Reassurance and Revival the U.S.–Philippine Alliance in the Wake of the Vietnam War

Abstract

The Fall of Saigon in April 1975 triggered an existential crisis in Philippine national security. Long dependent on the United States as the essential guarantor of Philippine security, events in Indochina forced Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos to question the wisdom of this arrangement. Shocked by the unwillingness of the American Congress to aid South Vietnam, Marcos became increasingly skeptical of American security assurances and demanded that U.S.–Philippine alliance be reviewed in order to better meet Philippine security needs. During the ensuing negotiations over the Military Base Agreement, Washington was forced to reckon with doubts over American resolve and new realities like Congress’s burgeoning influence in foreign affairs. While the Ford administration failed to overcome these challenges, the Carter administration proved more responsive to Philippine apprehensions. Ultimately, to reach an agreement the U.S. adopted new collaborative security practices and policies on the South China Sea that continue to underscore U.S. foreign policy in Southeast Asia today.

Keywords:

• The Philippines
• U.S. foreign policy
• Vietnam
• Southeast Asia
• South China Sea
• alliances
• congress and foreign policy

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Notes

1 Robert McMahon. The Limits of Empire (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 178–80.

2 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No.4374, “Marcos on Indochina,” 8 April 1975. Record Group 59: Central Foreign Policy Files (CFPF), National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); Accessed via Access to Archival Databases (AAD)]; Sullivan (Manila) to State, no. 4661, “Philippines ‘Reassessing’ Security Arrangements with US,” 14 April 1975. FRUS: Vol. E-12; Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 4883, “President Marcos’ Speech on US-Philippine Security Relations, April 16,” 17 April 1975: CFPF, NARA; 10 July 1975: Memorandum of Conversation with Ambassador Sullivan, Brent Scowcroft and National Security Council. FRUS: Vol. E-12.

3 McMahon, Limits, 184.

4 Ibid; R. D. Schulzinger, A Time for Peace (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Natasha Hamilton-Hart, Hard Interests, Soft Illusions (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012); John Ciorciari, The Limits of Alignment. (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2010); Alice Ba, ‘Systemic Neglect? A Reconsideration of US-Southeast Asia Policy’. Contemporary Southeast Asia 31 (2009), 369–98.

5 David Silbey, A War of Frontier and Empire (New York: Hill & Wang, 2008); Angel Shaw, Angel, Luis H. Francia, eds. Vestiges of War: The Philippine-American War (New York: NYU Press, 2002); Richard Welch Jr, Response to Imperialism (Chapel Hill NC: UNC Press Books, 2016); Paul Kramer, ‘Race-Making and Colonial Violence in the US Empire’. Diplomatic History 30 (2006), 169–210; Kristin Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood (London: Yale University Press, 1998); Christopher Capozzola, Bound By War (New York: Basic Books, 2020); Christopher Capozzola, Bound By War (New York: Basic Books, 2020).

6 Alfred McCoy, Policing America’s Empire (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009); Stanley Karnow, Stanley, Our Image (New York: Random House, 1989); Paul Kramer, The Blood of Government (University of North Carolina Press), 2006; Stuart Miller, Benevolent Assimilation (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1984).

7 Bonifacio Salamanca, ‘Quezon, Osmena and Roxas and the American Military Presence in the Philippines’, Philippine Studies 37 (1989), 301–16; Alfred McCoy, ‘Circles of Steel, Castles of Vanity’, The Journal of Asian Studies 75 (2016), 975–1017; Henry Brands, Bound to Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).

8 Nick Cullather, ‘The Limits of Multilateralism’. The International History Review 13 (1991), 70–95.

9 Emmanuel Pelaez, The Military Bases in the Philippines: The Past and the Future (Pasig City: PCFR, 1986), 2.

10 Romualdez, Sovereignty; 26–40; Pelaez, Military Bases, 4–18.

11 Andrew Yeo, Activists, Alliances, and anti-US base Protests (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

12 Alexander Cooley and Hendrik Spruyt, Contracting States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009); Patricio Abinales, Donna J. Amoroso, State and Society in the Philippines (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017), 209–211; Michael Hunt, Steven I. Levine, Arc of Empire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012); McCoy, Policing, 398–404; Brands, Bound to Empire, 304–10; Amy Blitz, The Contested State (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 125–136; Gary Hawes, ‘United States Support for the Marcos Administration’. Contemporary Southeast Asia 8 (1986), 18–36.

