data Protection Regulation.
39 EDPS, “Opinion of the European Data Protection Supervisor”, 2.
40 Ibid., 3.
41 EDRi, “ENDitorial”.
42 DigitalEurope, “Comments on Proposed Regulation”, 1.
43 Amongst others, Culpepper, Quiet Politics and Business Power; Hacker and Pierson, “Business Power and Social Policy”; Lindblom, Politics and Markets.
44 AmCham EU, “AmCham EU Position on Regulation”, 2–3.
45 Beyers, “Voice and Access”.
46 Richard Allan’s LinkedIn https://uk.linkedin.com/in/ricallan; Erika Mann’s LinkedIn https://be.linkedin.com/pub/erika-mann/15/ba3/701; EIF, “European Internet Forum - ABOUT US”, https://www.eifonline.org/about-us.html.
47 John Vasallo’s Economist Intelligence Unit Profile, http://www.economistinsights.com/speaker/4040; Sarah Hunter’s LinkedIn https://www.linkedin.com/pub/sarah-hunter/17/866/712; Antoine Aubert’s LinkedIn https://www.linkedin.com/pub/antoine-aubert/2a/a2a/b4.
48 Kreab, EU Transparency Register, http://ec.europa.eu/transparencyregister/public/consultation/displaylobbyist.do?id=1078390517-54; Kreab, “Press Release: Former Member of the European Parliament Karin Riis-Jørgensen Joins Kreab Gavin Anderson”, http://ec.europa.eu/transparencyregister/public/consultation/displaylobbyist.do?id=1078390517-54&locale=en#en.
49 Eudes, “Très chères données personnelles”.
50 Kennard, “Remarks to the EU”.
51 “‘The Right to Be Forgotten’: US Lobbyists Face Off with EU on Data Privacy Proposal”, Spiegel Online, 17 October 2012. http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/us-government-and-internet-giants-battle-eu-over-data-privacy-proposal-a-861773.html.
52 Quoted in Landes, “Sweden Enters Fray”.
53 EIF, “EIF Dinner Debate”, 19 March 2013, https://www.eifonline.org/component/events/event/125-data-protection.html.
54 Fontanella-Khan, “Brussels, Astroturfing Takes Root”.
55 Quoted in Fontanella-Khan, Ibid.
56 Dembosky, “Facebook Spending on Lobbying Soars”.
57 O’brien, “European Privacy Proposal Lays Bare Differences”.
58 Nielsen, “New EU Data Law”.
59 Ibid.
60 European Council, “General Data Protection Regulation”, 2.
61 European Council, “Report on Progress Achieved under Cyprus Presidency”, 6.
62 Personal interview with Erik Josefsson, Senior Advisor of European Green Party, Brussels, April 2013; Senior EU NGO Official who prefers to remain anonymous, Brussels, May 2013; EC Justice Senior Official who prefers to remain anonymous, Brussels, April 2013; European Justice Commission Senior Officials, off the record.
63 Hecking, “EU-Ministerrat”.
64 Fleming, “Data Protection Rules Delayed”.
65 Translated by the author. Original in French: “Plus de 80 % des propositions d’amendements arrivant de l’extérieur proviennent des entreprises, et principalement des géants de la Silicon Valley. […] Ils sont si nombreux et si actifs que le même message semble arriver de partout à la fois. Cela crée une ambiance diffuse, qui influe sur l’état d’esprit général.” Eudes, “Très chères données personnelles”.
66 Ibid.
67 EC, “Vice-President Reding’s Intervention”.
68 Greenwald et al., “Edward Snowden”.
69 Gellman and Poitras, “U.S., British Intelligence Mining Data”.
70 Quoted in Greenwald, No Place to Hide, 18.
71 Green, “Facebook Nation”.
73 O’Brien, “Apple, Facebook, Google Call for Reform”.
74 Fung, “The NSA Paid Silicon Valley Millions”; MacAskill, “NSA Paid Millions”.
75 Garton Ash, “If Big Brother Came Back”.
76 EC, “Informal Justice Council in Vilnius”.
77 Albrecht, “U.S. Surveillance Leaks”.
78 EDPS, “Statement: EDPS Following the NSA Story”, https://edps.europa.eu/sites/edp/files/edpsweb_press_releases/13-06-10_statement_nsa_en.pdf
79 Higgins, “Data Protection”.
80 EPP Group EP, “We Want ‘Anti Net Tapping Clause’”.
81 EDPS, “An Important and Welcome Step”, 1.
82 WP29, “Article 29 Working Party Calls for Swift Adoption”, 1.
83 Quoted in Shuster, “E.U. Pushes for Stricter Data Protection”.
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Agustín Rossi
Agustín Rossi is the Global Policy Director at Public Knowledge, Washington DC.