https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7000-431X
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ABSTRACT
This paper combines renewed attention to science diplomacy with the rising interest in material and ontological aspects of science studies. It examines nuclear diplomacy by reviewing negotiations over three tons of natural uranium that the Japanese government requested from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1958. The uranium was half the amount required for the Japan Research Reactor-3, which reached criticality in 1962 and became Japan’s first domestically developed nuclear reactor. Japan’s request provided an opportunity to reaffirm the IAEA’s raison d’être and set in motion the process of establishing a safeguarding system against the military use of atomic energy. The IAEA Board of Governors deliberated on the issue from October 1958 to April 1959. Although Japan’s request was generally welcomed, it sparked confrontations between countries that accepted IAEA safeguards and those against them. By analysing the IAEA Board’s official records, this paper shows how the negotiations transformed the uranium into a ‘diplomatic object’.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the staff of the IAEA Archives, especially Marta Riess. This project started when she showed me the records of the Board of Governor meetings. The author thanks the participants of the Nuclear Diplomacies workshop, especially Maria Rentetzi and Amy Slaton, for their helpful comments and criticisms. Jacques Hyman kindly showed the author a relevant document from the Archives of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The author thanks the anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1. This paper uses the traditional order for Japanese personal names (the family name first, the given name second), except when they are cited as authors of European-language publications or in references.
2. Fischer, History, 245; Forland, “Negotiating Supranational Rules”; and Pendley et al., “International Safeguarding,” 599–600. On the safeguards and the IAEA, see also, Brown, Nuclear Authority; Hamblin, “A Glaring Defect”; and Roehrlich, “Negotiating Verification.” For early history of the IAEA, see, for example, Hecht, “Negotiating Global Nuclearities”; Holloway, “The Soviet Union”; Roehrlich, “The Cold War”; and Scheinman, The International Atomic Energy Agency.
3. The literature on these topics is too vast to cite here.
4. Again, the literature on the ‘ontological turn(s)’ is too vast to cite. See, for example, Holbraad and Pedersen, Ontological Turn.
5. See the articles in the special issue of Social Studies of Science 43, no. 3 (2012) and 45, no. 3 (2015).
6. For example, Rentetzi, Trafficking Materials; Creager, Life Atomic; and Hecht, Being Nuclear. See also Rentetzi, “Determining Nuclear Fingerprints.”
7. Hecht, “Nuclear Ontologies.”
8. Woolgar and Lezaun, “Wrong Bin Bag.”
9. Mol, Body Multiple; and Barad, Meeting the Universe Halfway.
10. Pickering, Mangle; and Galison, Image and Logic. For a classical discussion, see also Davidson, “On the Very Idea.”
11. Abraham, “Ambivalence”; and Rentetzi, “Diplomatic Turn.”
12. For example, see Low and Yoshioka, “Buying the ‘Peaceful Atom.’”
13. See, for example, Itoko Suzuki, “Japan’s Recent Prime Minister’s Scandals and Records Management,” PA Times, August 29, 2017, https://patimes.org/japans-prime-ministers-scandals-records-management/
14. Studies by Yamazaki Masakatsu and Arima Tetsuo are good examples. See Yamazaki, “US Light Water Reactors”; and Arima, Genpatsu to genbaku.
15. Daston, Biographies of Scientific Objects; and Daston, Things That Talk.
16. Lindee, “Repatriation.” Moreover, in this paper, Lindee already uses expressions like ‘diplomatic objects’ and ‘diplomatic commodity,’ though more as descriptive than analytical terms. In her case, the human body parts of atomic bomb victims are striking examples of how objects are made to play a certain diplomatic role and might be discussed in a similar way as the uranium in this case, probably with more archival materials from the Japanese side.
17. Rudolf and Metzig, Material Culture; and Biederman, Gerritsen, and Riello, Global Gifts. In particular, Rudolf uses the expression of ‘diplomatic object,’ again descriptively, Rudolf, “Entangled Objects,” p. 21. Drawing on this new literature, Andreas Pacher also proposes the concept of ‘diplomatic object,’ although his semiotic and system-theoretical approach seems radically different from mine. See Pacher, “Material Objects.”
18. For example, Daniel Plafcan attended and observed six, mostly multi-day, meetings and conducted forty-eight interviews for his study on ‘technoscientific diplomacy.’ See Plafcan, “Between State and Transnational Community.”