13 Luis Francia, History of the Philippines: From Indios Bravos to Filipinos (Abrams, 2013), 235.

14 Raymond Bonner, Waltzing With a Dictator (New York: Times Books, 1987), 217–20.

15 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No.4374, “Marcos on Indochina,” 8 April 1975. Record Group 59: Central Foreign Policy Files (CFPF), National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); Accessed via Access to Archival Databases (AAD) [https://aad.archives.gov/aad/series-list.jsp?cat=WR43]; ‘After Saigon, What’s Next’, Philippine Daily Express, 2 May 1975; 10 July 1975: Memorandum of Conversation with Ambassador Sullivan, Brent Scowcroft and National Security Council. FRUS: Vol. E-12.

16 Quezon Mangawang, ‘Gov’t Revising Policy to Meet Viet Situation’, Bulletin Today¸ 14 Apr. 1975; Willie No, “Study is on if US Bases Still Needed’, Bulletin Today, 13 Apr. 1975.

17 10 July 1975: Memorandum of Conversation with Ambassador Sullivan, Brent Scowcroft and National Security Council. FRUS: Vol. E-12; Sullivan (Manila) to State, no. 4661, “Philippines ‘Reassessing’ Security Arrangements with US,” 14 April 1975. FRUS: Vol. E-12.

18 Ibid.

19 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 4738, “President Marcos Announces Review of US/RP Defense Relations,” 15 April 1975: CFPF, NARA; ‘FM Prepares Policy Change in US Relations’, Bulletin Today, 16 April 1975.

20 Ferdinand Marcos, “A Matter of Survival,” speech before the University of the Philippines Law Alumni Association, 16 April 1975. Accessed via SMU Law Library.

21 Ibid.

22 David Andelman, ‘Manila Will Consider Status of U.S. Bases’, New York Times (NYT), 19 April 1975.

23 ‘Adjusting to Chang in Asia’, Washington Post (WP), 20 April 1975.

24 ‘Reassessment’, Bulletin Today, 16 April 1975.

25 Foreign Service Institute, Diplomatic Agenda of the Philippine Presidents 1946–1985, (Manila: FSI Publication, 1985).

26 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 5354, “Proposed Letter from President Ford to President Marcos,” 25 April 1975: Papers of the National Security Advisor (NSA), National Security Council (NSC) East Asia & Pacific Staff (EA&P), Subject Files, Box 31, Gerald Ford Presidential Library (GFPL), Ann Arbor, Michigan.

27 Benjamin, Domingo, The Re-making of Filipino Foreign Policy (Quezon City: Asian Center, University of the Philippines, 1993); Benjamin Domingo, The Making of Filipino Foreign Policy (Manila: Foreign Service Institute, 1983), 198–199; Ely Amoroso, ‘We have no permanent friends, only permanent nat’l interests’’, Philippine Daily Express, 4 May 1975.

28 Ferdinand Marcos, Notes on the New Society of the Philippines II (Manila: Marcos Foundation, 1976), 170–72.

29 Carlos Romulo, and Beth Day Romulo. The Philippine Presidents: memoirs of. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1988), 137; Astri Suhrke, ‘US-Philippines: The End of a Special Relationship’. The World Today 31 (1975), 80–88; Robert Youngblood, ‘Philippine-American Relations Under the “New Society”’. Pacific Affairs 50 (1977): 45–63.

30 President’s Daily Brief: 12 July 1975. Accessed via CIA Electronic Reading Room; Memo from the Director of the Policy Planning Staff (Winston Lord) to Secretary of State Kissinger, “US Strategy in Asia: Trends, Issues, and Choices,” 6 October 1975; NSA, NSC EA&P Staff, Subject Files Box 19, GFPL;

31 ‘China Visit Asserts Policy of Flexibility’, PDE, 2 June 1975; Teodoro Valencia, ‘Now the Americans Have Begun to Take Our Gov’t Seriously’, BT, 3 June 1975; ‘Ingles Urges Review of RP-US Ties’, PDE, 5 June 1975; ‘Hope for “real” RP US Alliance Voiced’, BT, 5 June 1975; Juan Gatboton, ‘Imperatives of Setting up China Ties’, 2 June 1975; ‘The Peking Visit: Its Significance’, PDE, 3 June 1975; Teodoro Valencia, ‘FM Visit Resumes Old RP-China Ties’, PDE 3 June 1975.

