Conflicting Narratives: Raymond Bonner, the New York Times, and El Salvador in the 1980s

Abstract

In August 1982, the New York Times removed foreign correspondent Raymond Bonner from El Salvador and reassigned him to the financial desk. Editors said Bonner needed additional training as a reporter, but some journalists and scholars believed he was pulled because his reporting angered the Reagan administration and the political right. This article examines New York Times Company records to determine whether there is evidence to support notions that the newspaper caved in to pressure from the White House and removed Bonner for political reasons. The study also compares the stories Bonner wrote in 1981 and 1982 to the reports filed by his replacement, Lydia Chavez, in 1983 to identify any changes in the newspaper's coverage of the Salvadoran conflict.

Notes

Mark Danner, The Massacre at El Mozote: A Parable of the Cold War (New York: Vintage Books, 1994), 96.

Danner, Massacre at El Mozote, 99; Mike Hoyt, “The Mozote Massacre,” Columbia Journalism Review, January/February 1993, http://www.cjr.org/year/93/1/mozote.asp.

Raymond Bonner, “Massacre of Hundreds Reported in Salvador Village,” New York Times, January 27, 1982, A1.

Ibid.

Michael Massing, “About-face on El Salvador,” Columbia Journalism Review, November/December 1983, 44.

John M. Goshko, “Record on Rights Entitles Salvador to Aid, US Says,” Washington Post, January 29, 1982, A1; Charles Mohr, “President Urges Aid to Salvador in Wake of Raid,” New York Times, January 29, 1982, A1.

Bernard Weinraub, “Envoy Says Salvadoran Plan Is Intact,” New York Times, June 12, 1982, 3.

“The Media's War,” Wall Street Journal, February 10, 1982, 26.

Reed Irvine, ed., “The Ray Bonner Division,” AIM Report XI, no. 14 (July 1982): 1.

Mark Hertsgaard, On Bended Knee: The Press and the Reagan Presidency (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1988), 197–198; A. M. Rosenthal, “Let's Set the Record Straight,” Letter, Wall Street Journal, April 6, 1993, A15; Craig R. Whitney to all New York Times correspondents, October 20, 1982, New York Times Company records, Foreign Desk records, box 173, folder 12, Manuscript and Archives Division, the New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations (hereafter cited as Times Company Papers).

Massing, “About-face on El Salvador,” 45–46. See also Oliver Stone and Peter Kuznick, The Untold History of the United States (New York: Gallery Books, 2012), 433; Howard Zinn, A People's History of the United States: 1492–Present (New York: HarperCollins, 1999), 591.

Robert Parry, “Fooling America” (speech), March 28, 1993, Fairness and Accuracy In Reporting meeting, Santa Monica, CA, http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Robert_Parry/Fooling_America.html.

Robin Andersen, A Century of Media, a Century of War (New York: Peter Lang, 2006), 91; Robin Andersen, “Images of War: Photojournalism, Ideology, and Central America,” Latin American Perspectives, 16 (Spring 1989): 96–114; W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 5th ed. (New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 2003), 154–155; Leigh Binford, The El Mozote Massacre: Anthropology and Human Rights (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1996), 58; Danner, Massacre at El Mozote, 110–139; Joseph C. Goulden, Fit to Print: A. M. Rosenthal and His Times (Secaucus: Lyle Stuart, 1988), 20; Ulf Hannerz, Foreign News: Exploring the World of Foreign Correspondents (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004); Massing, “About-face on El Salvador”; Stanley Meisler, “The Massacre at El Mozote,” in Thinking Clearly: Cases in Journalistic Decision-making, ed. Tom Rosenstiel and Amy S. Mitchel (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 110–146; Michael Miner, “Changing Times: The Vindication of Raymond Bonner,” Chicago Reader, April 15, 1993; Christopher Reed, “A. M. Rosenthal Obituary,” Guardian, May 12, 2006; Zinn, People's History, 591.

