860
Views
17
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric

Redefining food: the standardization of products and production in Europe and the United States, 1880–1914

Pages 11-36 | Published online: 18 Mar 2011
 

Abstract

This article analyzes the interrelationship between expert systems and the creation of public trust in food production in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, focusing on the roles of scientific knowledge and elites in academia, government, and business. The nutrient paradigm of the mid nineteenth century played a crucial part in this history, facilitating new practices of control and standardization based on measurable, empirical ‘facts.’ This article compares the different approaches, power constellations, and results of the struggle for improved and reliable food quality in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and the USA. Scientists, especially chemists, the food industries, and public authorities at the local, regional, and federal levels established a structure of science‐based standardization and trust‐building, which acted on behalf of the consumer in enforcing their own ‘objective’ ideas about safe products and additives.

Notes

1. Berghoff, ‘Zähmung’; Meijboom, ‘Trust.’

2. Berghoff and Sydow, ‘Unternehmerische Netzwerke.’

3. Giddens, Konsequenzen. See also Fischler, ‘Food, Self and Identity’; Frewer and Miles, ‘Risk Perception’; Fischler, ‘Food Selection’; Bildtgard, ‘Trust.’

4. Current studies can be found in Harvey, McMeekin and Warde, Qualities of Food; Möllering, Inviting; Greiner and Bockenfels, ‘Vom Labor ins Feld.’

5. Bruegel and Stanziani, ‘Pour une histoire.’

6. Trumbull, Consumer Capitalism; Trumbull, ‘National Varieties.’

7. A descriptive overview gives Carpenter, Protein and Energy. A long‐term perspective: Spiekermann, Künstliche Kost.

8. Liebig, Die organische Chemie; Liebig, Die Thier‐Chemie.

9. Liebig, Theorie und Praxis; Liebig, Die moderne Landwirthschaft.

10. Voit, Handbuch der Physiologie, 518–28; Forster, ‘Ernährung und Nahrungsmittel.’

11. Rabinbach, The Human Motor.

12. Uekötter, Die Wahrheit; Orland, ‘Wissenschaft, Markt und Erfahrung.’

13. Ellerbrock, Geschichte.

14. Pettenkofer and Voit, ‘Untersuchungen’; Voit, ‘Entwicklung der Lehre’; Rubner, ‘Calorimetrische Untersuchungen.’

15. Voit, Theorien der Ernährung; Rubner, Volksernährungsfragen.

16. Wiegert, Anfangsprobleme der Nahrungsmittelchemie.

17. Good examples are Ranke, Ernährung; Meinert, Armee‐ und Volksernährung; Fleck, Ernährungsgesetze; König, Chemie.

18. König, Chemie, VIII.

19. ‘Erste Berathung des Gesetzentwurfs,’ 627 (Mendel).

20. Ibid., 637 (Braun).

21. ‘Gesetz, betreffend den Verkehr mit Nahrungsmitteln,’ 772. For Britain, see Wigner, ‘Adulteration.’

22. Geissler, ‘Frage der Normalzahlen.’

23. König, Bestand, 152.

24. Ibid., 156.

25. Ibid., 163.

26. König, ‘Bedeutung der Chemie,’ 181–2.

27. Sendtner, ‘Kontrolle,’ 385–8; Gerum, ‘50 Jahre.’ For the institutional development, see Pappe, ‘Geschichte.’

28. For an overview, see Rubner, ‘Mitarbeit.’

29. Detailed data can be found in Würzburg, Nahrungsmittel‐Gesetzgebung; Kerp, ‘Übersicht.’

30. Juckenack, ‘Nahrungsmittelkontrolle’; König, ‘Controle der Nahrungsmittel,’ 8. At the same time, Prussia was the pioneer of modern meat inspection: Spiekermann, ‘Dangerous Meat?’