32 Teodoro Valencia, ‘Beyond Today Ours is an Independence of a Truly Free People’, BT, 12 June 1975.

33 ‘Menado to Moscow’, speech by Carlos Romulo in Bacolod City, 14 August 1976 in Carlos Romulo, Carlos P. Romulo on the New Society (Manila: Office of Media, 1984), 67.

34 Marcos, Notes II, 187.

35 Carlos Romulo, ‘The Mansfield Report’, in Carlos Romulo, ed. The Diplomacy of Consent (Manila: Department of Foreign Affairs, 1976), 43.

36 Philip Habib (Manila) to State, No. 7891, “Visit to the Philippines,” 9 June 1975: CFPF, NARA.

37 Mike Mansfield, ‘Winds of Change: Evolving Relations and Interests in Southeast Asia’, Report to the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, October 1975, 12.

38 Berry, Bases; Alfred McCoy, Policing America’s Empire: The United States, the Philippines, and the Rise of the Surveillance State (Madison:University of Wisconsin Press, 2009).

39 President’s Daily Brief: 4 June 1975. CIA ERR; Purnell (Manila) to State, No. 9556, “President Marcos on GOP Foreign Defense Policy,” 11 July 1975: CFPF, NARA; Memo from Kissinger, “US Strategy in Asia: Trends, Issues, and Choices,” 6 October 1975; NSA, NSC EA&P Staff, Subject Files Box 19, GFPL; 10 July 1975: Memorandum of Conversation with Ambassador Sullivan, Brent Scowcroft and National Security Council. FRUS: Vol. E-12.

40 ‘FM Cites Vietnam Lessons’, Philippine Daily Express, 3 May 1975.

41 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 9896, “Having your Cocoon and Leaving it, Too,” 18 July 1975: CFPF, NARA.

42 Jonathan Stromseth, ‘Unequal Allies: Negotiations Over US Bases in the Philippines’. Journal of International Affairs (1989), 161–188.

43 ‘Danger Not in Open Attack But Infiltration, FM Says’, Philippine Daily Express, 7 May 1975; ‘Defense Treaty Favors US—CPR’, Bulletin Today, 28 May 1975.

44 For example, Marcos, ‘Matter of Survival,’; Romualdez, Sovereignty, 73–76, 264–74, 311.

45 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 11209, “U.S. Obligations Under Mutual Defense Treaty,” 29 July 1976: CFPF, NARA.

46 Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of the Philippines (MDT); August 30, 1951.

47 Charles E. Morrison and Astri Suhrke, Strategies of Survival: The Foreign Policy Dilemmas of Smaller Asian States (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979); Romualdez, Sovereignty, 263.

48 David Lamb, ‘U.S.-Philippine Relations in Flux’, LA Times, 14 May 1975.

49 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No.6987, ‘May 21 Meeting with Marcos’, 21 May 1975: CFPF, NARA.

50 ‘President Asks Quick Decision on Bases Issue’, BT, 24 May 1975; ‘Philippines, China Establish Relations’, WP 10 June 1975.

51 Andrew Gawthorpe, ‘The Ford Administration and Security Policy in the Asia-Pacific’, Historical Journal 52, 2009, 697–716.

52 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 5354, “Proposed Letter from President Ford to President Marcos,” 25 April 1975: NSA, NSC EA&P Staff, Subject Files Box 31. GFPL.

53 Ibid.

54 Lou Cannon, ‘Philippines, Ford Agree on New Talks’, WP, 7 December 1975; Ruby Abramson, ‘Talks on Status of Bases begun by Ford, Marcos’, LA Times 7 December 1975; Letty Magsanog, “Warmest welcome for Ford,” BT, 7 December 1975; Linda Bolido, “‘Kasaysayan portrays RP’s Past, Present’, BT, 7 December 1975.

55 Oral History of Maurice Lee, ‘Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training’. Accessed online [http://www.adst.org/Readers/Philippines.pdf].

56 Editorial Note 341. FRUS: Vol. E-12.

57 Airgram from Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. A-27, “Martial Law III,” 29 January 1976: Digital National Security Archives (DNSA), George Washington University, Washington DC.

58 Airgram from Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. A-99, “FY 1977 Para Progress Submission of Annual Assessment for the Philippines,” 21 April 1976: DNSA.

