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Abstract
By comparing two eras of European heads-of-state-or-government (HoSG) summitry – the summits of 1961 and those between 1967 and 1974 – an under-studied factor in the European Council’s institutionalisation is revealed. At the 1961 summits, political integration dominated HoSG discussions, whereas from 1967 onward, economic reform – in the form of the common market, common agriculture policy, economic and monetary union and regional development fund – was the dominant topic of discussions. The institutionalisation of summitry was a product not only of personalities and international events but also of the mechanism of continuous negotiation on economic reform.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Professors Christa Scholtz and Sven-Oliver Proksch of McGill University and Professor Erin Delaney of Northwestern University (Fulbright Visiting Research Chair at McGill’s Research Group on Constitutional Studies, Fall 2014) for their comments and advice. I am grateful for the patience and expertise of archivists and for the research space provided by McGill’s Research Group on Constitutional Studies and the Max Planck Sciences Po Center on Coping with Instability in Market Societies. My thanks to several anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions.
Notes
1. Bulmer and Wessels (Citation1987) refer to transnational negotiation.
2. Once a mechanism is identified, process tracing builds an explanation of events by eliminating alternatives with counterfactual reasoning. Such an analysis is not completed here because the article’s scope is to highlight an under-studied factor rather than to conclude which factors were more important.
3. The archives contained more files for the period 1967–1974 than for 1960–1961. Resource constraints precluded access to German, Dutch and Italian archives.
4. Nantes, 25POI/1/21, La négociation européenne, 29 August 1960.
5. Nantes, 25POI/1/19, Opposition franco-néerlandaise au sein et autour des CE, 22 March 1961.
6. CVCE, Letter from De Gaulle to Debré, 30 September 1960.
7. Brussels, CEE 15.661, Le Communiqué de Bonn, 8 October 1960.
8. AEI, Communiqué, Paris, 10–11 February 1961.
9. Nantes, 25POI/1/19, Projet de rapport de la commission d’etudes, 24 April 1961.
10. Nantes, 25POI/1/19, Telegram La Haye No. 278, 20 July 1961.
11. CVCE, Alternative Treaty, 20 January 1962.
12. Brussels, CEE 15.661, Dossier 1002: Entretiens Luns-Fanfani-Piccioni, 20 July 1962.
13. Brussels, CEE 15.661, Letter from Spaak to De Gaulle, 24 July 1962.
14. CEU, CM2/1967 0175, 119.
15. CEU, CM2/1967 0175, 107.
16. CEU, CM2/1967 0175, 226.
17. CEU, CM2/1967 0175, 83.
18. CEU, CM2/1969 0146, 5.
19. CEU, CM2/1969 0146, 6.
20. CEU, CM2/1969 0146, 11.
21. CEU, CM2/1969 0146, 13.
22. See CVCE, Davignon Report, 27 October 1970.
23. AEI, Bulletin of the EC, No. 2, 1970, 32.
24. AEI, Bulletin of the EC, No.2, 1970, 35.
25. AEI, Bulletin of the EC, No.2, 1970, 39.
26. CVCE, Final communiqué of The Hague Summit, 2 December 1969.
27. Kew, FCO 33/1041, Visit of the German Chancellor, 2 March 1970.
28. Kew, PREM 13/3222, Address of the Chancellor to the Foreign Press Association, 3 March 1970.
29. AEI, European Community No. 10, 1971, 3.
30. Kew, CAB 133/429, Visit of the Chancellor, International Monetary Questions and EMU, 13 April 1972.
31. Kew, FCO 33/1386, Telegram No. 80: Pompidou’s Press Conference, 21 January 1971.
32. Kew, PREM 15/917, Telegram No. 215: Brandt/Pompidou Talks, 16 February 1972.
33. Kew, PREM 15/915, Telegram No. 520: Chancellor’s Speech at Friedrich Ebert Foundation Congress, 14 April 1972. See also CEU, CM2/1972 0099, 74.
34. Kew, CAB 133/429, Visit of the Chancellor, Brief by Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 7 April 1972.
35. AEI, Europe Documents No. 695, 1972, 3.
36. AEI, Europe Documents No. 681, 1972, 2.
37. AEI, Washington Post, 11 June 1972.
38. AEI, Washington Post, 21 June 1972.
39. CEU, CM2/1972 0099, 158.
40. AEI, European Community No. 161, 1972, 8.
41. CVCE, Statement from the Paris Summit, 19–21 October 1972. See CVCE, Second report on EPC, 23 July 1973.
42. AEI, Bulletin of the EC No. 11, 1972, 63, 65.
43. Kew, PREM 15/1554, Telegram No. 2575, 17 May 1973.
44. Kew, BT 241/2687, Draft Steering Brief for Heath’s Visit to Pompidou: Issues Other Than Defence, 7 May 1973.
45. Kew, FCO 30/2011, Heath’s Meeting with Pompidou, 8 May 1973.
46. Kew, PREM 15/1564, Brandt’s Visit, Supplementary Brief: More Frequent Summit Meetings of the Nine, 3 October 1973.
47. Kew, PREM 15/1564, Conversation between Heath and Brandt, 6 October 1973.
48. Kew, PREM 15/1565, Letter from Brandt to Heath, 25 October 1973.
49. Kew, FCO 30/1661, Heath at Blackpool, 13 October 1973.
50. Kew, T 355/25, Regular and More Frequent Summit Meetings, from P.D. Nairne, 26 October 1973.
51. Kew, BT 241/2687, Telegram No. 1461: Pompidou’s European Proposals, 31 October 1973.
52. Kew, T 355/25, Telegram No. 361: Paris Telno 1462 – Pompidou’s European Proposals, 1 November 1973.
53. Kew, FCO 59/1087, Telegram No. 1474: Pompidou’s European Proposals – French Press Reactions, 2 November 1973.
54. Kew, FCO 30/1661, Telegram No. 842: Message from Heath to Pompidou, 3 November 1973.
55. Kew, PREM 15/1385, Statement by the [German] Government Spokesman, 7 November 1973.
56. Kew, FCO 59/1087, Telegram No. 5479: Oil, the Summit and the End-Year Package, 12 November 1973.
57. Kew, PREM 15/1385, Message No. 8: Ortoli’s Letter to Heath, 2 December 1973.
58. CVCE, Final communiqué … following the Copenhagen European Summit, 14–15 December 1973.
59. CEU, CM2/1973 0127, 216.
60. Kew, PREM 15/2041, Message from Heath to Nixon, 30 December 1973.
61. Owing in part to the arrival of Arab FMs, see CEU, CM2/1973 0127, 88.
62. Wilson was elected again, Giscard d’Estaing succeeded upon Pompidou’s death and Schmidt followed Brandt’s resignation.
63. Kew, PREM 16/78, Conversation with Pierre-Brossolette and Sauvagnargues, 19 September 1974.
64. CEU, CM2/1974 0064, 19.
65. CEU, CM2/1974 0064, 21.
66. CVCE, Final communiqué Paris Summit, 9–10 December 1974.
67. CVCE, Final communiqué Paris Summit, 9-10 December 1974.
68. ‘[EUCO] meetings have been mostly presented by the press as being failures or partial failures’ (De Schoutheete Citation2012, 27). See also Crum (Citation2013).
69. Bickerton, Hodson, and Puetter (Citation2015) describe ‘new intergovernmentalism’.
70. Lauwaars (Citation1977, 44) concluded ‘the Commission and the EP should forcefully defend their existing prerogatives’.