19. National Security Council report, “Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy,13 December 1957, NSC 5725/1, F.16 and paragraph 41. See also ‘International Atomic Energy Agency Second General Conference Position Paper, Special Item: Development of Agency Safeguards,’ September 1958, Box 17, Folder “Safeguards, 1956–1958. UD 2092D, Record Group (RG) 84, National Archives Record Administration (NARA) at College Park, College Park, MD; ‘Aide Memoire: Application of Agency Safeguards to Bilateral Agreements,’ 4 June 1958, Box 5, Folder ‘Safeguards, 1956–1958, unclassified,’ UD2092C, RG 84, NARA.
20. “Safeguards,” 2 May 1958, signed J.H. Manley, Folder “Agency Safeguards,” Box 19, UD 2092D, RG 84, NARA. See also Forland, “Negotiating Supranational Rules,” 85ff.
21. Mathews to Dulles, 3 May 1958, Folder “Safeguards, 1956–1958, classified,” Box 17, UD 2092D, RG 84.
22. “Record prepared by the Canadian Delegation of a meeting held in the Conference Room of the East Block of the Parliament Buildings in Ottawa on 5 November 1958,” Folder “P. U. S. Safeguards, 1958 Part 1 of 3,” Box 302, 3008A, RG59, NARA, 5–6.
23. Enclosure in the letter from McKinney to Dulles, 26 July 1958, 398.1901-IAEA/7-2658, Folder “398–1901-IAEA 7–158,” Box 1505, CDF 1955–1959, RG59, NARA.
24. Krige, “Peaceful Atom”; and Krige, “Euratom and the IAEA.” For the conflicts between the Euratom and the IAEA over safeguards, see Krige, Sharing Knowledge, Ch. 2.
25. Yatabe, Kakuheiki, 226; and Holloway, “The Soviet Union.”
26. “Record prepared by the Canadian Delegation of a meeting held in the Conference Room of the East Block of the Parliament Buildings in Ottawa on 5 November 1958,” to discuss “The Application of Safeguards to Nuclear Exports,” Folder “P. U. S. Safeguards, 1958 Part 1 of 3,” Box 302, 3008A, RG59, NARA. Regarding early discussions over IAEA safeguards and the standpoint of India and other nuclear ‘have-nots,’ see Roehrlich, “The Cold War.”
27. Dulles to McCone (draft), 4 August 1958, Folder “Safeguards, 1956–1958, classified,” Box 17, UD 2092D, RG 84, NARA.
28. Department of State to Embassy Tokyo, No. 289, 23 August 1958, Folder “12 H P. U. S. File: 18. Safeguards, 1958, Part 2 of 3,” Box 302, 3008A, RG59, NARA.
29. Scheinman, International Atomic Energy Agency, 36–37.
30. For example, see Iokibe, Diplomatic History, Ch. 2; and Yoshitsugu, Nichibeikankei.
31. Yamazaki, “US Light Water Reactors,” 29.
32. Arima, Genpatsu to genbaku, 136.
33. For an explicit statement of Japan’s apparent preference for an early transfer of the safeguards under the UK–Japan bilateral agreement to the IAEA, see, for example, US Embassy in London to Secretary of State, 4 October 1957, Telegram No. 2266, Folder ‘12 H Peaceful Uses, Subject File, 18. Safeguards, 1957, Part 1 of 2,’ Box 302, 3008A, RG 59, NARA.
34. “IAEA no hoshō sasatsu kikō no kyōka ni kansuru ken,” 29 August 1958. Kokusai Genshiryokukikan kankei ikken (IAEA), Sōkai kankei, Vol. 1, B’.6.1.0.38–3, Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Tokyo, Japan (DAMOFAJ).
35. Kishi to Furuuchi, “IAEA no hoshō sasatsu kikō kyōka ni kansuru ken,” Telegram No. 97, 4 September 1958. Kokusai Genshiryokukikan kankei ikken (IAEA), Sōkai kankei, Vol. 1, B’.6.1.0.38–3, DAMOFAJ.
36. “Dainikai Kokusai Genshiryokukikan Sōkai Nihonseifu daihyō nitaisuru kunrei,” Kishi to Furuuchi, 12 September 1958, Kokusai Genshiryokukikan kankei ikken (IAEA), Sōkai kankei, Vol. 1, B’.6.1.0.38–3, DAMOFAJ.