59 Joint Communique, 7 December 1975. Accessed via the American Presidency Project. [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=5420].

60 Eduardo Romualdez, A Question of Sovereignty, 1980, 83.

61 Ibid.; Alejandro Fernandez, The Philippines and the United States, (Quezon City: Integrated Research Program, 1997), 318; Letty Magsanoc, ‘Ford Assures RP Continued US Aid’, BT, 8 December 1975.

62 Foreign Service Institute, Philippine Diplomacy: Chronology and Documents, 1972–1981. Manila, Foreign Service Institute, 1981.

63 Enrile, Memoir,454–455; Romualdez, Sovereignty, 89–92.

64 Ibid.

65 Ibid., 86; Enrile, Memoir, 455.

66 The Baguio negotiations are extensively discussed in Romualdez, Sovereignty.

67 Purnell (Manila) to State, No. 9556, “President Marcos on GOP Foreign Defense Policy,” 11 July 1975: CFPF, NARA; Purnell (Manila) to State, No. 9245, “President Marcos on US Bases,” 7 July 1975: CFPF, NARA; Memorandum of Conversation between Kissinger, Habib and Sullivan, “Military Base Negotiations with Philippines,” 10 April 1976: FRUS: Vol. E-12.

68 Memo from Thomas Barnes to Brent Scowcroft, “Your March 31 Meeting with Ambassador William Sullivan,” 31 March 1976: NSA, PCF- EA&P, Country File: People’s Republic of China, Box 15: GFPL; Memo from Rumsfeld to President, “Philippine Base Negotiations,” 27 September 1976, The Donald Rumsfeld Papers, [http://papers.rumsfeld.com/].

69 President’s Daily Brief: 18 June 1975. CIA ERR.

70 Letter from Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld to Secretary of State Kissinger, 13 September 1976. FRUS: Vol. E-12.

71 Ferdinand Marcos, An Evolving New Diplomacy. Speech delivered before University of the Philippines alumni association, 11 December 1976. Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 1733, “Marcos-Robinson Meeting,” 6 August 1976: NSA, NSC EA&P Staff, Subject Files Box 31, GFPL.

72 Transcript of US/Philippine Military Base Negotiating Session, 12 April 1976; NSA, NSC EA&P Staff, Subject Files Box 31, GFPL; Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 10023, “Philippine Base Negotiations: Article XIX,” 10 July 1976: CFPF, NARA.

73 Ibid.

74 Memo to President Ford from Kissinger, “Military Base negotiations with the Philippines: Request for negotiating authority,” 7 May 1976: NSC, Institutional Files, Box 40, GFPL.

75 Habib (State) to Canberra, No. 190998, “Status of Military Base Negotiations with the Philippines,” 2 August 1976: CFPF, NARA.

76 Jacques Leslie, ‘U.S., Philippines Spar on Future of Bases’, LATimes, 15 August, 1976.

77 Bill Hayton, The South China Sea (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014); Tao Cheng, ‘The Dispute over the South China Sea Islands’. Texas International Law Journal 10 (1975): 265–77.

78 Ross Marlay, ‘China, the Philippines, and the Spratly Islands’. Asian Affairs 23 (1997), 195–210.

79 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 5250, “GOP Concern over NVN Incursion into Spratly Area,” 24 April 1975: CFPF, NARA; Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 5355, “GOP Concern over NVN Incursion into Spratly Area,” 25 April 1975: CFPF, NARA; President's Daily Brief: 25 April 1975, CIA ERR.

80 Kissinger (State) to CINPACFLT, No. 116037, “Disputed Territories in South China Sea,” 5 May 1975; CFPF, NARA; Kissinger (State) to Manila, No. 133765, “US MDT Commitment and Spratlys,” 9 June 1975: CFPF, NARA.

81 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 6840, “Disputed Territories in South China Sea,” 20 May 1975: CFPF, NARA.

82 Memo to Scowcroft from Barnes, “Philippines-Vietnam Incident in the Spratly Islands,” 21 May 1976: NSA, PCF- EA&P, Country File: People’s Republic of China, Box 15: GFPL; President’s Daily Brief: 15 June 1976, CIA ERR.