31. König, ‘Bedeutung der Chemie,’ 182–3; similar: Hilger, ‘Untersuchungsanstalten,’ 16–19.

32. Vereinbarungen betreffs der Untersuchung; Hilger, Vereinbarungen.

33. Spiekermann, ‘Deutsche Küche.’

34. Technische Anhaltspunkte; Sell, ‘Kunstbutter’; ‘Anweisungen zur Prüfung.’

35. May and Maercker, ‘Nahrungsmittel‐Kontrole,’ 193; ‘Vereinbarungen einheitlicher Untersuchungsmethoden’; Vereinbarungen zur einheitlichen Untersuchung, issue I–III.

36. Entwürfe, III.

37. Spiekermann, ‘Warenwelten.’

38. Fischer, ‘Nahrungsmittelpolizei.’

39. An overview is available in Mahl, ‘Gesetzgebung.’

40. ‘Entwurf eines österreichischen Lebensmittel‐Gesetzes’; ‘Motivenbericht.’

41. Frenzel, ‘Lebensmittelbuch’; Merkle, Codex alimentarius.

42. Pharmacopoea Germanica.

43. ‘Stenographisches Protokoll’; Zmrzlik, ‘Entstehung.’

44. ‘Codex alimentarius Austriacus’ (Citation1892).

45. Huitème Congrès International, 13 (Mankiewicz).

46. ‘Die Debatte,’ 231 (Wiedersperg).

47. ‘Gesetz vom 16. Jänner 1896.’ Most of the examination offices already existed: ‘Verordnung der Ministerien.’

48. ‘Verordnung des Ministeriums’; Lafar, ‘Stellungnahme.’

49. ‘Österreich. Erlaß’; Ludwig, ‘Bericht.’

50. ‘Codex alimentarius Austriacus’ (Citation1908), 95; ‘Codex alimentarius Austriacus’ (Citation1908), 309–11.

51. ‘Der “codex alimentarius austriacus”.’

52. Winkler, ‘Markt, Norm und Staat.’

53. Wolfensberger, ‘Normierung des Stoffwechsels.’

54. Bührer, ‘Lebensmittel‐Gesetzgebung’; Bührer, ‘Nahrungsmittel‐Controle’; ‘Das Schweizerische Bundesgesetz.’

55. See, for instance, ‘Beschlüsse … Weinfarbstoffe’; ‘Beschlüsse … Cacao und Chocolade.’ Attempts to standardize food: ‘Ernährungstabellen.’

56. ‘Ausführungsverordnung.’

57. Lebensmittelbuch. Populärer Theil.

58. Attorney of Switzerland. Schweizerisches Lebensmittelbuch. For the German receptions. Grünhut, ‘Lebensmittelbuch,’ 714.

59. ‘Entwurf eines schweizerischen Bundesgesetzes.’

60. ‘Eidgenössische Lebensmittelgesetzgebung’; ‘Zum Referendum’; ‘Regelung des Verkehrs’; Schwab, ‘Geschichte’; Grüne, Anfänge, 291–2.

61. Bertschinger, ‘Stand’; Strahlmann, ‘Analytische Chemie.’ The professionalization of the chemists: ‘Die Anforderungen.’

62. ‘The Question’; ‘Food Adulteration’; ‘Proben auf Verfälschung.’

63. Proceedings, 76 (and ibid., 77, for the following quotation). Please see particularly 75–83 in this reference.

64. Wigner, ‘Model Act.’

65. Food and Food Adulterants.

66. Anderson, Health of a Nation; Okun, Fair Play; Young, Pure Food.

67. The state laws: Kane, ‘Populism’; Law, ‘Origins.’

68. Hinrichs, ‘Pure Food Law.’

69. Johnson, Governing the American State, 85–115.

70. Bailey, ‘Congressional Opposition.’

71. Skinner, ‘Official Food Standards,’ 9.

72. Goodwin, Crusaders; Law and Libecap, ‘Determinants.’ A good example for contemporary arguments is Mason, ‘Food Adulterations.’

