The daily, weekly, and seasonal cycles of body temperature analyzed at large scale

ABSTRACT

We performed large-scale analyses of circadian and infradian cycles of human body temperature, focusing on changes over the day, week, and year. Temperatures (n= 93,225) were collected using temporal artery thermometers from a Boston emergency department during 2009–2012 and were statistically analyzed using regression with cyclic splines. The overall mean body temperature was 36.7°C (98.1°F), with a 95% confidence interval of 36.7–36.7°C (98.1–98.1°F) and a standard deviation of 0.6°C (1.1°F). Over the day, mean body temperature followed a steady cycle, reaching its minimum at 6:00–8:00 and its maximum at 18:00–20:00. Across days of the week, this diurnal cycle was essentially unchanged, even though activities and sleeping hours change substantially during the weekly cycles of human behavior. Over the year, body temperatures were slightly colder in winter than summer (~0.2°C difference), consistent with most prior studies. We propose these seasonal differences might be due to ambient effects on body temperature that are not eliminated because they fall within the tolerance range of the thermoregulatory system. Over the year, bathyphase (daily time of minimum temperature) appeared to parallel sunrise times, as expected from sunrise’s zeitgeber role in circadian rhythms. However, orthophase (daily time of maximum temperature) and sunset times followed opposite seasonal patterns, with orthophase preceding nightfall in summer and following nightfall in winter. Throughout the year, bathyphase and orthophase remained separated by approximately 12 h, suggesting this interval might be conserved. Finally, although 37.0°C (98.6°F) is widely recognized as the mean or normal human body temperature, analysis showed mean temperature was <37.0°C during all times of day, days of the week, and seasons of the year, supporting prior arguments that the 37.0°C standard has no scientific basis. Overall, this large study showed robust and consistent behavior of the human circadian cycle at the population level, providing a strong example of circadian homeostasis.

KEYWORDS:

• Acrophase
• bathyphase
• circadian
• circannual
• circaseptan
• orthophase
• seasonal
• temperature

Acknowledgments

We thank Dr. Janette Lee, Jason Jarboe, and Roger Nelson (Exergen, Corp.) for their substantial contributions to device design and data collection.

Author contributions

Concept and design: All authors.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Harding.

Critical revision of the manuscript: Sanchez, Pompei.

Statistical analysis: Harding, Burmistrov.

Supervision: Sanchez, Bordonaro, McGillicuddy.

Disclosure of interest

Harding and Burmistrov received payment from Exergen for work on this investigation and related research. Pompei is founder and CEO of Exergen, and holds patents related to the study topic. None of the other authors has any conflicts to declare.

Supplementary Material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed here.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by Exergen, Corp., which designed the thermometer system that was used, and provided thermometers, technical support, and funding, including for the participation of Harding and Burmistrov. Exergen played a role in the design, collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; and in the decision to submit for publication.