83 Kissinger (Manila) to Canberra, No. 192534, “Your Talks in Manila,” 4 August 1976: CFPF, NARA.

84 Romualdez, Sovereignty, 301–2; Enrile, Memoir, 456–7.

85 Romualdez, Sovereignty, 302.

86 Ibid.

87 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 11733, “Marcos-Robinson Meeting August 6, 1976,” 6 August 1976: CFPF, NARA; Memo to Scowcroft from Barnes, “Marcos-Robinson Meeting August 6, 1976 and Philippine Base Negotiations,” 6 August 1976: NSA, PCF- EA&P, Country Files Box 15: GFPL.

88 Enrile, Memoir, 458; Romualdez, 304

89 Ibid.

90 MDT.

91 This category was for islands like Okinawa that were internationally recognized as being under American administration but were not American territories.

92 Kissinger (State) to Manila, No. 133765, “US MDT Commitment and Spratlys,” 9 June 1975: CFPF, NARA; Memo to Kissinger via Habib from Aldrich and Hummel, “Philippine Base Negotiations: Key Policy Issues,” 18 August 1976: NSA, NSC EA&P Staff, Subject Files Box 31, GFPL.

93 Memo from Rumsfeld to President, “Philippine Base Negotiations,” 27 September 1976, The Donald Rumsfeld Papers.

94 Memorandum of Conversation between Kissinger, Habib, Sullivan et al. “Philippine Base Negotiations,” 4 October 1976: NSA, NSC EA&P Staff, Subject Files Box 31, GFPL.

95 Memorandum from the President’s Assistant for National Security Affairs (Scowcroft) to President Ford, “Key Issues in our Base Negotiations with the Philippines,” Undated: FRUS: Vol. E-12.

96 Ibid.

97 Memorandum of Conversation between Kissinger and Romulo, 6 October 1976, DNSA.

98 Ibid.

99 Enrile, Memoir, 460–3; Romualdez, Sovereignty, 318–20.

100 Memorandum of Conversation between Kissinger and Romulo, 6 October 1976, DNSA.

101 Kissinger (State) to CINCPAC, No. 268153, “Mutual Defense Treaty: Aide-Memoire,” 9 November 1976. CFPF, NARA.

102 Kissinger (state) to Manila, No.267580, “Philippine Base Negotiations,” 30 October 1976, CFPF, NARA.

103 While it is unclear what number was stated in October, it does appear that Kissinger was wholly unprepared when the figure of $2 billion was raised in November.

104 Memorandum of Conversation between Kissinger and Romulo, 23 November 1976: NSA, NSC EA&P Staff, Subject Files Box 31, GFPL; ‘$1 Billion Agreed on for Bases’, Bulletin Today, 5 December 1976.

105 Memorandum of Conversation between Kissinger and Romulo in Mexico City, 30 November 1976, DNSA; Kissinger (State) to Manila, No. 293490, “Philippine Base Negotiations,” 2 December 1976: NSA, PCF- EA&P, Country File: Philippines-State Department Telegrams, Box 16: GFPL; Kissinger (State) to Manila, No. 399727, “Philippine Base Negotiations,” 10 December 1976: NSA, PCF- EA&P, Country File: Philippines-State Department Telegrams, Box 16: GFPL.

106 Ibid.; Kissinger (State) to Manila, No. 295628, “Philippine Base Negotiations,” 4 December 1976: FRUS: Vol. E-12.

107 Kissinger (State) to Manila, No. 300727, “Philippine Base Negotiations,” 10 December 1976: NSA, PCF- EA&P, Country File: Philippines-State Department Telegrams, Box 16: GFPL.

108 Bernard Gwerzman, ‘U.S. Ties with Manila Strained by Public Dispute over Bases’, NYT, 5 December 1976; Apolonio Batalla, ‘No agreement on bases talks – Sec. Romulo’, Bulletin Today, 6 December 1976.

109 Don Oberdorfer, ‘Philippine “Accord Said Non-Existent”’, WP, 6 December 1976.

110 Ferdinand Marcos, ‘An Evolving New Diplomacy’,” in Benjamin Domingo, ed. Marcos Foreign Policy (Marcos Presidential Center, 2007), 170–80; ‘Marcos Takes Hard Line on U.S. Bases’, LA Times, 19 December 1976, Manila.

111 Richard Holbrook, Testimony before House of Representatives Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific, 10 March 1977; Memo from Richard Holbrooke to Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, “My Trip to East Asia,” 21 April 1977:

NLC-26-39-5-4-1, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library (JCPL), Atlanta, Georgia.