W. Lance Bennett, “Toward a Theory of Press–State Relations in the United States,” Journal of Communication 40, no. 2 (Spring 1990): 103–125; W. Lance Bennett, Regina G. Lawrence, and Steven Livingston, When the Press Fails: Political Power and the News Media from Iraq to Katrina (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007). For more information on the indexing theory and how the press heavily relies on official government sources to frame news stories, W. Lance Bennett, Regina G. Lawrence, and Steven Livingston, “None Dare Call It Torture: Indexing and the Limits of Press Independence in the Abu Ghraib Scandal,” Journal of Communication 56, no. 3 (September 2006): 467–482.

Jeffrey Gould and Aldo Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness: Revolution, Repression, and Memory in El Salvador, 1920–1932 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2008), 1–6; Christopher White, The History of El Salvador (Westport: Greenwood, 2009), 68–69, 72–73, 88.

William M. LeoGrande, Our Own Backyard: The United States in Central America, 1977–1992 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 34. See also Hector Perez-Brignoli, A Brief History of Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 111; Martin Diskin and Kenneth Sharpe, The Impact of US Policy in El Salvador, 1979–1985 (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1986), 6; Sujit Dutta, “El Salvador: Towards Another Vietnam,” Social Scientist 10, no. 2 (February 1982): 5; Adan Quan, “Through the Looking Glass: US Aid to El Salvador and the Politics of National Identity,” American Ethnologist 32, no. 2 (2005): 280–281; White, History of El Salvador, 75–76.

Harold Jung, “Class Struggle and Civil War in El Salvador,” in El Salvador: Central America in the New Cold War, ed. Marvin E. Gettleman, Patrick Lacefield, Louis Menashe, and David Mermelstein (New York: Grove Press, 1987), 68; Dutta, “El Salvador: Towards Another Vietnam,” 5–6; Diskin and Sharpe, Impact of US Policy in El Salvador, 5.

Quoted in Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1971), 84.

White, History of El Salvador, 72–73.

Anderson, Matanza, 40.

Ibid., 41.

Diskin and Sharpe, Impact of US Policy in El Salvador, 4; Gould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness, 60, 90–92.

Dutta, “El Salvador: Towards Another Vietnam,” 6; Gould and Lauria-Santiago, To Rise in Darkness, 233–234; LeoGrande, Our Own Backyard, 34.

Charles Brockett, Political Movements and Violence in Central America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 92–93; Diskin and Sharpe, Impact of US Policy in El Salvador, 6–7.

Brockett, Political Movements and Violence in Central America, 85–87; Diskin and Sharpe, Impact of US Policy in El Salvador, 6–8.

“Editor's Note: The Salvadoran Rebels,” in El Salvador: Central America in the New Cold War, ed. Marvin E. Gettleman, Patrick Lacefield, Louis Menashe, David Mermelstein and Ronald Radosh (New York: Grove Press, 1986), 185–187. See also White, History of El Salvador, 102.

Cynthia J. Arnson, Crossroads: Congress, the President, and Central America, 1976–1993 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993), 55; Enrique A. Baloyra, “Central America on the Reagan Watch: Rhetoric and Reality,” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 27, no. 1 (February 1985): 35–62; Shannon Lindsey Blanton, “Images in Conflict: The Case of Ronald Reagan and El Salvador,” International Studies Quarterly 40, no. 1 (March 1996): 33–34; Dutta, “El Salvador: Towards Another Vietnam,” 9; Walter Lafeber, “The Reagan Administration and Revolutions in Central America,” Political Science Quarterly 99, no. 1 (Spring 1984): 2; Ronald Reagan, “Saving Freedom in Central America,” US Department of State Bulletin 83, no. 2077 (August 1983): 1–3.

Arnson, Crossroads, 54; Lafeber, “The Reagan Administration and Revolutions in Central America,” 4; LeoGrande, Our Own Backyard, 57; Robert Pastor, “Continuity and Change in US Foreign Policy: Carter and Reagan on El Salvador,” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 3, no. 2 (Winter 1984): 180.

US Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Communist Interference in El Salvador: Documents Demonstrating Communist Support of the Salvadoran Insurgency, Special Report 80 (Washington, DC, February 23, 1981), 1.