37. Kishi to Furuuchi (copy), 12 September 1958, Kokusai Genshiryokukikan kankei ikken, Rijikai, vol. 2, B’.6.1.0.3.8–4, DAMOFAJ
38. There is no good biography of Nishina in English or Japanese at this point. See Ito, “Making Sense of Ryōshiron”; and Kim, Yoshio Nishina.
39. Genken jūnenshi. See also, Sugimoto, “Kokusan 1-gōro.”
40. Yoshioka, Genshiryoku, 102. According to Sugimoto, the design was decied in March 1950. See, Sugimoto, “Kokusan 1-gōro.”
41. Shimai et al., “Designing”; and Sugimoto, “Kokusan 1-gōro.”
42. Genshiryoku kaihatsujūnenshi, 78–88, 236–240, 341–343.
43. MacArthur to Secretary of State, 4 September 1958, Folder “12 H P. U. S. File: 18. Safeguards, 1958, Part 2 of 3,” Box 302, 3008A, RG59, NARA.
44. “Second International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Switzerland,” 9 September 1958, Folder “Safeguards, 1956–1958,” Box 17, UD 2092D, RG 84, NARA.
45. Dulles to US Embassy Vienna, 11 September 1958, Telegram No. 750, Folder “Safeguards, 1956–1958,” Box 17, UD 2092D, RG 84, NARA.
46. “Memorandum of Conversation,” 16 September 1958, Folder “Safeguards, 1956–1958,” Box 17, UD 2092D, RG 84, NARA.
47. Furuuchi to Kishi (copy), 19 September 1958, Telegram No. 185, Kokusai Genshiryokukikan kankei ikken Rijikai, vol. 2, B’.6.1.0.3.8–4, DAMOFAJ.
48. IAEA Archives, Item 7 of the provisional agenda, (Gov/222) Request by the Government of Japan for Assistance in Obtaining a Supply of Natural Uranium, GOV/223, Box GOV/200-249A.
49. GC(II)/OR.17, October 24, 1958, https://www-legacy.iaea.org/About/Policy/GC/GC02/GC02Records/English/gc02or-17_en.pdf.
50. US Embassy Vienna to Secretary of State, 24 September 1958, Telegram No. 770, Folder “Reports-Second and Third General Conference Meetings,” Box 1, UD2092G, RG 84, NARA.
51. “Text of the speech by Mr. John A. McCone, Chairman of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, before the Second General Conference of the International Atomic Energy Agency,” 25 September 1958, Folder “10 J IAEA 2nd General Conf. 1958, Misc. Part 1 of 2,” Box 189, 3008A, RG 59, NARA.
52. IAEA Archives, Provisional Agenda for Meetings Starting at 10.30 am on Monday, 6 October 1958, GOV/222, Box GOV/200-249A.
53. IAEA Archives, Official Record of the One Hundred and First Meeting, GOV/OR.101, BOX GOV OR/100-199.
54. Ibid.
55. IAEA Archives, Official Record of the One Hundred and Second Meeting, GOV/OR.102, BOX GOV OR/100-199.
56. Ibid.
57. IAEA Archives, Official Record of the One Hundred and Third Meeting, GOV/OR.103, BOX GOV OR/100-199.
58. IAEA Archives, Item 2 of the Provisional Agenda (Gov/230), Request by the Government of Japan for Assistance in Purchasing a Supply of Natural Uranium Metal from the Agency, GOV/255, Box GOV/250-299A.
59. IAEA Archives, Item 2 of the Provisional Agenda (Gov/230), Request by the Government of Japan for Assistance in Purchasing a Supply of Natural Uranium Metal from the Agency, GOV/231, Box GOV/OR 200–249A.
60. IAEA Archives, Item 2 of the Provisional Agenda (Gov/230), Request by the Government of Japan for Assistance in Purchasing a Supply of Natural Uranium Metal from the Agency, GOV/253, Box GOV250-299A; GOV/253/Corr.1.
