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Notes
1. P[ublic] P[apers of the] P[resident], H[arry] S[.] T[ruman], Special Message to the Congress on the Mutual Security Program, 6 March 1952, Washington: 1966.
2. PPP, HST, Special Message to the Congress Presenting a 21-Point Program for the Reconversion Period, 6 Sep. 1945, Washington: 1961.
3. Ickes to Clark, 13 Aug. 1945, [Washington, D.C.] Library of Congress, Harold Ickes Papers, box 118, The War and Our Vanishing Resources; H. Ickes, ‘The War and Our Vanishing Resources’, American Magazine, cxl, December (1945).
4. D. Haglund (ed), The New Geopolitics of Minerals. Canada and International Resource Trade (Vancouver, 1989).
5. D. Painter, ‘Oil, Resources, and the Cold War, 1945–1962’ in M. Leffler and O.A. Westad (eds), The Cambridge History of the Cold War, vol. I, Origins (New York, 2010), 486–507 and the accompanying bibliographical essay, ibid., 549–51; C. Pach, ‘The United States and the Beginning of the Cold War, 1945–1952’ in R. Beisner (ed), American Foreign Relations Since 1600: A Guide to the Literature. 2nd ed. (Santa Barbara, 2003), ii. 1079–1236. See particularly p. 1154.
6. T. Paterson, ‘The Quest for Peace and Prosperity: International Trade, Communism, and the Marshall Plan’ in B. Bernstein (ed), Politics and Policies of the Truman Administration (Chicago, 1970), 78–112; A. Eckes, The United States and the Global Struggle for Minerals (Austin, 1979).
7. T. Priest, ‘Banking on Development: Brazil in the United States’ Search for Strategic Minerals, 1945–1953', The International History Review, xxi, no. 2 (1999), 297–330, n. 1.
8. T. Egil Førland, Cold Economic Warfare: COCOM and the Forging of Strategic Export Controls, 1948–1954 (Dordrecht, 2009); A. Dobson, US Economic Statecraft for Survival 1933–1991: Of Sanctions, Embargoes, and Economic Warfare (London, 2002).
9. The Council of Foreign Relations, Mineral Resources and Their Distribution as Affecting International Relations, 6. Jan. 1922, [Princeton, N.J.] Mudd Library, Council on Foreign Relations Records, box 565, Mineral Resources and their Distribution; C.K. Leith, World Minerals and World Politics: A Factual Study of Minerals in their Political and International Relations (New York, 1931).
10. I. Bowman, The New World: Problems in Political Geography (London, 1928), 739.
11. A. Tooze, The Wages of Destruction. The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (London, 2006), 80–9; I. Kershaw, Hitler: Nemesis, 1936–1945 (London, 2000), 402.
12. B. Mussolini, ‘Il Piano Regulatore della Nuova Economia Italiana’ in E. and D. Susmel (eds), Omnia Opera di Benito Mussolini (Florence, 1959), xxvii. 241–8.
13. T. Wilson, The First Summit: Roosevelt and Churchill at Placentia Bay 1941 (Boston, 1969).
14. E. Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World. America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge, 2005), 35.
15. A. Hirschman, National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade (Berkeley, 1945).
16. White, Preliminary Draft of United Nations Stabilization Fund and a Bank for Reconstruction and Development of the United and Associated Nations, 17 March 1942, Mudd Library, Harry White Papers, box 6\UN Stabilization Fund and Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1942 March.
17. R. Mikesell, The Bretton Woods Debates: A Memoir (Princeton, 1994), 31.
18. D. Kapur, J. Lewis, and R. Webb, The World Bank: Its First Half Century, vol. 1, History (Washington, D.C., 1997), 69; A. Istel, ‘“Equal Access” to Raw Materials', Foreign Affairs, xx, no. 3 (1942), 450–65.
19. I. Shihata, The World Bank Legal Papers (Cambridge, 2000), 162.
20. Department of State, Proceedings and Documents of the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference: Bretton Woods, New Hampshire July 1–22, 1944 (Washington D.C., 1948), i. 97–8.
21. US Senate, Bretton Woods Agreements Act, Hearings before the Committee on Banking and Currency, June 12–28 (Washington, D.C., 1945), 6.