Thomas O. Enders, “Democracy and Security in the Caribbean Basin,” US Department of State Bulletin 82, no. 2060 (March 1982): 64–65.

Americas Watch, El Salvador's Decade of Terror: Human Rights since the Assassination of Archbishop Romero (Binghamton: Vail-Ballou, 1991), 17, 18.

David Shribman, “Two Groups in US Contend El Salvador Violates Civil Rights,” New York Times, January 27, 1982, A10.

US House of Representatives, US Policy toward El Salvador: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Inter-American Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, 97th Cong., 1st sess. (Washington, DC, March 5, 1981). For an analysis of the domestic and Salvadoran opposition to Reagan's policies, see Hector Perla Jr., “El Salvador Vencera: Central American Agency in the Creation of the US–Central American Peace and Solidarity Movement,” Latin American Research Review 43, no. 2 (2008): 136–158.

Michael A. Hammer, “President Reagan's Policy toward El Salvador: Success or Failure?” Fletcher Forum 12 (Winter 1988): 99; LeoGrande, Our Own Backyard, 131–132; Pastor, “Continuity and Change in US Foreign Policy,” 180.

Blanton, “Images in Conflict,” 33–34; Lou Cannon, “Reagan Sees a ‘Latin Axis,’” Washington Post, June 21, 1983, A1; Philip Taubman, “Reagan's Latin Crusade: Frustrated Administration Seeking to Lay Unrest at the Door of Russians and Cubans,” New York Times, July 28, 1983, A1; Ronald Reagan, “Strategic Importance of El Salvador and Central America,” US Department of State Bulletin 83, no. 2073 (April 1983): 19–22.

US Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Human Rights Conditions in El Salvador (testimony of Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs Elliott Abrams to the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Washington, DC, July 29, 1982): Current Policy No. 411, 1; US Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Building the Peace in Central America (speech by Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs Thomas O. Enders before the Commonwealth Club, San Francisco, August 20, 1982): Current Policy no. 414, 2; Lou Cannon and Charles Fishman, “Reagan to Seek Additional Aid for Region,” Washington Post, July 21, 1983, A1.

John M. Goshko, “Duarte's Party Moves into Lead in Salvadoran Vote: Administration Hails Large Voter Turnout,” Washington Post, March 30, 1982, A1; George Shultz, “Struggle for Democracy in Central America,” US Department of State Bulletin 83, no. 2074 (May 1983): 10–12.

Shultz, “Struggle for Democracy.”

Blanton, “Images in Conflict,” 34; Diskin and Sharpe, Impact of US Policy in El Salvador, 19; Reagan, “Strategic Importance of El Salvador and Central America,” 2.

Biographical data, February 1982, Foreign Desk records, box 99, folder 15, Times Company Papers, December 3, 1980; Foreign Desk records, box 173, folder 12, Times Company Papers; Massing, “About-face on El Salvador,” 43–44.

Danner, Massacre at El Mozote, 138–139; Goulden, Fit to Print, 329.

Unpublished story about panel discussion on El Salvador in which Ray Bonner was quoted, A. M. Rosenthal papers, box 72, folder 5, Times Company Papers.

Raymond Bonner, Weakness and Deceit: US Policy and El Salvador (New York: Times Books, 1984), 134–137, 352, 365, 369; Raymond Bonner to Robert Semple and Craig Whitney, July 22, 1981, Times Company Papers, A. M. Rosenthal papers, box 72, folder 5, the New York Public Library; NBC Today Show transcript, June 5, 1984, A. M. Rosenthal papers, box 72, folder 5; Daniele LaCourse and Yvan Patry, Denial (New York: Icarus Films, 1995), DVD.

Raymond Bonner to Craig Whitney, June 25, 1982, Foreign Desk records, box 99, folder 15, Times Company Papers.

US State Department, US Embassy–San Salvador, Telegram, “New York Times Article on Alleged Torture Incident” (January 1982), part of the El Salvador Human Rights Special Project archive of the National Security Agency, George Washington University.

Robert B. Semple Jr. to A. M. Rosenthal, January 11, 1982, Foreign Desk records, box 99, folder 15, Times Company Papers.