61. Hecht, Being Nuclear, Ch. 2.
62. IAEA Archives, Item 7 of the Provisional Agenda (Gov/222), Request by the Government of Japan for Assistance in Purchasing a Supply of Natural Uranium Metal from the Agency, GOV/238, Box GOV/200-249A; GOV/238/Rev.1, ibid.; IAEA Archives, Item 2 of the Provisional Agenda (Gov/230), Request by the Government of Japan for Assistance in Purchasing a Supply of Natural Uranium Metal from the Agency, GOV/250, Box GOV/250-299A.
63. IAEA Archives, Official Record of the One Hundred and Fifth Meeting, GOV/OR.105, Box GOV/OR 100–199.
64. Ibid., 12–14.
65. Ibid., 17–18.
66. Ōsato to Fujiyama, 8 January 1959 (copy), Kokusai Genshiryokukikan kankei ikken Rijikai Vol. 2, B’.6.1.0.3.8–4, DAMOFAJ.
67. IAEA Archives, Official Record of the One Hundred and Sixth Meeting, GOV/OR.106, Box GOV/OR 100–199.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid.
70. Helmreich, Gathering Rare Ores.
71. Hecht, Being Nuclear, 55–68. On banalization of nuclear technology, see also, Sastre-Juan & Valentines-Álvarez, “Fun and Fear.”
72. See note 67 above.
73. IAEA Archives, Item 2 of the Provisional Agenda (GOV/230), Request by the Government of Japan for Assistance in Purchasing a Supply of Natural Uranium Metal from the Agency, GOV/249, Box GOV/200-249A, Draft Agreement for Assistance by the International Atomic Energy Agency to the Government of Japan in Supplying Uranium for the Research Reactor Project JRR-3, 3.
74. “IAEA – UK Comments Japanese Project,” US Embassy Vienna to Secretary of State, 6 January 1959, Telegram No. 1542, Folder “10 8 IAEA Brd of Gov. 7. Telegrams, Vienna Jan–Feb, 1959, Part 2 of 2,” Box 217, 3008A, RG 59, NARA.
75. See note 67 above.
76. On Sole’s and South Africa’s views about safeguards, see, Hecht, “Negotiating Global Nuclearities,” 42–3.
77. See note 67 above.
78. See note 61 above.
79. The IAEA Statute.
80. See note 67 above.
81. IAEA Archives, Agenda Item 3 (GOV/257), Request by the Government of Japan for Assistance in Purchasing a Supply of Natural Uranium Metal from the Agency, GOV/268, Box, GOV/250-299A.
82. See note 67 above.
83. Ibid.
84. IAEA Archives, Official Record of the One Hundred and Seventh Meeting, GOV/OR.107, Box GOV/OR 100–199.
85. “Comptes-rendus des Conseils des Gouverneurs par le gouvernement français, Octobre 1957–Octobre 1975,” in Box “Vienne RP ONU-OI 1956–1984,” classification number 12POI/1/99, Archives of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Nantes, France.
86. See note 84 above.
87. IAEA Archives, Official Record of the One Hundred and Ninth Meeting, GOV/OR.109, Box GOV/OR 100–199.
88. IAEA Archives, GOV/294, 11 March 1959, GOV/250-299A.
89. IAEA Archives, Item 2 of the Provisional Agenda (GOV/230), Request by the Government of Japan for Assistance in Purchasing a Supply of Natural Uranium Metal from the Agency, GOV/249, Box GOV/200-249A, Appendix. Initial Safeguards to be Applied under the Agreement Contained in this Document.
90. IAEA, Safeguards Implementation.
91. IAEA Archives, Item 1 of the Provisional Agenda (GOV/276), Request by the Government of Japan for Assistance in Purchasing a Supply of Natural Uranium Metal from the Agency, GOV/249, Box GOV/200-249A.
92. IAEA Archives, Item 1 of the Provisional Agenda (GOV/276), Request by the Government of Japan for Assistance in Purchasing a Supply of Natural Uranium Metal from the Agency, GOV/294, Box GOV/250-299A.
93. IAEA Archives, Official Record of the One Hundred and Twentieth Meeting, GOV/OR.120, Box GOV/OR 100–199.
94. Ibid.
95. IAEA INFCIRC/3, 15 April 1959.
96. Fissionability can also be considered as defined by politics and diplomacy, which is very pertinent to the issue of safeguards. See, Hecht, “Nuclear Ontologies,” 326; and Hecht, Being Nuclear, 31–2.