22. Minutes of Executive Committee on Economic Foreign Policy, 26 June 1946, [Independence, Missouri], Truman Presidential Library, Lynn Edminster Papers, box 7,ECEFP, 1 July 1946–22 Nov. 1946; Idem, 19 July 1946, ibid.
23. Minutes of Executive Committee on Economic Foreign Policy, 14 June 1946, Truman Presidential Library, Lynn Edminster Papers, box 7, ECEFP – Minutes, 4 Jan. 1946 – 25 June 1946, folder 2.
24. H. Hawkins, ‘Problems Raised by the International Trade Organization’ in S. Harris (ed), Foreign Economic Policy for the United States (Cambridge, 1948), 271–86.
25. Neff to Royall, 17 June 1946, [Chapel Hill, Louis Wilson Library,] Kenneth Royall Papers, box 6, Foreign Trade – Neff.
26. Royall to Neff, 5 June 1947, Kenneth Royall Papers, box 6, Foreign Trade – Neff; Neff to Royall, 16 July 1947, ibid.
27. S. Dryden, Trade Warriors: USTR and the American Crusade for Free Trade (Oxford, 1995).
28. J. Smith, The United States and Latin America: a History of American Diplomacy, 1776–2000 (New York, 2005), 114.
29. The Norwegian Delegation, minutes of meeting 63, 14 Feb. 1948 and minutes of meeting 69, 21 Feb. 1948, [Oslo, Riksarkivet], I[ndustridepartementet S-3797], D[aa – I-1 Administrasjonssaker], box 154, ITO[-konferansen i Havana].
30. G. Dorn, The Truman Administration and Bolivia. Making the World Safe for Liberal Constitutional Oligarchy (University Park, PA, 2011).
31. The Norwegian Delegation, Meeting 26, 31 Dec. 1947, I, D, box 154, ITO.
32. Department of State, Havana Charter for an International Trade Organization, March 24, 1948 (Washington, D.C., 1948).
33. C. Wilcox, A Charter for World Trade (New York, 1949), 183.
34. PPP, HST, Special Message to the Congress transmitting the Charter for the International Trade Organization, 28 April 1949, Washington: 1964.
35. Winthrop Brown, Oral History, Truman Presidential Library.
36. W. Diebold, The End of the ITO (Princeton, 1952); R. Gardener, Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy: The Origins and the Prospects of Our International Economic Order (New York, 1969), 377.
37. W. Brown, The United States and the Restoration of World Trade (Washington, D.C., 1950), 361.
38. R. Toye, ‘Developing Multilateralism: The Havana Charter and the Fight for the International Trade Organization, 1947–1948’, International History Review, xxv, no. 2 (2003), 282–385.
39. Munitions Board memo, 27 Jan. 1949, USNA (College Park, MA), RG 330, A[ssistant] S[ecretary] of D[efense, International Security Affairs, Office of Foreign Economic Defense Affairs], I[nternational] T[rade] O[rganization], box 220, ITO Charter – Security Exceptions, Geneva.
40. George Elsey, note dated 30 Oct. 1950, Truman Presidential Library, George Elsey Papers, box 62, Rockefeller Report.
41. D. Irwin, P. Mavroidis, and A. Sykes, The Genesis of the GATT (Cambridge, 2008), 103.
42. Soo Yeon Kim, Power and the Governance of Global Trade: From the GATT to the WTO (Ithaca, 2010).
43. Statement of the Secretary of State before the House appropriations subcommittee, Fiscal Year 1949, 3 March 1948, [Lexington, Virginia] George Marshall Foundation, George Marshall Papers, box 158, House Appropriations Subcommittee, 3 March 1948.
44. Johnson to Kee, Chairman House Foreign Affairs Committee, 28 Feb. 1950, USNA, ASD, ITO, box 220, ITO Charter – NME Material.
45. M. Leffler, ‘The United States and the Strategic Dimensions of the Marshall Plan’, Diplomatic History, xii, no. 3 (1988), 277–306; D. Painter, ‘The Marshall Plan and Oil’, Cold War History, ix, no. 2 (2009), 159–75.