Goulden, Fit to Print, 331–332, 340. Executive Editor A. M. Rosenthal was out of town at the time that the story was published. He later criticized editors for giving the article too much play.

Guy Gugliotta and Douglas Farah, “12 Years of Tortured Truth on El Salvador: US Declarations during War Undercut by UN Commission Report,” Washington Post, March 21, 1993, A1; Stanley Meisler, “El Mozote Case Study,” Columbia University School of Journalism, June 20, 2014, http://www.columbia.edu/itc/journalism/j6075/edit/readings/mozote.html.

Raymond Bonner to “Graig,” June 6, 1982, Foreign Desk records, box 99, folder 15, Times Company Papers; United Nation's Commission on the Truth for El Salvador, “From Madness to Hope: The 12-Year War in El Salvador,” March 1993, 120, http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/salvador/informes/truth.html. See also Michael Massing, “Bringing the Truth Commission Back Home,” Harper's Magazine, July 1993, http://harpers.org/archive/1993/07/bringing-the-truth-commission-back-home/.

“The Media War,” Wall Street Journal, 26.

Bernard Weinraub, “Envoy Says Salvadoran Plan Is Intact,” New York Times, June 12, 1982, 3.

“Bonner's World,” National Review, July 9, 1982, 811.

Irvine, “The Ray Bonner Division,” 2.

Massing, “About-face on El Salvador,” 44. Rosenthal said that Bonner's name was not mentioned during this meeting.

A. M. Rosenthal summary of his trip to Central America, ca. 1982, A. M. Rosenthal papers, box 72, folder 5, Times Company Papers.

Hertsgaard, On Bended Knee, 196n.

Massing, “About-face on El Salvador.” See also Michael Massing, “The Rise and Decline of Accuracy in Media,” Nation, September 13, 1986, 200–214; Michael Massing, “Changing Times: The Vindication of Raymond Bonner,” Chicago Reader, April 15, 1993, accessed July 24, 2014, http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/changing-times-the-vindication-of-raymond-bonner/Content?oid=881757.

Anderson, A Century of Media, 91; Robin Andersen, “Images of War: Photojournalism, Ideology, and Central America,” Latin American Perspectives 16, no. 2 (Spring 1989): 96–114; Bennett, Politics of Illusion, 154–155; Leigh Binford, The El Mozote Massacre: Anthropology and Human Rights (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1996), 58; Catherine Cassara, “Foreign Correspondence,” in American Journalism: History, Principles, Practices, ed. W. David Sloan and Lisa Mullikin Parcell (Jefferson: McFarland, 2002), 248–257; Hannerz, Foreign News, 80; Hertsgaard, On Bended Knee, 196–197; Carl Jensen, 20 Years of Censored News (New York: Seven Stories, 1997), 146; Meisler, “The Massacre at El Mozote,” 110–146; Miner, “Changing Times”; Christopher Reed, A. M. Rosenthal obituary, Guardian, May 12, 2006, http://www.theguardian.com/news/2006/may/13/guardianobituaries.mainsection. Hannerz has called Massing “the writer who was the main commentator/whistle blower on the ‘Bonner affair.’” See page 80 of Foreign News.

Massing, “About-face on El Salvador,” 46.

Parry, “Fooling America.”

Danner, Massacre at El Mozote, 139.

Massing, “About-face on El Salvador,” 45. Rosenthal repeated this denial in an interview with Danner for his book The Massacre at El Mozote.

Hertsgaard, On Bended Knee, 197, 199. See also Danner, Massacre at El Mozote, 138–139, and Goulden, Fit to Print, 320–345.

Goulden, Fit to Print, 330.

Craig R. Whitney to Abe Rosenthal, September 7, 1982, Foreign Desk recorsds, box 99, folder 15, Times Company Papers.

Robert B. Semple Jr. to A. M. Rosenthal, December 22, 1980, Foreign Desk records, box 99, folder 15, Times Company Papers.

Robert B. Semple Jr. to Seymour Topping and James L. Greenfield, January 27, 1981, Foreign Desk records, box 99, folder 15, Times Company Papers.