112 McMahon, Limits of Empire, 199–203.

113 Sullivan (Manila) to State, No. 1695, “Shift in Official Philippine Attitude Towards U.S.,” 3 February 1977: CFPF, NARA.

114 Oral History of Richard Teare, Deputy Director of Philippine Affairs (1978–1980): Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training. Accessed online [http://www.adst.org/Readers/Philippines.pdf].

115 Ambassador David Newsom (Manila) to State, No. 5898, “Holbrooke Discussion with President and Mrs. Marcos,” 20 April 1977: NLC-26-30-5-4-1: JCPL.

116 Ibid.

117 Vance (State) to Manila, No. 875275, “Presidential Letter to President Marcos,” 5 April 1977: NSA, Brzezinski Materials, Office files Country Chronological Files Box 1: JCPL.

118 Holbrooke also delivered a personal letter from Carter that explicitly mentions human rights. Memo from Richard Holbrooke to Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, “My Trip to East Asia,” 21 April 1977: NLC-26-39-5-4-1, JCPL; Newsom (Manila) to State, No. 5898, “Holbrooke Discussion with President and Mrs. Marcos,” 20 April 1977: NLC-26-30-5-4-1: JCPL.

119 Newsom (Manila) to State, No. 5898, “Holbrooke Discussion with President and Mrs. Marcos,” 20 April 1977: NLC-26-30-5-4-1: JCPL.

120 Vance (State) to Manila, No. 197398, “GOP Initiative to Reopen Military Base and Continue Economic Treaty Negotiations,” 19 August 1977: CFPF, NARA; Vance (State) to Manila, No. 198986, “Philippine Base Negotiations- Text of GOP Demarche,” 20 August 1977: CFPF, NARA.

121 Presidential Review Memorandum NSC-14, 26 January 1977, FRUS 1977–1980, Vol. XXII.

122 Bonner, Waltzing, 210–23; Telegram from Kuala Lumpur (Underhill) to State, Sub: U.S. military bases in the Philippines, 9 February 1977, FRUS 1977–1980, Vol. XXII.

123 George Kennan, The Cloud of Danger (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co. 1977), 98.

124 Study Prepared by the Interagency Group on Philippine Base Negotiations, 7 March 1977, FRUS 1977-1980, Vol XXII; Record of a Policy Review Committee Meeting, 21 April 1977, FRUS 1977-1980 Vol. XXII; “Philippine Base Negotiations,” 22 October 1977: NLC-26-5-2-1-5, JCPL.

125 Vance (State) to Jakarta, No. 227946, “Holbrooke/ Marcos Meeting,” 22 September 1977: CFPF, NARA.

126 Newsom (Manila) to State, No. 15267, “Holbrooke-Marcos Discussion and assessment and guideline,” 26 September 1977: CFPF, NARA.

127 Telegram from State to the Embassy in Indonesia, White House, Department of Defense, and Commander in Chief, Pacific, 22 September 1977, FRUS 1977-1980, Vol. XXII.

128 Ibid.

129 The letter was personally delivered by Imelda during a visit to the U.S. where she met with both Carter and Secretary Vance “Letter from Philippine President Marcos to President Carter.” 25 September 1977, FRUS 1977-1980, Vol. XXII

130 Newsom (Manila) to State, No. 19311, “US-Philippine Defense Cooperation,” 8 December 1977: CFPF, NARA; Vance (State) to Manila, No. 248525, “Consultations on Philippine Defense Relationship,” 16 October 1977: CFPF, NARA; Vance (State) to Manila, No. 290510CFPF, “US-Philippine Defense Cooperation,” 6 December 1977: CFPF, NARA; “Letter from Carter to Marcos,” 27 October 1977, FRUS 1977–1980, Vol. XXII.

131 Vance (State) to Manila, No. 290510CFPF, “US-Philippine Defense Cooperation,” 6 December 1977: NARA.

132 Memo for Brzezinski from Mike Armacost, “PRC Meeting on Philippine Base Compensation,” 27 February 1978: NLC-21-29-2-16-8, JCPL; Presidential Review Committee, “Philippine Bases,” 28 February 1978: NLC-15-39-11-1-0, JCPL; Vance (State) to Manila, No. 67001, “Base Discussions: Compensation Offer and Equipment List,” 15 March 1978: CFPF, NARA.

133 Vance (State) to Manila, No. 67001, “Base Discussions: Compensation Offer and Equipment List,” 15 March 1978: CFPF, NARA.