46. R. Pollard, Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945–1950 (New York, 1985), 151. Eckes, Global Struggle, 158.
47. Transcript of Press Conference, 30 Sep. 1947, Truman Presidential Library, Eben Ayers Papers, box 7, Foreign Policy, 1 of 2; Executive Committee on Economic Foreign Policy, Working Group on Strategic Materials, minutes, 29 Oct. 1947, USNA [RG 353, Interdepartmental and Intradepartmental Committees (State Department)], E[conomic] C[ommittees], box 70, Working Group on Strategic Materials; President’s Committee on Foreign Aid, European Recovery and American Aid (Washington, D.C., 1947); Department of Interior, National Resources and Foreign Aid: Report of J.A. Krug, October 9, 1947 (Washington, D.C., 1947); US Congress, House Select Committee on Foreign aid, Final Report on Foreign Aid (Washington, D.C., 1948).
48. Policy Planning Staff, PPS-23, Review of Broad Trends, U.S. Foreign Policy, 22 Jan. 1948, USNA, [Record Group 59, General Records of the Department of State, Records of the] P[olicy] P[lanning] S[taff 1947-1953], box 1, PPS-23.
49. Department of State, Office of Intelligence Research, Availability of Strategic materials under ERP Program, 14 May 1948, [Yale,] Sterling Library, Alan Bateman Papers, box 17, Presidents Materials Policy Commission, 1948.
50. A. Hopkins, ‘Rethinking Decolonization’, Past and Present, cc (2008), 211–47.
51. M. Beusekom and D. Hodgson, ‘Lessons Learned? Development Experiences in The Late Colonial Period’, The Journal of African History, xli, no. 1 (2000), 29–33.
52. R. Majorlin, Notes sur les Problèmes Fondamentaux Poses par le plan Marshall et sur les Position Americaines, dated Oct. 1947, [Florence, Historical Archives of the European Union] (HAEU), OEEC- 000275. Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, Interim Report on the European Recovery Programme, vol. I (Paris, 1948).
53. H. Arkes, Bureaucracy, the Marshall Plan, and the National Interest (Princeton, 1972), 279–81.
54. Minutes of Executive Council meeting 98, 4 and 5 Oct. 1949, HAEU, OEEC-000118.036.
55. Economic Commission For Europe, Ad Hoc Committee on Industrial Development and Trade, Appendix D-Industrial Materials, 31 Aug. 1948, Oslo, Arbeiderbevegelsens Arkiv, Erik Brofoss Papers, box 115, DG Saker, 1945–1979, Folder II; Non-ferrous Metals Committee, Preliminary Reports for 1949/50 and the long-term programmes, NF (48) 2, 25 Nov. 1948, HAEU, OEEC 0001011.11 1.
56. Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, The European Recovery Programme, Second Report of the OEEC (Paris, 1950).
57. Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, Investments in Overseas Territories in Africa, South of the Sahara (Paris, 1951), 85.
58. R. Shreurs, ‘A Marshall Plan for Africa? The Overseas Territories Committee and the Origins of European Cooperation in Africa’ in R. Griffiths (ed), Explorations in OEEC History (Paris, 1997), 87–98.
59. Cabinet, European Economic Co-Operation Committee, Strategic Materials and Stockpiling Sub-committee, Minutes of Meeting E.R. (STOCK) (50) 1st meeting, January 24, 1950, [London,] N[ational] A[rchives of the] U[nited] K[ingdom], CAB[inet Office] 134/257.
60. F[oreign] R[elations of the] U[nited] S[tates], 1950, i. 472.
61. Cabinet Committee on European Economic Co-operation, Strategic Materials and Stockpiling Sub-committee, (E.R. (Stock)(50) Second meeting, 7 June 1950, NAUK, CAB 134/257.
62. R. Wood, From Marshall Plan to Debt Crisis: Foreign Aid and Development Choices in the World Economy (Berkeley, 1986), 51, Table 4.
63. Advisory Committee on Underdeveloped Areas, Minutes, 16 Feb. 1951, Truman Presidential Library, James Hendrick Papers, box 5, Strategic Materials, folder 2; Smith to Fite, 13 Dec. 1950, Truman Presidential Library, James Hendrick Papers, box 3, ECA – Overseas territories.
