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Abstract
News media in the United States often present sports figures as ideal representations of heroism. In the U.S., heroism has long been linked to frontier mythology, which celebrates the rugged individualist. This figure privileges a construction of heroism based on strength, masculinity, and a white ideal associated with American exceptionalism. Accordingly, in affirming the promise of the American dream, sports media often devalue racial inclusion. To show how heroism in contemporary American culture is a mythological enactment of whiteness, I analyze news media accounts of the 1998 home run race between Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa.
An earlier version of this essay was presented at the annual convention of the Eastern Communication Association, Washington, D.C., 2003.
An earlier version of this essay was presented at the annual convention of the Eastern Communication Association, Washington, D.C., 2003.
Acknowledgements
This essay has a long history, and the author would like to acknowledge the role of the late Martha Cooper, who helped framed the study in its earliest stages. In addition, the author thanks Oscar Giner, Robert Ivie, Susan Mackey-Kallis, Mary McDonald, Phaedra Pezzullo, Linda Steiner, and the anonymous reviewers for their guidance.
Notes
An earlier version of this essay was presented at the annual convention of the Eastern Communication Association, Washington, D.C., 2003.
1. Following convention in sociology and cultural studies of sport, I will use the term “sport” to refer to the institutionalized relationship between games, athletes, fans, and media. As Andrews (Citation2006) notes, this usage provides “a necessarily malleable collective noun suggesting the diversity and complexity of what are temporally and spatially contingent expressions of physical culture” (p. 1). I will use “sports” in reference to specific institutional components of sport (i.e., “sports media,” etc.).
2. Madden did not anoint Barry Bonds, who hit 73 home runs in 2001, as the legitimate record holder because, in Madden's estimation, Bonds, too, is guilty. Madden refers to Bonds as a “steroids cheat” (2005, p. 96).
3. I should note that this analysis focuses on mainstream journalism in the United States. The label “mainstream” reflects an orientation that is always already positioned to privilege common cultural norms. A different and equally productive study might assess the coverage of the Race from alternative perspectives, especially in Spanish-speaking publications.
4. Reports of McGwire's weight varied. He was always reported at six feet, five inches, however.
5. Had McGwire used an illegal substance, it could have disrupted the myth by violating the American sport ideal of “fair play,” a value dating back to Puritan America (Crepeau, 1980). The recent attention given to the issue of performance-enhancing drugs in baseball calls into question the “authenticity” of the Race. While space prevents a more extended treatment of this, it should be noted that McGwire's presumed guilt in the wake of the 2005 Congressional hearings certainly complicates the heroic myth and intensifies the disappointment he now provokes. This disappointment was illustrated most concretely when only 23.5% of the Baseball Writers Association of America membership voted for McGwire on their 2007 Hall of Fame ballots, leaving him far short of the 75% needed for election (Antonen, Citation2007).
6. Many of these reports do, in fact, praise Sosa's efforts and enthusiasm, but rarely take seriously his chances to best McGwire.
7. This should not be read as an unreflective endorsement of Jordan's or Woods’ racial politics. As others have demonstrated, both of these enormously successful athletes have frequently enhanced their success by minimizing their racial identities (Andrews, Citation2000; Houck, Citation2006).
8. “Corking” a bat refers to the process of drilling an opening at the top of the barrel of the bat and filling it with cork. This is desirable because it potentially increases bat speed and produces more spring when the bat makes contact with the ball.