134 Newsom (Manila) to State, No. 4258, “Base Discussions: Compensation offer and Military Equipment List,”16 March 1978: CFPF, NARA.

135 Romualdez, Sovereignty, 363.

136 Ibid., 364–365; Memorandum from Michael Armacost National Security Advisor (Brzezinski), 21 March 1977; FRUS 1977-1980, Vol XXII.

137 ‘Marcos Denies U.S. Report on Rights Violations’, NYT, 8 January 1977; Willi NG, ‘RP May Scrap Bases Treaty With US—FM’, Bulletin Today, 8 January 1977; Willie NG, ‘FM Hits US Report on RP Human Rights’, Bulletin Today, 9 January 1977.

138 “Foreign relations Authorization for Fiscal Year 1978,” Hearing before House Subcommittee on International Operations, 29–31 March 1977, 354–5.

139 ‘What Price Bases in the Philippines’, NYTimes, 25 November 1977.

140 Derian (Manila) to State, No. 0632, ‘Human Rights in the Philippines’, 12 January 1977: CFPF, NARA; Blitz, Contested State, 130–2.

141 Bonner, Waltzing, 225–31; Newsome (Manila) to State, No. 0721, “Human Rights in the Philippines,” 13 January 1977: CFPF, NARA; Blitz, Contested State, 130–2.

142 Newsom (Manila) to State, No. 4486, “Legislative Elections: Marcos Revives “Foreign Meddling” Issue,” 20 March 1978: CFPF, NARA; Newsom (Manila) to State, No. 4971, “Legislative Elections: Marcos Renews Charges of US Intervention,” 29 March 1978: CFPF, NARA.

143 Jay Mathews, “Election Marcos Style,” WP, 5 April 1978; Vance (State) to Manila, No. 92191, “Approach to the GOP,” 11 April 1978: CFPF, NARA.

144 Memo from Walter Mondale to Carter, “Philippine Election Aftermath and Options for Pacific Trip,” 13 April 1978: NLC-133-110-3-23-3, JCPL; Stull (Manila) to State, No. 6080, “Visit of Vice President Mondale,” 17 April 1978: CFPF, NARA; Stull (Manila) to State, No.6295, “Visit of Vice President, 20 April 1978: CFPF, NARA; Bonner, Waltzing, 240-246.

145 Stull (Manila) to State, No. 7272, “Vice President’s Meeting with Marcos May 3,” 4 May 1978: CFPF, NARA; Stull (Manila) to State, No. 7402, “Vice President’s Visit Preliminary Assessment,” 5 May 1978: CFPF, NARA.

146 Ibid. For details of the negotiations on the joint statement see Romualdez, Sovereignty, 368–70.

147 Vance (State) to CINCPAC, No. 146429, “US/RP Military-to-Military Discussions,” 9 June 1978: CFPF, NARA; Ambassador Richard Murphy (Manila) to State, No. 13485, “Base Discussions Next Steps After Military-to Military Talks,” 4 August 1978: CFPF, NARA.

148 For a detailed analysis of the negotiations, see Berry, Bases; Murphy (Manila) to State, No. 13485, “Base Discussions Next Steps After Military-to Military Talks,” 4 August 1978: CFPF, NARA.

149 For example, “Human Rights in Indonesia and the Philippines,” Hearings before House Subcommittee on International Organizations, 18 December 1975 & 3 May 1976.

150 ‘United States Maintains Rights for 24 Military Bases’, Congressional Record, 25 June 1976, 20780

151 Speech by John Burton, Congressional Record, 6 June 1975, 17745.

“House Panel Votes to Trim Arms Aid to Philippines,” LATimes, 27 April 1978; Senate Debate, Congressional Record, 3 August 1978, 24218–24226.

152 Tom Harkin, “Coalition for Human Rights and Coalition for a New Foreign and Military Policy,” Congressional Record, 5 April 1978, 8901–8902.

153 Richard Burt, “Carter Asks for No Cuts,” NYT, 6 February 1978.

154 Bonner, Waltzing, 248–250.

155 Vance (State) to Manila, No. 192106, “Mrs. Marcos visit to Washington, 29 July 1978: CFPF, NARA; Vance (State) to Manila, No. 203005, “Philippine Players on Washington Scene, 10 August 1978: CFPF, NARA.