64. Tasca, A Trade Program: draft memo, 27 Sep. 1950, Truman Presidential Library, James Hendrick Papers, box 3, ECA-OSR Administrative Files, 1950–51.
65. FRUS 1951, vol. V, 1199, 1232–3.
66. PPP, HST 1949, Inaugural Address, 20 Jan. 1949.
67. D. Ekbladh, ‘Meeting the Challenge from Totalitarianism: The Tennessee Valley Authority as a Global Model for Liberal Development, 1933–1945’, International History Review, xxxii, no. 1 (2010), 47–67.
68. The inter-Departmental Advisory Committee on Technical Assistance, ACTA-26a, 3 May 1949, USNA, [Record Group 469, T[echnical] C[ooperation] A[dministration], Office of the Administrator, box 6, ACTA Documents D-25/6 – D-34/4.
69. Confidential Draft for discussion by IDAB at its meeting on 19 Dec. 1950, Sleepy Hollow, Rockefeller Archive Center, Record Group 4: NAR Personal, Series O: Washington, Subseries 4, IDAB, 1950–1951, box 28, Meetings 18–19 Dec., 1950; IDAB Minutes, 18–19 Dec. ibid.
70. International Development Advisory Board, Partners in Progress: A Report to the President by the International Development Advisory Board (Washington, D.C., 1951), 11.
71. President’s Materials Policy Commission, Resources for Freedom (Washington, D.C., 1952), i. 73f.
72. A. McVety, Enlightened Aid: U.S. Development as Foreign Policy in Ethiopia (New York, 2012), 121.
73. P. Glick, Administration of Technical Assistance: Growth in the Americas (Chicago, 1957).
74. Technical Cooperation Administration, ‘Report on the Possibilities of Expanding Production of Strategic Materials in Latin America by Improving Power and Transportation Facilities’, 2 Jan. 1952 USNA, Record Group 469, Institute for Inter-American Affairs, Program staff, Subject Files 1952–54, box 16, Report on the possibilities of expanding production of strategic materials in Latin America.
75. Truman to Gorrie, 20 Feb. 1952, [Truman Presidential Library,] Harry S. Truman Papers, White House Central Files, Confidential File, box 68, STR.
76. NSC Staff, Study on Proposed Transfer of the Point IV Program from the Department of State to the ECA, 9 Aug. 1951, Harry S. Truman Papers, P[resident’s] S[ecretary] F[ile], box 172, Senior NSC staff meetings, Point Four; Note by Lay to the NSC on Proposed Transfer of the Point IV Program, 22 May 1951; ibid.
77. T. Paterson, ‘Foreign Policy under Wraps, the Point Four Program’, The Wisconsin Magazine of History, lvi, no. 2 (1972–3), 119–26.
78. TCA, Summary of Point Four Activities in 35 Countries, 14 July 1953, Truman Presidential Library, Stanley Andrews Papers, box 10, 1953 Status of Point IV Activities.
79. S. Shenin, The United States and the Third World: the Origins of Postwar Relations and the Point Four Program (Huntington, 2000), 176.
80. Bennett to Coombs, 26 June 1951, Truman Presidential Library, [Record Group 220, Records of the] P[resident’s] M[aterials] P[olicy] C[ommission], box 125, Projects-TCA-Exploration.
81. M. Finlay, Growing American Rubber. Strategic Plants and the Politics of National Security (New Brunswick, N.J., 2009), 229.
82. Department of State, The Point Four Program: A Progress Report, December 1950 (Washington, D.C., 1950).
83. D. Engerman and C. Unger, ‘Introduction: Towards a Global History of Modernization’, Diplomatic History, xxxiii, no. 3 (2009), 375–85.
84. For a breakdown of the total export of different categories of raw materials under the program, cf. J. Killick, The United States and European Reconstruction 1945–1960 (Edinburgh, 1997), 91.
85. J. Viner, Lecture on Economic Sources of Power, 26 Sep. 1947, Mudd Library, Jacob Viner Papers, box 115, Economic Sources of Power; E. Mason, ‘American Security and Access to Raw Materials’, World Politics, i, no. 2 (1949), 147–60.