Robert Semple Jr. to Seymour Topping, July 2, 1981, Foreign Desk records, box 173, folder 12, Times Company Papers.

Sydney Gruson to Suzanne Boouloy of New Mexico, September 13, 1982; Sydney Gruson to S. Aaron Simpson of New Jersey, September 9, 1982, Sydney Gruson papers, box 3, folder 10, Times Company Papers.

Craig R. Whitney to Lorna Brennan, secretary for membership affairs, Council on Foreign Relations, n.d., Foreign Desk records, box 99, folder 15, Times Company Papers.

Mark Hertsgaard, On Bended Knee, 191.

Hoyt, “The Mozote Massacre.”

CBS News Transcript, 60 Minutes, March 14, 1993. See also LaCourse and Patry, Denial.

“Raymond Bonner on ‘About-face,’” letter to the editor, Raymond Bonner, Columbia Journalism Review, January/February 1984, 60. CJR published Massing's response to Bonner in the same issue. Massing said his 1983 article did not mean to imply that the Times’ coverage was poor but rather that it, along with other news sources, relied too heavily on government sources. Massing also said that his article did not suggest that the Times had placed Chavez in El Salvador to counter what Bonner had written.

Raymond Bonner to “Graig,” June 25, 1982, Foreign Desk records, box 99, folder 15, Times Company Papers. For other examples of Bonner defending the New York Times and denying that he was removed from El Salvador for political reasons, see Raymond Bonner to Sydney Gruson, May 7, 1984, Sydney Gruson papers, box 3, folder 9, Times Company Papers.

Bonner to “Graig,” June 6, 1982, Foreign Desk records, box 99, folder 15, Times Company Papers.

Hertsgaard, On Bended Knee, 197.

Whitney to all correspondents, October 20, 1982, Foreign Desk records, box 173, folder 12. Times Company Papers.

Craig R. Whitney to Seymour Topping, September 9, 1982, Foreign Desk records, box 173, folder 12; Craig R. Whitney to A. M. Rosenthal, September 20, 1982, Foreign Desk records, box 173, folder 12, Times Company Papers.

As a guide, this analysis used several studies that measured tone, including those done by Matthew Eshbaugh-Soha, “The Tone of Local Presidential News Coverage,” Political Communication 27, no. 2 (May 2010): 121–140; Edward A. Miller, Denise Tyler, and Vincent Mor, “National Newspaper Portrayal of Nursing Homes: Tone of Coverage and Its Correlates,” Medical Care, 51, no. 1 (January 2013): 78–83; Tamir Sheafer, “How to Evaluate It: The Role of Story-Evaluative Tone in Agenda Setting and Priming,” Journal of Communication 57, no. 1 (March 2007): 21–39.

Raymond Bonner, “Fraud Is Reported in Salvador Vote,” New York Times, June 4, 1982, A5.

Raymond Bonner, “Salvadoran Leader Denies Vote Fraud,” New York Times, June 6, 1982, 3.

Raymond Bonner, “For the Left, Big Setback,” New York Times, March 29, 1982, A1.

Raymond Bonner, “Whose Mandate?” New York Times, April 4, 1982, Section 4, 1.

Lydia Chavez, “Salvadoran Chief Says Main Task Is to Bring Leftists into Elections,” New York Times, March 27, 1983, A4.

Lydia Chavez, “Infighting Slows Salvador's Plans,” New York Times, January 30, 1983, 11.

Raymond Bonner, “The Political Harvest Also Grows When Peasants Rule … but Many Angrily,” New York Times, January 11, 1981, Section 4, 4.

Raymond Bonner, “Salvador Land Program Aids Few,” New York Times, August 3, 1981, A1.

Lydia Chavez, “Politics and Costs Hinder Land Program,” New York Times, January 22, 1983, 3.

Lydia Chavez, “New Salvadoran Land Study Increases Figure on Evictions,” New York Times, July 27, 1983, A11.

Raymond Bonner, “Salvador Racked by Mass Slayings,” New York Times, July 12, 1981, A9.