156 Murphy (Manila) to State, No. 13751, “Base Discussions Marcos Focusses on Congressional Handling of MAP,” 9 August 1978: CFPF, NARA.

157 “Marcos’ daughter leads drive against U.S. Bases,” WP, 30 August, 1978; Vance(State) to Mania, No. Flash 9186, “Public Criticism of Bases,” 18 August 1976: NLC 16-113-1-14-3, JCPL; C. Valmoria, ‘KR Demands Dismantling of US Bases’, Bulletin Today, 6 August 1978.

158 Murphy (Manila) to State, No. 14216, “Recess f Military-to-Military Talks,” 16 August 1978: CFPF, NARA.

159 Murphy (Manila) to State, No. 17337, “Marcos Speaks Publicly on U.S. Philippine Security Issues and Military Bases,” 3 October 1978: CFPF, NARA.

160 Ferdinand Marcos, “The integrated approach to human rights,” speech before 58^th conference of international law association, in Presidential speeches (Vol. 8) 1978, 258–259.

161 Murphy (Manila) to State, No. 18793, “Reflections on Marcos, Imelda and US-RP Relations,” 21 October 1978: CFPF, NARA.

162 Inouye led the campaign to provide benefits to Filipino veterans who had served as part of U.S. forces during World War II.

163 Vance (State) to Manila, No. 259598 “Visit to Philippines by Senator Inouye,” 21 October 1978: CFPF, NARA.

164 Murphy (Manila) to State, No. 19451, “Senator Inouye’s Visit,” 1 November 1975: CFPF, NARA.

165 Memo for Secretary of State Vance from Brzezinski, “Evening Report 31 October 1978,” 1 November 1978: NLC-7-20-8-19-4, JCPL; Murphy (Manila) to State, No 19456, “Marcos Letter to Inouye on Irritants in US-Philippine Relations,” 5 November 1978: CFPF, NARA.

166 Vance (State) to Manila, No. 287362, “US-Philippine Relations: Meeting with Senator Inouye,” 11 November 1978: CFPF, NARA; Vance (State) to Manila, No. 287372, “Moving Ahead with Base Talks,” 11 November 1978: CFPF, NARA.

167 Memorandum of Conversation – Summary of President’s Meeting with Senator Danial Inouye, 17 November 1978, FRUS, 1977-1980, Vol. XXII*

168 Vance (State) to Manila, No. 300318, “President’s Letter to Marcos,” 27 November 1978: CFPF, NARA.

169 Vance (State) to Manila, No. 327037, “Base Discussions,” 29 December 1978: CFPF, NARA; Memorandum from the Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs (Aaron) to President Carter, Subject: Philippine Base Agreement, Undated.

170 Murphy (Manila) to State, No. 22622, “December 20 MBA Discussion with Marcos,” 20 December 1978: CFPF, NARA.

171 Ibid.

172 Letter from President Jimmy Carter to President Ferdinand Marcos, 4 January 1979, DNSA.

173 Vance (State) to Manila, No. 4453, “Vance-Romulo Letter,” 6 January 1979: CFPF, NARA.

174 Ibid.

175 Gregory Poling and Eric Sayers, ‘Time to Make Good on the U.S.-Philippine Alliance’, War on the Rocks, 21 January, 2019; Regine Cabato, ‘Pompeo Promises Intervention If Philippines is Attacked in South China Sea’, WP, 28 February 2019.

176 Berry, Bases, 229–32.

177 “The Philippine Bases Agreement,” WP, 4 January 1979.

178 ‘Five-year Review’, Bulletin Today, 28 December 1978; Jose De Vera, ‘Amended Bases Accord OK’d’. Bulletin Today, 1 January 1978; Apolonio Batalla, ‘Bases Will Remain an Issue’, Bulletin Today, 1 January 1979.

179 Jesus Bigornia, ‘Major Points in Bases Talks Still Unresolved’, Bulletin Today, 2 January 1979.

180 Enrile, Memoir, 467.

181 Romualdez, Sovereignty, 326.

182 Romualdez, Sovereignty, 377.

183 Murphy (Manila) to State, No. 20142, “CSIS Study on Bases-Visit of Dr. Samuels,” 13 November 1978: CFPF, NARA.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Foundation.

Notes on contributors

Gregory H. Winger

Dr. Gregory H. Winger is a Professor of Political Science at the University of Cincinnati. He is a Fellow with the National Asia Research Program and former Fulbright Scholar to the Philippines.