86. Cleveland to Bissel, 5 June 1951, Truman Presidential Library, James Hendrick Papers, box 5,Strategic materials – memo from Curtin, 1951.
87. T. Egil Førland, ‘“Economic Warfare” and “Strategic Goods”: A Conceptual Framework for Analyzing COCOM’, Journal of Peace Research, xxviii, no. 2 (1991), 191–204; D. Baldwin and R. Pape, ‘Evaluating Economic Sanctions', International Security, xxiii, no. 2 (1998), 189–98.
88. FRUS 1948, iv. 511–12.
89. Y. Yasuhara, ‘The Myth of Free Trade. The Origins of COCOM 1945–1950’, The Japanese Journal of American Studies, iv (1991), 121–48.
90. FRUS 1948, iv. 527–8, 26 March 1948.
91. Joint Chiefs of Staff, JCS 1561/6, 18 June 1948, USNA, Record Group 319, Army Staff, Plans and Operations Division Decimal File, 091.31 Section III Cases 46-.
92. F. Cain, ‘Exporting the Cold War: British Responses to the USA’s Establishment of COCOM, 1947–51’, Journal of Contemporary History, xxix, no. 3 (1994), 501–22.
93. J. McGlade, ‘COCOM and the Containment of Western Trade and Relations’ in J. Ojala and J. Eloranta (eds), East-West Trade and the Cold War (Jyväskylä, 2005), 47–62.
94. American Embassy, Oslo to Direktoratet for Eksport- og Importregulering, 23 April 1953, RA, Handelsdepartementet, Direktoratet for Eksport- og Importregulering, Kontrollkontoret, DB Saksarkiv, box 106, E 442.
95. Note by the US Delegation, 30 March 1950, [Brussels] NATO [Archives]\Military Production and Supply Board, MPSB (50) 12 (Revised); Statement of the US Representative to the North Atlantic Defense Committee, 26 Oct. 1950, Library of Congress, W. Averell Harriman Papers, box 309, NATO III; Shu Guang Zhang, Economic Cold War: America’s Embargo against China and the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1949–1963 (Washington, D.C., 2001), 31.
96. Department of State, Report to the President on U.S. Policies and Programs in the Economic Field which may Affect the War Potential of the Soviet Bloc, 9 Feb. 1951, USNA, EC, box 23.
97. Council deputies, Use of export Controls to Ensure Adequate Supplies for NATO Military production, 6 June 1951, NATO, C[ouncil] D[eputies], D-D (51) 149; NATO Council Deputies, Summary Record of Meeting held 6 June 1951, NATO, CD, D-R (51) 45.
98. North Atlantic Council, Summary Record No. 4, 16 Sep. 1950, NATO, N[orth] A[tlantic] C[ouncil], C5-R/4; Katz to ECA Administrator, 26 Nov. 1950, USNA, [Record Group 59, Office of] S[ecretary of] S[tate, Office of] International] S[ecurity] A[ffairs], Subject Files Relating to Program Management, 1949–51, box 92, NATO Committee on Raw Materials.
99. J. Harriman, Memo for the Files, 24 Oct. 1950, Library of Congress, W. Averell Harriman Papers, box 310, Stockpiling 1950–1952.
100. Whitehouse, Memo for the Record, 10 Oct. 1950, USNA, Record Group 291, Records of the Federal Property Resources Service, Classified Defense Materials Procurement Agency Program Files 1949–1958, box 22, Stockpiling of UK and NATO Countries.
101. Minutes of US-UK Washington Conversations, not dated, Truman Presidential Library, George Elsey Papers, box 113, Attlee – Truman Talks, Dec. 1950; Briefing Book for Prime Minister Attlee’s visit, not dated, Truman Presidential Library, PSF, box 141, Truman-Attlee Talks, Briefing Book, Dec. 4–7, 1950.
102. Acheson to Truman and Webb, 19 Dec. 1950, Truman Presidential Library, PSF, box 141, North Atlantic Treaty Council, Dec. 1950.