73. Wiley, ‘Food and Efficiency,’ 9.

74. Motter, ‘Pure‐Food Legislation.’

75. Pure Food, 18.

76. ‘Lebensmittelbuch der Vereinigten Staaten.’

77. ‘Washington Letter,’ 75.

78. Gardner, ‘Quality Standards,’ 725.

79. The main decisions and guiding principles can be found in Wiley, Foods and Their Adulteration.

80. Pure Food, 17; ‘Reflections.’ The structural problems inside the Republican Party and the Department of Agriculture are discussed by Anderson, ‘Pure‐Food Issue’; Coppin, ‘James Wilson and Harvey Wiley.’

81. High and Coppin, ‘Wiley and the Whiskey Industry.’

82. Quoted by Swann, ‘History of the FDA,’ 10.

83. ‘Ice Cream Standards’; Lannen, ‘Food Lawyer's Comment.’

84. Sussman and Gamer, ‘Standards and Grades,’ 582–3.

85. ‘Food Standards,’ 69 (J.J. Farrel).

86. ‘Food Standards,’ 73 (Thomas E. Lannen).

87. ‘Secretary Houston's Report’; Regier, ‘Struggle’; Young, ‘Food and Drug Regulation.’

88. Their significance during the nineteenth century: Rossfeld, Schweizer Schokolade, 72–90.

89. Wagner, ‘Kakao und Chokolade,’ 111.

90. Rossfeld, ‘Innovation’; Rossfeld, Schweizer Schokolade, 90–103.

91. ‘Gesetz,’ 797.

92. Juckenack, ‘Nahrungsmittelkontrolle.’

93. Some data can be found in Kuntze, ‘Kakao‐ und Chokoladeindustrie.’

94. Abelshauser, ‘Umbruch und Persistenz’; Berghoff, Moderne Unternehmensgeschichte, 96–102.

95. Kirmse, Kakao‐ und Schokolade‐Industrie, 111–17.

96. Greiert, Festschrift, 6.

97. Ibid., 8.

98. Ibid., 17.

99. Filsinger, ‘Untersuchung’; Stollwerck, Kakao, 76–7.

100. ‘Bericht,’ 245–7.

101. Schwädke, Mauxion, 16–22.

102. Zipperer, ‘Fortschritte,’ 452.

103. Vereinbarungen zur einheitlichen Untersuchung, issue 3, 68–81. However, the public reactions remained critical: ‘The “Vereinbarungen” are nothing more, than a valuable semiofficial guide for the valuation and examination of food and comestibles, the provisions of which, not being obligatory, have no legal effect’ (Zipperer, Manufacture, 248).

104. Details can be found in Spiekermann, Basis der Konsumgesellschaft, 522–34.

105. ‘Zum Nahrungsmittelbuch.’ See also Harnack, ‘Streitfrage.’ At the same time, coloring was used on a broader scale; see ‘Gefärbte Chocoladen.’

106. ‘Zur Beurteilung.’

107. ‘Bestimmungen.’ The proposals of the public chemists were quite similar; see Beckurts, ‘Vorschläge.’ Critical: ‘Die allerneuesten “Leitsätze”.’

108. ‘Behördliche Anordnungen’; ‘Eingabe.’

109. König, ‘Bedürfnisse,’ 321.

110. ‘Anträge.’

111. König, ‘Bedürfnisse,’ 321.

112. Entwürfe, IV. Until 1915 six volumes were published.

113. Wolff, ‘Verschlechterung,’ esp. 66.

114. Wood, ‘Strategic Use’; Wood, Strategic Uses.

115. Swann, ‘History,’ 10.

Log in via your institution

Log in to Taylor & Francis Online

PDF download + Online access

  • 48 hours access to article PDF & online version
  • Article PDF can be downloaded
  • Article PDF can be printed
USD 53.00 Add to cart

Issue Purchase

  • 30 days online access to complete issue
  • Article PDFs can be downloaded
  • Article PDFs can be printed
USD 598.00 Add to cart

* Local tax will be added as applicable

Related Research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.