Raymond Bonner, “Reagan's Salvador Rights Report: The Balance Sheet,” New York Times, February 26, 1982, A10.

See Lydia Chavez, “Salvador Death Squads Strike Again,” New York Times, May 16, 1983, A9; Lydia Chavez, “Politics and Prayers Mix at Cathedral in Salvador,” New York Times, July 31, 1983, A10; Lydia Chavez, “Salvador Unions Are under Siege,” New York Times, October 10, 1983, A7; and Lydia Chavez, “US Commission Reported ‘Aghast’ on Salvador Visit,” New York Times, October 19, 1983, A3.

Lydia Chavez, “Vides's First Target Is Army Brass,” New York Times, April 24, 1983, Section 4, 2.

Lydia Chavez, “Crucial Stage in Salvador,” New York Times, April 21, 1983, A7.

Americas Watch wrote the following: “From 1980 to 1983 detainees were systematically tortured by all units of the security forces. The most frequent types of torture reported were severe beatings, death threats, choking, electric shock, smothering with a hood, drugging, sexual violence, submersions in water, burning with cigarettes, and mock executions.” See Americas Watch, El Salvador's Decade of Terror, 18. Moreover, the UN truth commission that documented human rights abuses during the Salvadoran civil war reported that 75 percent of the 22,000 complaints of violence it received were for events that occurred from 1980 through 1983. See United Nation's Commission on the Truth for El Salvador, “From Madness to Hope.”

Lydia Chavez, “Salvador Regime Acts Swiftly to Investigate Slaying Report,” New York Times, February 26, 1983, A1.

Sigal, Reporters and Officials, 189. For more information on the importance of sources in building the media's agenda, see Dan Berkowitz, “TV News Sources and News Channels: A Study in Agenda-building,” Journalism Quarterly 64, no. 2 (June 1987): 508–513; Dan Berkowitz and Douglas W. Beach, “News Sources and News Content: The Effect of Routine News, Conflict and Proximity,” Journalism Quarterly 70, no. 1 (March 1993): 4–12; Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News: A Study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek and Time (New York: Vintage Books, 1980).

Raymond Bonner, “Salvadoran Village Gets a Taste of War,” New York Times, January 1, 1981, A3.

Raymond Bonner, “Story of Newsmen's Slaying Is Reconstructed in Salvador,” New York Times, March 21, 1982.

Raymond Bonner, “Salvador City Is Shaken by Surprise Rebel Raid,” New York Times, July 1, 1981, A2.

Raymond Bonner, “With Salvador's Rebels in Combat Zone,” New York Times, January 26, 1982, A1; Raymond Bonner, “In Salvador Class, Martial Arts and Marxism,” New York Times, January 28, 1982, A1.

Lydia Chavez, “New Salvadoran Land Study Increases Figure on Evictions,” New York Times, July 27, 1983, A11.

Lydia Chavez, “US Envoys Warn Salvador on Death Squads,” New York Times, November 6, 1983, 13A.

Lydia Chavez, “US Envoy Says Salvador Killing Looks Political,” New York Times, May 27, 1983, A1. Although the rebels took credit for the murder the following day, the Times did not have this information when it reported its initial story on May 27.

Lydia Chavez, “Salvadorans Hail US Envoy's Talk,” New York Times, July 15, 1983, A4.

Lydia Chavez, “Salvadoran Military Is Said to Regain Momentum,” New York Times, July 16, 1983, A2.

Lydia Chavez, “US Presses Salvador to Act on Men Tied to Death Squads,” New York Times, November 5, 1983, A1.

It should be noted that there were several instances when both Bonner and Chavez had obviously traveled outside the capital but then returned to San Salvador to file their stories. Nevertheless, the dateline count provides a good snapshot of the commitment each reporter showed to reporting the Salvadoran conflict from various locations.

Raymond Bonner, “In Salvador, a US-Trained Unit at War,” New York Times, July 13, 1981, A3.

Lydia Chavez, “Salvadorans Move to Recapture City,” New York Times, February 3, 1983, A10.

Bennett, Lawrence, and Livingston, When the Press Fails, 1–12, 178–195.