103. Council Deputies, Raw Materials Problems, 16 Sep. 1950, NATO, CD, D-D/106; North Atlantic Council, Summary record of the Second Meeting, 19 Dec. 1950, NATO, NAC, C6-R/2.
104. North Atlantic Council, Second Report by the North Atlantic Council Deputies, 17 Dec. 1950 NATO Archives, NAC, C6-D/4.
105. Acheson, memcon with Franks and Bonnet, Representation on the Central Group, 13 Feb. 1951, Truman Presidential Library, Dean Acheson Papers, box 68, Feb. 1951.
106. Minutes, Vital Materials Coordination Committee, 16 Feb. 1951, USNA, Record Group 277, Defense Production Administration, Subject Files, Vital Materials Coordinating Committee, Agenda and Summaries, Vol. I & II, 1951.
107. Minutes, Foreign Supply and Requirements Committee, 28 March 1951, USNA, SS, ISA, General Records, 1949–1951, box 8, Raw Materials, Col. Bonesteel.
108. NATO Council Deputies, United States Policy on Allocation of Scarce Materials and Supplies, 6 June 1951, NATO, CD, D-D (51) 147.
109. D. Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (New York, 1969), 559.
110. P. Pierpaoli, Truman and Korea: The Political Culture of the Early Cold War (Columbia, 1999), 141; M. Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952 (Cambridge, 1987), 424; W. Stueck, Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History (Princeton, 2002), 226.
111. International Materials Conference, Report on Operations of the International Materials Conference, February 26, 1951 to March 1, 1952 (Washington, D.C., 1952), 22–4.
112. Task Force I, International Arrangements for the Allocation of Scarce Materials, 6 June 1951, USNA, SS, ISA, Office of the Staff Chief for the Mutual Defense Assistance Program, box 57, Briefing Book for the Mutual Security Program, Folder 1.
113. TCT memo 13, 23 Jan. 1952, Library of Congress, W. Averell Harriman Papers, box 333, Meetings Truman-Churchill Jan. 1952, 1.
114. S. Nocentini, Le Materie Prime nelle Relazioni Internazionali: l'International Materials Conference, 1950–1953 (Ph.D dissertation, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 2005).
115. Anderson to Johnson, 21 March 1952, USNA, Record Group 469, Mutual Security Agency, Assistant director for Resources and Requirements, Subject files of Ervin Anderson, box 4, IMC.
116. L‘Organisation Européenne de Coopération Économique, l’Industrie Des Métaux Non-Ferreux en Europe, 1954 (Paris, 1954); International Materials Conference Report on Operations, Final Report, 1 March to 30 Sept. 1953 (Washington D.C., 1953), 5.
117. Financial and Economic Board, Draft Report on Scarce Materials to the Council Deputies, 30 Jan. 1952, NATO, FEB4, GT/4-D(52) 2 (Final).
118. US percentage of Free World Supply under IMC allocations to date, as of 31 Jan. 1952, Ithaca, Carl Kroch Library, Edwin Gibson Papers, box 2, IMC, 1951–1953.
119. Acheson, memocon between Acheson, Symington and Thorp, 20 Dec. 1951, Truman Presidential Library, Dean Acheson Papers, box 69, Nov.–Dec. 1951.
120. Edwin Gibson, Oral History, Columbia University.
121. H. Striner and G. Sewell, ‘Review of the Mineral Industries (Metals and Nonmetals except Fuels)’ in Minerals Yearbook, Metals and Minerals (except Fuels) Year 1952, vol.I, (Washington, D.C., 1955), 1–23.
122. M. Fleischmann, ‘An International Materials Policy’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, cclxxxii (1952), 31–5.
123. PPP, HST, Special Message to the Congress on the Mutual Security Program, 6 March 1952.
124. C. Maier, ‘The World Economy and the Cold War’ in M. Leffler and O. Arne Westad (eds), Cambridge History of the Cold War, vol. I, Origins (Cambridge, 2010), 44–66.
125. Estimates based on figures in Office of the Secretary of Defense, Stockpile Report to Congress, 15 August 1953, Abilene, Kansas, Dwight David Eisenhower Library, Commission on Foreign Economic Policy, Records 1953–54, Randall Commission, box 57, Mineral Raw Materials in Defense and Foreign trade (2).